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Global responses to the ‘War on Terror’
Abstract
This introduction to a special issue on "Global Responses to the 'War on Terror'" begins by outlining three interrelated shifts in the critical discourse on literature after September 11, 2001: (1) from "Ground Zero novels" to "post-9/11 literature"; (2) from the generic limits of the 9/11 novel to postcolonial critiques of the (neo)imperialist nexus; and, finally, (3) from postcolonial historicism to transatlantic scholarship. In view of the respective conceptual trajectories enabled by these shifts, we follow up with a brief outline of the contributions made by the individual essays to an understanding of "War on Terror" literature not in geopolitically contained or discursively polarized terms, but as a series of global responses that emanate from, and fall within, the intersections of East and West, terrorism and counter-terrorism, (in)commensurability and opacity, text and image, fiction and non-fiction, aesthetics and politics.
Abstract: Since 9/11, along with the rise and the collapse of Islamic State of Iraq and Levant (ISIL), identity proposition and
the meaning of home toward global Muslim societies have become prominent issue among scholars. The complexities of
these issues are represented in political and cultural realm as well as literary works of people from South Asian descent.
Drawing upon Hall’s theory of identity (1990), Brah’s “Homing Desire” (1996), and Bhabha’s “Unhomely” (1992, 1994),
this close-textual analysis investigates how Pakistani Muslim diasporic communities construct their identities and the
meaning of home within two novels: “Home Fire” and “Exit West.” The discussions in this article show that both novels
represent heterogeneity within home and identity construction of the Muslim diaspora. Through these representations, both
novels problematize the notion of radicalism, blur the East/West binary, underscore knowledge on multifariousness within
Islamic world, and offer inclusive transcultural contact zone as the concept of nation.
Keywords: Diaspora, Home, Identity, Muslim, Anglophone Literature
The paper investigates the ways in which global health messages and forms of health citizenship are mediated by AIDS activists in rural South Africa. It focuses on how international health agencies and NGOs engage with local communities through AIDS prevention and treatment programmes. Some critics regard such global health programmes as conduits for the medicalisation of social life and social problems. From this perspective global medicine is an all-encompassing process that results in systematic normalisation, depoliticisation and disempowerment of patients and citizens. However, this case study draws attention to the agency of the ‘targets’ of biomedicine. It also highlights the observation that AIDS activists and treatment literacy practitioners are not only concerned with biomedical matters, but are also committed to recruiting new members into their biopolitical projects and epistemic communities. These mobilisation processes involve translating and mediating biomedical ideas and practices into vernacular forms that can be easily understood and acted upon by the ‘targets’ of these recruitment strategies. However, these processes of ‘vernacularisation’ or localisation of biomedical knowledge often occur in settings where even the most basic scientific understandings and framings of medicine can not be taken for granted. This ethnographic case study shows that global health programmes, and their local NGO and social movement mediators, often encounter considerable ‘friction’ not only from powerful national state actors, who may view such programmes as challenges to national sovereignty, but also from the most marginalised village-level actors.
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, did symbolic as well as literal damage. A trace of this cultural shock echoes in the American idiom 9/11: a bare name-date conveying both a trauma (the unspeakable happened then) and a claim on our knowledge. In the first of the two interlinked essays of this book, the author proposes the notion of virtual trauma to describe the cultural wound that this name-date both deflects and relays. Virtual trauma describes the shock of an event at once terribly real and utterly mediated. In consequence, a tormented self-reflexivity has tended to characterize representations of 9/11 in texts, discussions, and films, such as World Trade Center and United 93. In the second half of the book, the author examines the historical and philosophical infrastructure of the notion of war on terror. He argues that the declaration of war on terror is the exemplary postmodern sovereign speech act: it unleashes war as terror and terror as war, while remaining a crazed, even in a certain sense fictional performative utterance. Only a pseudosovereign—the executive officer of the world's superpower—could have declared this absolute, phantasmatic, yet terribly damaging war. Though politicized terror and absolute war have their roots in the French Revolution and the emergence of the modern nation-state, the author suggests that the idea of a war on terror relays the complex, spectral afterlife of sovereignty in an era of biopower, global capital, and telecommunication.
This book explores the fiction, poetry, theatre and cinema that have represented the 9/11 attacks. Works by Martin Amis, Ian McEwan, Don DeLillo, Simon Armitage and Mohsin Hamid are discussed in relation to the specific problems of writing about such a visually spectacular ‘event’ that has had enormous global implications. Other chapters analyse initial responses to 9/11, the intriguing tensions between fiction and non-fiction, the challenge of describing traumatic history and the ways in which the terrorist attacks have been discussed culturally in the decade since September 11. The book: contributes to the growing literature on 9/11, presenting an overview of some of the main texts that have represented the attacks and their aftermath; focuses on Don DeLillo, adding to the literature surrounding this major American novelist; focuses on Martin Amis, adding to the growing critical work on this much-discussed British novelist and essayist; and provides a critical analysis of the Oscar-winning film Man on Wire, regarding its oblique references to 9/11.
This study investigates the overlaps between political discourse and literary and cinematic fiction, arguing that both are informed by, and contribute to, the cultural imaginary of terrorism. Whenever mass-mediated acts of terrorism occur, they tend to trigger a proliferation of threat scenarios not only in the realm of literature and film but also in the statements of policymakers, security experts, and journalists. In the process, the discursive boundary between the factual and the speculative can become difficult to discern. To elucidate this phenomenon, this book proposes that terror is a halfway house between the real and the imaginary. For what characterizes terrorism is less the single act of violence than it is the fact that this act is perceived to be the beginning, or part, of a potential series, and that further acts are expected to occur. As turn-of-the-century writers such as Stevenson and Conrad were the first to point out, this gives terror a fantastical dimension, a fact reinforced by the clandestine nature of both terrorist and counter-terrorist operations. Supported by contextual readings of selected texts and films from "The Dynamiter" and "The Secret Agent" through late-Victorian science fiction to post-9/11 novels and cinema, this study explores the complex interplay between actual incidents of political violence, the surrounding discourse, and fictional engagement with the issue to show how terrorism becomes an object of fantasy. Drawing on research from a variety of disciplines, "The Cultural Imaginary of Terrorism" will be a valuable resource for those with interests in the areas of Literature and Film, Terrorism Studies, Peace and Conflict Studies, Trauma Studies, and Cultural Studies.
Terror and the Postcolonial is a major new comparative study of terrorism and its representations in postcolonial theory, literature, and culture. • A ground-breaking new study addressing and theorizing the conjunction between postcolonial studies, colonial history, and terrorism through a series of contemporary and historical case studies from various postcolonial contexts • Critically analyzes the figuration of terrorism in a variety of postcolonial literary texts from South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East • Raises the subject of terror as both an expression of globalization and a postcolonial product • Features key essays by well-known theorists, such as Robert J. C. Young, Derek Gregory, and Achille Mbembe, and Vron Ware.
This study investigates the overlaps between political discourse and literary and cinematic fiction, arguing that both are informed by, and contribute to, the cultural imaginary of terrorism. Whenever mass-mediated acts of terrorism occur, they tend to trigger a proliferation of threat scenarios not only in the realm of literature and film but also in the statements of policymakers, security experts, and journalists. In the process, the discursive boundary between the factual and the speculative can become difficult to discern. To elucidate this phenomenon, this book proposes that terror is a halfway house between the real and the imaginary. For what characterizes terrorism is less the single act of violence than it is the fact that this act is perceived to be the beginning, or part, of a potential series, and that further acts are expected to occur. As turnof- the-century writers such as Stevenson and Conrad were the first to point out, this gives terror a fantastical dimension, a fact reinforced by the clandestine nature of both terrorist and counter-terrorist operations. Supported by contextual readings of selected texts and films from The Dynamiter and The Secret Agent through late-Victorian science fiction to post-9/11 novels and cinema, this study explores the complex interplay between actual incidents of political violence, the surrounding discourse, and fictional engagement with the issue to show how terrorism becomes an object of fantasy. Drawing on research from a variety of disciplines, The Cultural Imaginary of Terrorism will be a valuable resource for those with interests in the areas of Literature and Film, Terrorism Studies, Peace and Conflict Studies, Trauma Studies, and Cultural Studies.
Transatlantic Literature and Culture After 9/11 asks whether post-9/11 America has chosen the 'wrong side of paradise' by waging war on terror rather than working for global peace. Analyzing transatlantic literature and culture, the book refocuses our view of Ground Zero through the lenses of imperial power and cosmopolitan exchange. © Kristine A. Miller 2014. Individual chapters. Contributors 2014. All rights reserved.
In Joseph O’Neill’s 2008 novel Netherland, a Dutch banker, Hans van den Broek, retrospectively narrates the story of how he was displaced from his lower Manhattan home on September 11, 2001, and moved with his wife and son to the legendarily bohemian Chelsea Hotel. When his wife, frustrated at his passivity, then moves to London with their son, Hans’s story really begins. He joins a group of Caribbean and south Asian immigrant cricketers on Staten Island and befriends a shady entrepreneur, Chuck Ramkissoon, who hopes to establish the sport as a great American game. Michiko Kakutani called Netherland a “stunning” and “resonant meditation on the American Dream” (“Post 9/11”). James Wood pronounced it “one of the most remarkable postcolonial books I have ever read.” Netherland went on to win a place on the New York Times Book Review list of “10 Best Books of 2008” and the 2009 PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction. It got another boost when Barack Obama told the New York Times that he was in the midst of reading O’Neill’s novel (Leonhardt).
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, did symbolic as well as literal damage. A trace of this cultural shock echoes in the American idiom 9/11: a bare name-date conveying both a trauma (the unspeakable happened then) and a claim on our knowledge. In the first of the two interlinked essays making up The Rhetoric of Terror, Marc Redfield proposes the notion of virtual traumato describe the cultural wound that this name-date both deflects and relays. Virtual trauma describes the shock of an event at once terribly real and utterly mediated. In consequence, a tormented self-reflexivity has tended to characterize representations of 9/11 in texts, discussions, and films, such as World Trade Center and United 93.In the second half of the book, Redfield examines the historical and philosophical infrastructure of the notion of war on terror.Redfield argues that the declaration of war on terror is the exemplary postmodern sovereign speech act: it unleashes war as terror and terror as war, while remaining a crazed, even in a certain sense fictional performative utterance. Only a pseudosovereign-the executive officer of the world's superpower-could have declared this absolute, phantasmatic, yet terribly damaging war. Though politicized terror and absolute war have their roots in the French Revolution and the emergence of the modern nation-state, Redfield suggests that the idea of a war on terror relays the complex, spectral afterlife of sovereignty in an era of biopower, global capital, and telecommunication.A moving, wide-ranging, and rigorous meditation on the cultural tragedy of our era, The Rhetoric of Terror also unfolds as an act of mourning for Jacques Derrida. Derrida's groundbreaking philosophical analysis of iterability-iterability as the exposure to repetition with a difference elsewhere that makes all technics, signification, and psychic life possible-helps us understand why questions of mediation and aesthetics so rapidly become so fraught in our culture; why efforts to repress our essential political, psychic, and ontological vulnerability generate recursive spasms of violence; why ethical living-together involves uninsurable acts of hospitality. The Rhetoric of Terror closes with an affirmation of eirenic cosmopolitanism.
Have the terrorist attacks of September 11 shifted the moral coordinates of contemporary fiction? And how might such a shift, reflected in narrative strategies and forms, relate to other themes and trends emerging with the globalization of literature? This book pursues these questions through works written in the wake of 9/11 and examines the complex intersection of ethics and narrative that has defined a significant portion of British and American fiction over the past decade. Don DeLillo, Pat Barker, Aleksandar Hemon, Lorraine Adams, Michael Cunningham, and Patrick McGrath are among the authors Georgiana Banita considers. Their work illustrates how post-9/11 literature expresses an ethics of equivocation-in formal elements of narrative, in a complex scrutiny of justice, and in tense dialogues linking this fiction with the larger political landscape of the era. Through a broad historical and cultural lens, Plotting Justice reveals links between the narrative ethics of post-9/11 fiction and events preceding and following the terrorist attacks-events that defined the last half of the twentieth century, from the Holocaust to the Balkan War, and those that 9/11 precipitated, from war in Afghanistan to the Abu Ghraib scandal. Challenging the rhetoric of the war on terror, the book honors the capacity of literature to articulate ambiguous forms of resistance in ways that reconfigure the imperatives and responsibilities of narrative for the twenty-first century. © 2012 by the Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. All rights reserved.
It may be said that every trauma is two traumas or ten thousand-depending on the number of people involved. How one experiences and reacts to an event is unique and depends largely on one's direct or indirect positioning, personal psychic history, and individual memories. But equally important to the experience of trauma are the broader political and cultural contexts within which a catastrophe takes place and how it is "managed" by institutional forces, including the media.In Trauma Culture, E. Ann Kaplan explores the relationship between the impact of trauma on individuals and on entire cultures and nations. Arguing that humans possess a compelling need to draw meaning from personal experience and to communicate what happens to others, she examines the artistic, literary, and cinematic forms that are often used to bridge the individual and collective experience. A number of case studies, including Sigmund Freud's Moses and Monotheism, Marguerite Duras' La Douleur, Sarah Kofman's Rue Ordener, Rue Labat, Alfred Hitchcock's Spellbound, and Tracey Moffatt's Night Cries, reveal how empathy can be fostered without the sensationalistic element that typifies the media.From World War II to 9/11, this passionate study eloquently navigates the contentious debates surrounding trauma theory and persuasively advocates the responsible sharing and translating of catastrophe.
Narrative Innovation in 9/11 Fiction demonstrates how certain novels create narratives about the 9/11 attacks that refuse to shy away from exploring and representing their difficult and problematic aspects and, in fact, insist on doing so as the only means of coming to terms with the events in all their cultural and historical specificity.
Explores the fiction, poetry, theatre and cinema representing the 9/11 attacks.
Post-Orientalism is a sustained record of Hamid Dabashi's reflections over many years on the question of authority and power. Who gets to represent whom and by what authority? Dabashi's work picks up where Edward Said's Orientalism left off. Said traced the origin of the power of representation and the normative agency that it entails to the colonial hubris that carried a militant band of mercenary merchants, military officers, Christian missionaries, and European Orientalists around the globe. This hubris enabled them to write and represent the people they sought to rule. Dabashi's book is not as much a critique of colonial representation as it is of the manners and modes of fighting back and resisting it. He does not question the significance of Orientalism and its principal concern with the colonial acts of representation, but he provides a different angle that argues for the primacy of the question of postcolonial agency. Dabashi uses the United States as an example of a country that initiated militant acts of representation in Iraq and Afghanistan. He attempts to unearth and examine the United States' deeply rooted claim to normative and moral agency, particularly in light of the world's post-9/11 political reality.
Walkowitz argues in this essay that we need to understand more flexibly both the production and the circulation of world literature, inasmuch as some literary works begin comparatively and collaboratively, in multiple language editions and in several geographies at once or nearly at once, and artworks address the world in different ways and in different temporalities. This essay approaches these concerns by turning to the born-translated oeuvre of the collaborative web artists known as Young-hae Chang Heavy Industries. Young-hae Chang and Marc Voge’s works are born-translated, first, because they appear simultaneously in multiple languages and, second, because they engage formally, thematically, and typographically with the theory and practice of translation. Chang and Voge help us think about the relationship between modernism and world literature. They show that the reading methods we bring to born-translated writing are symbiotic with dominant accounts of modernism, and they give us the opportunity to develop new methods and new approaches to literary history.
Richard Gray’s “Open Doors, Closed Minds: American Prose Writing at a Time of Crisis” offers a sharp and necessary diagnosis of the American novel since the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001. Erudite and wide-ranging, Gray’s essay combines a sense of historical sweep with a keen understanding of the specific dilemmas of the present. Particularly concerned with the ethics of literature—that is, with literature’s potential engagement with questions of difference, otherness, and strangeness—Gray underscores the failures of most 9/11 novels to move beyond “the preliminary stages of trauma” by doing more than simply “registering that something traumatic . . . has happened.” A central problem, as Gray convincingly demonstrates, is that while American novelists have, along with all manner of pundits, announced the dawn of a new era following the attacks on New York and Washington D.C., the form of their works does not bear witness to fundamental change; rather, these works “assimilate the unfamiliar into familiar structures.” Gray does not argue for a full break or discontinuity between the pre- and post-9/11 worlds—indeed, he repeatedly and brilliantly finds literary antecedents for current concerns. Instead, acknowledging that our moment combines novelty and continuity, he stresses the need for what Bakhtin would call a “radical reaccentuation” of given forms: “some kind of alteration of imaginative structures is required to register the contemporary crisis,” as is “the ability and willingness imaginatively to act on that recognition.”
However, such a reaccentuation has not taken place. The fiction of 9/11 demonstrates instead a failure of the imagination. Gray’s diagnosis of failure is, in my opinion, largely correct for the earliest fictional responses to America’s recent “trauma.” His alternative—a “deterritorialized” grappling with otherness—is, I will argue, both necessary and not entirely sufficient. While Gray’s model for the kind of deterritorialization of the novel he would like to see in the wake of 9/11 derives from recent immigrant fictions that open up and hybridize American culture, I call for a supplementary form of deterritorialization. In addition to Gray’s model of critical multiculturalism, we need a fiction of international relations and extraterritorial citizenship. If Gray’s account tends toward the centripetal—an account of the world’s movement toward America—I propose a complementary centrifugal mapping that charts the outward movement of American power. The most difficult thing for citizens of the US empire to grasp is not the internal difference of their motley multiculture, but the prosthetic reach of that empire into other worlds.
The failure Gray diagnoses is not simply a formal one, but also ultimately a political one. In place of the necessary imaginative reworking Gray calls for, he finds that in novels treating 9/11 by US-based writers, “The crisis is, in every sense of the word, domesticated.” Post-9/11 fiction frequently claims to be grappling with public and collective history: “Private life shrank to nothing,” reflects a character in Deborah Eisenberg’s collection Twilight of the Superheroes (2006); “all life had become public,” echoes another in Don DeLillo’s novel Falling Man (2007) (qtd in Gray). Despite such sentiments, however, Gray points out that in most of those works “all life . . . is personal; cataclysmic public events are measured purely and simply in terms of their impact on the emotional entanglements of their protagonists.” Gray rightly laments the lack of mediation in the recent spate of 9/11 fiction: “many of the texts that try to bear witness to contemporary events vacillate . . . between large rhetorical gestures acknowledging trauma and retreat into domestic detail. The link between the two is tenuous, reducing a turning point in national and international history to little more than a stage in a sentimental education.”
Numerous recent novels illustrate this tendency, perhaps none better than Lynne Sharon Schwartz’s The Writing on the Wall (2005), a relatively early fictional response that Gray does not discuss. Schwartz’s novel suggests that part of the turn toward the domestic may come as a response to a perceived corruption of the public, political realm in the wake of the attacks. Yet, as Gray would predict, this novel about the traumatic past and unsettled present...
This essay argues that there are striking parallels between what Edward Said called orientalism and the dominant discourse of counter-terrorism underpinning the war on terrorism. Beginning with a discussion of the contribution that postcolonial thinkers such as Edward Said, Achille Mbembe, Paul Gilroy and Gayatri Spivak have made to understanding the imperialist determinants of the discourse of terrorism, the essay proceeds to examine how the orientalist stereotype of the anti-colonial insurgent is interrogated in Sahar Khalifeh's novel Wild Thorns and Yasmina Khadra's novel The Attack.
Literary criticism has debated the usefulness of the trauma paradigm found in much post-9/11 fiction. Where critiqued, trauma is sometimes understood as a domesticating concept by which the events of 9/11 are incorporated into sentimental, familial dramas and romances with no purchase on the international significance of the terrorist attacks and the US's response to them; or, the concept of trauma is understood critically as the means by which the boundaries of a nation or “homeland” self-perceived as violated and victimized may be shored up, rendered impermeable – if that were possible. A counterversion of trauma argues its potential as an affective means of bridging the divide between a wounded US and global suffering. Understood in this way, the concept of trauma becomes the means by which the significance of 9/11 could be deterritorialized. While these versions of trauma, found in academic theory and literary practice, invoke the spatial – the domestic sphere, the homeland, the global – they tend to focus on the time of trauma rather than on the imbrication of the temporal and the spatial. If, instead, 9/11 trauma could be more productively defined as the puncturing of national fantasies of an inviolable and innocent homeland, fantasies which themselves rest on the (failed) repression of foundational violence in the colonial and settler creation of that homeland, and on subsequent notions of American exceptionalism at home and, in the exercise of foreign policy, abroad, then the traumatic can be spatialized. In other words, understood in relation to fantasy, trauma illuminates the terroritalization and deterritorialization of American history. After working through various examples of post-9/11 fiction to demonstrate parochial renditions of trauma and trauma's unrealized global resonances, this article turns to Cormac McCarthy's 9/11 allegory The Road for the way in which its spaces, places and territories are marked by inextricable traumas of the past and present – and therefore for the way in which it models trauma's relation to national fantasy.
The Kamila Shamsie Interview.’ The Quarterly Conversation Undated. 23 Mar
- Michele Filgate
Ground Zero Fiction: History, Memory, and Representation in the American 9/11 Novel
- Birgit Däwes
Däwes, Birgit (2011). Ground Zero Fiction: History, Memory, and Representation in the American 9/11 Novel.
Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter.
Point Omega. London: Picador
- Don Delillo
Narrating 9/11: Fantasies of State, Security, and Terrorism
- John N Duvall
- Robert P Marzec
Duvall, John N. and Marzec, Robert P., eds (2015). Narrating 9/11: Fantasies of State, Security, and
Terrorism. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins UP.
Saturday. London: Vintage
- Ian Mcewan
The Emperor’s Children. London: Picador
- Claire Messud
‘The End of Innocence.’ The Guardian
- Pankaj Mishra
Burnt Shadows. London: Penguin
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Shamsie, Kamila (2009). Burnt Shadows. London: Penguin.
‘9/11 Literature.’ The Point Magazine
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Portraying 9/11: Essays on Representations in Comics, Literature, Film and Theatre
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Representations in Comics, Literature, Film and Theatre. Jefferson, NC, and London: McFarland.
Twilight of the Superheroes
- Deborah Eisenberg
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The Post-9/11 City in Novels: Literary Remappings of New York and London
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Jefferson, NC: McFarland.
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Tribeca Sunset: A Story of 9/11
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The City since 9/11: Literature, Film, Television. London: Rowman & Littlefield
- Keith Wilhite
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Transatlantic Fictions of 9/11 and the War on Terror: Images of Insecurity, Narratives of Captivity
- Susana Araújo
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of Captivity. London, Oxford, New York, New Delhi, Sydney: Bloomsbury.
9/11 Fiction, Empathy, and Otherness
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Lexington Books.
Orientalism, Terrorism, Indigenism: South Asian Readings in Postcolonialism
- Pavan Malreddy
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Malreddy, Pavan Kumar (2015). Orientalism, Terrorism, Indigenism: South Asian Readings in Postcolonialism.
Thousand Oaks, CA, and New Delhi: Sage Publications.