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Running head: COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
Abstract
The current research sought to replicate and extend work suggesting that coloring can reduce
anxiety, asking whether coloring can improve cognitive performance. In two experiments
undergraduates (N = 47; N = 52) colored and participated in a control condition. Subjective
and performance measures of mood and mindfulness were included: an implicit mood test
(Experiment 1) and a selective attention task (Experiment 2) along with a divergent thinking
test. In both experiments coloring significantly reduced anxiety and increased mindfulness
compared with control and baseline scores. Following coloring participants scored
significantly lower on implicit fear, than the control condition, and significantly higher on
selective attention and original ideation. Coloring may not only reduce anxiety, but also
improve mindful attention and creative cognition.
Keywords: Coloring, anxiety, mindfulness, selective attention, divergent thinking
COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
Research on the therapeutic benefits of coloring has burgeoned in recent years (e.g. Sandmire
et al., 2016; Powell, Alcorn & Lindsay, 2017), driven by the popularity of coloring amongst
the general population, as evidenced by increased sales of adult coloring books (Quartz,
2016). Coloring for well-being is frequently advocated in community settings, for example as
a stress-reduction tool for University students (Independent, 2016). As such, it is important to
build an evidence base for coloring as a well-being intervention. Previous research supports
claims that coloring reduces state anxiety (e.g., Eaton & Tieber, 2017) and improves
mindfulness (Carsley & Heath, 2018). However, there are methodological problems with this
body of work, including a reliance on self-report data and a lack of control groups. The
current research sought to build on previous research by assessing the impact of coloring on
well-being using both self-report and performance measures of mood and mindfulness, and
by using a randomized controlled crossover design with an active control condition.
Theoretically, the research sought to extend understanding of the benefits of coloring to
cognitive functioning, focusing on selective attention and creative thinking.
While the evidence base for the therapeutic benefits of the arts more widely is compelling
(Clift & Camic, 2016), research on coloring is in its early stages. Nevertheless, a reduction in
anxiety, pre- to post coloring is consistently reported (e.g., Eaton & Tieber, 2017). For
example, the first study of this kind, by Curry and Kasser (2005), reported that, following an
anxiety induction, coloring for twenty minutes (either a mandala or a grid-like design) led to
a reduction in anxiety, to levels significantly below that of baseline anxiety for the mandala
condition, and to a significantly greater degree than ‘free form’ drawing for both coloring
conditions. Subsequent studies have replicated this anxiety reduction effect, both with
(Carsley, Heath & Fajnerova, 2015; Carsley & Heath, 2018; van der Vennet & Serice, 2012)
and without (Eaton & Tieber, 2017; Mantzios & Giannou, 2018; Sandmire et al., 2016; Small,
2006) an anxiety induction; some finding significant reductions in anxiety irrespective of the
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COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
art activity assigned (e.g. coloring and ‘free drawing’) (Carsley et al., 2014; Carsley & Heath,
2018; Drake, Searight Olson-Pupek, 2014; Mantzios & Giannou, 2018; Sandmire et al.,
2016). Mindfulness (focusing attention on one’s current activity) has been postulated as a
mechanism for the reduction in anxiety following coloring (Curry & Kasser, 2005), but has
only been included as an outcome variable in two recent studies (Carsley & Heath, 2018;
Mantzios & Giannou, 2018). Only Carsley and Heath (2018) reported a significant effect,
where mindfulness significantly increased pre- to post-coloring (and after ‘free drawing’).
Hence, further research is required to explore the impact of coloring on mindfulness.
Overall, these findings support the efficacy of coloring as a stress reduction technique, both
to repair and to improve mood, but emphasize the need for non-art-based control conditions
to test whether extraneous factors, such as time, distraction from stressful activities or
experimenter effects, explain the reductions in anxiety.
Only two coloring studies have used a control condition (Powell et al., 2017; Sandmire et al.,
2016). Both compared coloring with sitting passively in groups, although participants were
allowed to socially interact. Interestingly, both studies reported a statistically significant
anxiety reduction in both the control and coloring conditions. Only Powell et al. reported that
coloring reduced self-reported anxiety to a significantly greater degree than the control,
necessitating further controlled research. Consideration of the type of control condition is
important (Karlsson & Bergmark, 2015). A passive control consists merely of the absence of
potential therapeutic elements and enables variation in activities in which participants engage,
whereas an active control group, where a specific activity is assigned, seeks to homogenize
experience. Hence in the current research, coloring was compared with reading (about time
management), an activity that requires focused attention, like coloring, and which represents
a typical student experience. In order to better control for confounding variables (such as
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COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
social interaction) a crossover design was used, so that all participants were in the same
environment at the same time.
Another important methodological consideration is the reliance of previous research upon
self-report measures, which are sensitive to response bias, including demand characteristics
(where participants form expectations about an experiment that unconsciously influence their
behavior) (Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015; McCambridge, De Bruin, & Witton, 2012). For
example, Eaton and Tieber (2017) reported reduced scores on all mood scales following
coloring, including positive affect, which may be indicative of acquiescence bias. Only
Sandmire et al. (2016) have used an objective measure in coloring research, measuring vagal
tone as an inverse physiological index of anxiety. Although vagal tone did not correlate
significantly with self-reported anxiety, it indicated lower levels of physiological stress
following coloring compared with the control condition (to a significant degree), better
supporting the hypothesis that coloring reduces anxiety. Objective and subjective measures
may assess different aspects of affect (Campbell & Ehlert, 2012). Indeed, given discrepancies
between physiological and self-report data in mindfulness research, Davidson and Kaszniak
(2015) recommend that a range of outcome measures be included, including cognitive
measures, since these may be differentially responsive to demand characteristics.
In light of the call for more objective measures in coloring research (Sandmire et al., 2016),
the current research included both self-report and performance measures of mood (implicit
mood) and mindfulness (selective attention). Measures of implicit mood seek to avoid
response bias in mood reports (Paulhus & Reid, 1991) by masking the mood measure as an
evaluative task, where ambiguous stimuli are judged according to affective qualities
(Bartoszek & Cervone, 2017), and have been used efficaciously in mindfulness interventions
(Remmers, Topolinski & Koole, 2016). A selective attention task was included as a
performance measure of mindfulness (Robertson, Ward, Ridgeway & Nimmo-Smith, 1994).
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COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
Selective attention improves concentration by orienting attention, and appears to be increased
following both mindfulness meditation (Jha, Krompinger & Baime, 2007) and reductions in
state anxiety (Fernández-Castillo & Caurcel, 2015).
In addition to assessing performance measures of mood and mindfulness, the current research
tested further cognitive benefits of coloring: creative cognition. Moderate positive moods
facilitate creativity (Baas, Dreu & Nijstad, 2008). Fredrickson’s (2004) broaden-and-build
theory explains this by proposing that positive mood widens attention, promoting the
discovery of novel ideas, aligning with associative models of creative cognition (Benedek et
al., 2012). Mindfulness has likewise been associated with improved creativity (Lebuda,
Zabelina & Karwowski, 2016). Extrapolating from this body of work, if coloring is
associated with both improved hedonic tone and mindfulness, one would predict that coloring
would also improve creative thinking, in particular, originality, facilitating the making of
remote associations (Baas et al., 2008; Benedek et al., 2012; Fredrickson, 2004). Figural
divergent thinking was included as an outcome measure, which requires making original
responses to stimuli, and which has been found to be resistant to expectation effects
(Rozenkrantz, et al., 2017).
Experiment 1
Experiment one aimed to replicate previous research showing a reduction in state anxiety
following coloring, including both self-report and performance measures of mood. Self-report
measures of mindfulness (focused attention) and the flow state (feeling immersed in and
enjoying an activity) were included to examine the impact of coloring on attention. It was
hypothesized that participants would score significantly higher on mood (hedonic tone,
calmness and energetic arousal), mindfulness and the flow state following coloring, compared
with both control and baseline scores. Secondly, it was hypothesized that participants would
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COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
score significantly differently on implicit mood (with reduced fear, anger and sadness, and
increased happiness) compared with the control condition.
Participants
47 year one undergraduate psychology students (36 females) with a mean age of 20.62
(ranging between 18 and 37) were recruited through opportunity sampling. Participants were
invited to take part in order to learn about how interventions are designed and evaluated as
part of a module on applied psychology. Participation was not compulsory, rewarded or part
of assessment on the module.
Design
A randomized controlled crossover MANOVA design, with two factors: a repeated measures
factor (condition) with three levels (baseline, coloring and control [reading]); and a between-
participants factor (order) with two levels (reading first and coloring first). The order in
which conditions were taken was randomized (n = 25 completed reading first). Dependent
variables consisted of: mood (hedonic tone, energetic arousal and tense arousal); the flow
state; mindfulness; and implicit mood (happiness, anger, fear and sadness). The presentation
of measures, and the order of alternate forms, was counterbalanced.
Measures
Short Mood Scale, SMS (Wilhelm & Schoebi, 2007). A six-item scale measuring three
dimensions of mood: valence, calmness and energetic arousal. Each item is presented on a
dipole with a seven-point scale between two ‘opposites’ (e.g., calm and agitated). This scale
was designed to repeatedly sample individual’s mood and has been found to be reliable and
sensitive to individual change (Kanning et al., 2015).
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COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
Flow Short Scale, FSS (Engeser & Rheinberg, 2008). A ten-item scale designed to measure
phenomenological features of the flow state, including being absorption and experiencing a
balance between challenges and skills. Items are responded to on a 7-point Likert scale and
include “I am totally absorbed in what I am doing”. The scale has excellent psychometric
properties.
Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, MAAS (Brown & Ryan, 2003). A five-item scale to
measure the features of a mindful state, including focusing attention without being
preoccupied. An example item (reversed) is: “I was rushing through something without really
paying attention to it”. Items are responded to on a 7-point Likert Scale. The MAAS has
demonstrated good reliability, concurrent and predictive validity (MacKillop & Anderson,
2007).
Implicit Emotion Assessment Task (Bartoszek & Cervone, 2017). 20 abstract expressionistic
images (14 greyscale; 6 color) are rated according to the emotion expressed: ‘anger’, ‘fear’,
‘happiness’, ‘sadness’ or ‘none’. Bartoszek and Cervone (2017) report that the measure
adequately detects changes in distinct emotions following appropriate mood inductions, for
example an in increase in the rating of ‘fear’ alone following exposure to fearful stimuli.
Alternate forms of this test were created, randomly selecting 7 monochrome and 3 colored
images for each form.
Procedure
Participants registered interest in taking part online after receiving an email invitation. This
enabled researchers to adequately prepare for the sample size. Participants were tested in a
group setting in a large teaching room at the University of the West of England (UWE).
Rectangular study tables were arranged in two circles. Each table had ample space for two
participants. Participant information forms, consent forms, booklets of measures (placed face
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COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
down), copies of the reading (a chapter on time management by Lee-Davies [2007]), coloring
sheets (a mandala), and 12 felt tip pens, each of a different color were set out on every table.
A random point was selected on each circle of tables, from which instructions to read and
color first were alternated. At the start of the session participants were welcomed and invited
to take a seat where they chose. Participants were reminded that the purpose of the study was
to examine the effects of different activities (coloring and reading) on experience.
Participants were asked to read an information sheet about the study, reminded of their ethical
rights, invited to ask questions and to sign a consent form if they wished to participate.
Participants were informed that they each had a booklet that guided them through the stages
of the study. Participants were asked to begin by completing the baseline measures in this
booklet, and then to turn a page to see whether they were coloring or reading first.
Participants either read or colored for twenty minutes. Following this, they completed the
self-report measures again, and rated ten abstract images according to the emotions they
appeared to represent. Participants then participated in the crossover condition (reading or
coloring) for twenty minutes. Finally, they completed the self-report measures and rated
another ten abstract images. Participants were then debriefed about the aims of the study and
thanked for their time. This research received ethical approval from the UWE’s Research
Ethics Committee.
Results and discussion
The effect of coloring on self-report measures (mood, flow and mindfulness)
There were significant differences between mean levels of all dependent variables across
conditions (baseline, coloring and reading): hedonic tone (F2,86 = 38.25, p < .001); tense
arousal (F2,86 = 21.65, p < .001); energetic arousal (F2,86 = 29.84, p < .001); flow (F2,86 =
55.17, p < .001); and mindfulness (F2,86 = 26.06, p < .001) (please refer to Table 1 for
8
COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
descriptive statistics). Post-hoc analyses revealed significantly higher levels after coloring
than the control condition for all state dimensions: contentment (means = 8.62 and 7.27; F1,43
= 20.29, p < .001), calmness (means = 9.44 and 7.18; F1,43 = 38.31, p < .001), energy (means
= 6.22 and 4.33; F1,43 = 30.76, p < .001), flow (means = 41.95 and 27.29; F1,43 = 88.34, p < .
001) and mindfulness (means = 20.90 and 12.95; F1,43 = 52.82, p < .001). Further, participants
had significantly higher scores after coloring than at baseline on all measures apart from
energetic arousal, where they were significantly less energetic after coloring: hedonic tone
(means = 8.62 and 5.02; F1,43 = 59.83, p < .001); tense arousal (means = 9.44 and 8.11; F1,43 =
15.32, p < .001); energetic arousal (means = 6.22 and 7.98; F1,43 = 12.71, p = .001); flow
(means = 41.53 and 32.02; F1,43 = 66.20, p < .001); and mindfulness (means = 20.90 and
16.62; F1,43 = 16.19, p < .001). There were no significant order effects, suggesting that the
order in which participants took part in conditions did not significantly impact upon reported
experience.
The hypothesis that participants would report improved mood and attention following
coloring, compared with both baseline and control was met for all variables except energetic
arousal. This replicates previous research reporting a reduction in anxiety following coloring
(e.g. Curry & Kasser, 2005). It further suggests that coloring may improve positive affect,
and reduce both energetic arousal (alertness) and tense arousal (anxiety). The experiment also
supports previous work where coloring affected attentional state (Carsley & Heath, 2018),
since participants reported being more focused and engaged while coloring. However, only
self-report measures of attention were used, leaving open the influence of demand
characteristics.
The effect of coloring on an implicit mood task
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COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
Participants rated abstract images as being ‘happy’ more often after coloring than the control
condition (F1,42 = 2.28, p = .139), less angry (F1,42 = 1.93, p = .172), and more sad (F1,42 =
1.44, p = .236), but none of these effects were statistically significant (means are reported in
Table 2). The only significant effect was for fear, where participants were less likely to rate
pictures as representing fear after coloring (means = 1.78 and 2.02; F1,42 = 4.25, p = .046).
The hypothesis that participants would show improved hedonic tone following coloring
(compared to the control group) using an implicit measure was only partially met, for fear
only. Nevertheless, this suggests that the reduction in anxiety (an overlapping construct,
Reiss, 1991) reported previously (e.g. Curry & Kasser, 2005) may not be due to response
bias.
Experiment 2
Experiment two sought to further understand the impact of coloring on cognition, including
performance measures of attention and creativity, firstly, to help assess the impact of demand
characteristics on self-report measures of attention, and secondly to test whether coloring
improves creative cognition. It was hypothesized that participants would score significantly
differently on self-report measures of anxiety (lower) and mindfulness (higher) following
coloring, compared with both control condition and baseline scores. Secondly, it was
hypothesized that participants would score significantly higher on selective attention and
divergent thinking (in particular originality) following coloring compared with reading.
Participants
52 psychology undergraduate students (40 females) with a mean age of 21.04 (ranging
between 18 and 32), were sampled through opportunity sampling, using the department’s
participant pool. Participants were rewarded course credit.
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COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
Design
A randomized controlled crossover MANOVA design, with two factors: a repeated measures
factor (condition) with three levels (baseline, coloring and control [reading]); and a between-
participants factor (order) with two levels (reading first and coloring first). The order in
which conditions were taken was randomized (n = 24 completed reading first). Dependent
variables included anxiety, mindfulness, figural divergent thinking (fluency, flexibility and
originality) and selective attention. The presentation of these measures, and the order of
alternate forms, was counterbalanced.
Measures
Short state form of the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, STAI (Marteau & Bekker,
1992). A six-item scale where higher scores indicate greater levels of anxiety. An example
items is “I feel calm”, with a 4-point Likert Scale. The scale has adequate concurrent validity
and reliability (Marteau & Bekker, 1992).
Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, MAAS (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Please refer to
Experiment 1 for a description.
Figural divergent thinking activity from the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, TTCT (Goff
& Torrance, 2002; Torrance, 1990). The figural activity chosen consists of nine identical
shapes on a sheet of A4 paper (triangles or circles on the parallel form), with the request to
“see how many objects you can make from the triangles/circles below”. Responses are scored
according to fluency (number of responses), flexibility (how many different ideas are
represented) and originality (how rare responses are compared with normative responses).
The TTCT have good reliability and predictive validity (Kim, 2006; Torrance, 1990).
11
COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
Map Search, from the Test of Everyday Attention, TEA (Robertson et al., 1994). A measure of
visual selective attention, requiring the location of an everyday symbol repeatedly printed on
a colored map. The TEA has adequate concurrent and predictive validity and reliability,
including test-retest reliability (Robertson et al., 1996). Two parallel forms were used
(locating either a knife and fork or a screwdriver and spanner symbol).
Procedure
Participants took part individually in a small research room in the psychology laboratory.
After being greeted by the researcher participants read an information sheet describing the
study and their ethical rights and signed a consent form if they wished to participate.
Participants then completed baseline state measures (STAI and MAAS), before being
informed whether they were either to color or read first. Participants either colored in a
mandala design, using 12 Crayola coloring pencils, or read the chapter ‘Effective Time
Management’ (Bird, 2011), for twenty minutes. Subsequently, participants completed the
MAAS and STAI followed by both the Map Search test and the TTCT. Map Search involved
locating (and circling) a symbol on a printed map as many times as possible in two minutes
(out of a possible 80). The TTCT involved drawing on nine identical shapes in order to
transform them into something else (e.g., a clock face or a pyramid), in three minutes. After
completing the first condition, participants were offered a short break before completing the
cross-over condition (reading or coloring). They then completed the same state measures and
alternate forms of the cognitive tasks. At the end of the study, participants were debriefed and
any questions answered. This research received ethical approval from the UWE’s Research
Ethics Committee.
Results and discussion
The effect of coloring on self-report measures (mood and mindfulness)
12
COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
Significant differences across conditions (baseline, coloring, reading) were found for both
state anxiety (F1,51 = 26.388, p < .001) and mindfulness (F1,51 = 13.770, p < .001) (mean
scores can be seen in Table 3). Post hoc analyses demonstrated that state anxiety was
significantly lower after coloring compared with the control condition (means = 9.27 and
12.58; F1,51 = 30.042, p < .001) and mindfulness was significantly higher (means = 22.29 and
17.54; F1,51 = 39.717, p < .001). Anxiety was also significantly lower after coloring than at
baseline (means = 9.27 and 12.06; F1,51 = 13.924, p < .001) and mindfulness increased
significantly (means = 22.29 and 18.42; F1,51 = 34.052, p < .001). There were no significant
effects for the order in which conditions were completed. The hypothesis that coloring would
lead to reduced anxiety and focused attention, compared with both baseline and the control
condition was accepted. The results of experiment two replicate those of Experiment 1, and
previous research (e.g. Carsley & Heath, 2018), suggesting that coloring for twenty minutes
can improve self-reported anxiety and mindfulness.
The effect of coloring on performance measures of attention and divergent thinking
After coloring, compared with the control condition, participants scored significantly higher
on originality (means = 3.10 and 2.42; F1,51 = 5.221, p = .027) but neither fluency (F1,51 = .
097, p = .756) nor flexibility (F1,51 = 1.393, p = .243) (mean scores can be seen in Table 4).
Participants located significantly more symbols on the selective attention task following
coloring compared with the control (means = 71.92 and 67.46; F1,51 = 17.187, p < .001).
There were no significant effects for the order in which conditions were taken. Hypotheses
were met for selective attention, but were only partially met for creativity – participants did
not produce more ideas, but the ideas that they did produce were more original. Importantly,
Experiment 2 provides predictive validity for the mindfulness effect, since performance on a
test of selective attention following coloring was also improved (Jha et al., 2007). Further, it
suggests that coloring has cognitive benefits, improving original ideation, in line with
13
COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
previous research supporting greater originality after positive mood inductions (Baas et al.,
2008). As such, this research suggests that coloring can not only benefit one’s wellbeing by
reducing anxiety, but by improving one’s ability to focus attention and generate original
responses to problems.
General discussion
Previous research, using pre-post designs had reported a significant reduction in anxiety after
coloring (e.g., Eaton & Tieber, 2017; van der Vennet & Serice, 2012). However, two studies
using a control condition reported equivocal results (Powell et al., 2017; Sandmire et al.,
2016). The two experiments reported in the current paper provide needed support for the
hypothesis that coloring is a useful tool for reducing anxiety in a university student
population, using controlled comparisons, and based on both self-report and objective
measures. However, mood consists of distinct dimensions (Baas et al., 2008), and while
coloring improved hedonic tone and reduced ‘activating moods’ (anxiety and alertness) on
self-report measures, performance measures of mood only supported the reduction of anxiety.
This might suggest that coloring only affects negative mood, alternatively a more statistically
powerful study may be required to detect small effect sizes, or alternate objective measures of
mood employed (Quirin, Kazén & Kuhl, 2009; Sandmire et al., 2016).
Coloring is often described in popular culture as a mindfulness activity (Mantzios &
Giannou, 2018), however, only two studies previously assessed this claim, obtaining
conflicting results (Carsley & Heath, 2018; Mantzios & Giannou, 2018). The current research
was the first to compare mindfulness coloring both with a control condition and with a
performance measure of mindful attention. The findings support those of Carsley and Heath,
that coloring can improve mindfulness. Interestingly, both the current research and Carsley
and Heath used the MAAS, which measures focused attention, while Mantzios and Giannou
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COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
used a measure of global attention to the present moment (including bodily awareness and
transitioning feelings). Hence, further research into the attentional state generated through
coloring is required – it may simply be that coloring engages attention, acting as a temporary
distraction from daily stresses, rather than developing ‘open’ mindfulness, for example. That
coloring led to the flow state supports this interpretation, since this measures active
enjoyment and engagement in one’s current activity, and is thought to arise when skills are
balanced with challenges and tasks enable choice and expression (de Sampaio Barros et al.,
2018), rather than merely concentrating attention.
The most novel outcome from the current research was that coloring for a short period of
time might improve one’s ability to make original associations to stimuli. Hence, coloring
might not only affect wellbeing by improving hedonic tone, but also by increasing one’s
capacity to solve problems in daily life (Fredrickson, 2004). However, future research could
seek to better understand the mechanism involved (e.g. positive affect and/or attentional
networks), especially since some mindfulness research suggests that focused attention
(measured by the MAAS) can inhibit divergent thinking (Lebuda et al., 2016). It is not clear
why in the current research both divergent thinking and selective attention were increased.
Explanatory factors might include: reduced anxiety (since anxiety can impede attention and
creativity [Eysenck & Derakshan 2011]), increased motivation to engage in cognitive tasks
following coloring (Jensen et al., 2012); or neurocognitive factors, since both original
ideation and mindfulness have been associated with alpha synchronization (Lomas, Ivtzan &
Fu, 2015; Schwab et al., 2014), which may improve both selective attention and cognitive
processing that efficiently locates (original) concepts in memory (Schwab et al., 2014).
Future research could further consider problems with control groups and expectation effects
(Boot, Simons, Stothart & Stutts, 2013). The current research attempted to select outcome
measures that are not influenced by demand characteristics, but measuring and manipulate
15
COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE BENEFITS OF COLOURING
expectation effects to examine their import would be useful (Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015),
especially since there is limited evidence to suggest that expectation affects cognitive
performance (Oken et al., 2008).
The results of the research support suggestions made by previous authors (e.g. Sandmire et
al., 2016) that University wellbeing centers might profitably offer coloring as a method to
help reduce student anxiety as an adjunct to other treatments, especially since they are
increasingly under pressure to help students deal with stress (Novotney, 2014). However,
caution is required, since research to examine the efficacy of such interventions is necessary.
Further, it is not clear how useful coloring is for high levels of anxiety, what the duration of
any effects are, or how best to maintain any beneficial effects (e.g., duration and frequency of
coloring, or the need for accompanying instructions [Mantzios & Giannou, 2018]). Future
research on coloring as a wellbeing intervention could examine these issues.
In conclusion, the current research supports the hypothesis that coloring for twenty minutes
not only has affective consequences, reducing anxiety and improving positive mood, but also
has cognitive consequences, improving one’s ability to focus attention and produce original
responses to problems, which in turn could improve one’s wellbeing and performance.
However, further research is required to explore the role of expectation effects, and examine
the longitudinal impact of coloring on mood and cognition.
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