ArticlePDF Available

The Importance of Self-Reflection and Awareness for Human Development in Hard Times

Authors:

Abstract

Trauma is an inescapable part of being human, whether caused by external events or internal struggles. Self-reflection and self-awareness aid in the recovery from external trauma and heal psychosomatic wounds. We first explain different understandings of the nature of the self and mechanisms of self-reflection and self-awareness. Then we describe the role of self-reflection and awareness in ontogenetic, sociogenic, liberative, transpersonal, and spiritual models of adult development. Finally, we discuss the practice of Buddhist mindfulness, Westernized forms of mindfulness, and McMindfulness and their potential for raising the level of self-awareness, increase resilience during hard times, and heal from trauma.
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=hrhd20
Research in Human Development
ISSN: 1542-7609 (Print) 1542-7617 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hrhd20
The Importance of Self-Reflection and Awareness
for Human Development in Hard Times
Monika Ardelt & Sabine Grunwald
To cite this article: Monika Ardelt & Sabine Grunwald (2018): The Importance of Self-Reflection
and Awareness for Human Development in Hard Times, Research in Human Development, DOI:
10.1080/15427609.2018.1489098
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2018.1489098
Published online: 10 Jul 2018.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 23
View Crossmark data
The Importance of Self-Reflection and Awareness for
Human Development in Hard Times
Monika Ardelt and Sabine Grunwald
University of Florida
Trauma is an inescapable part of being human, whether caused by external events or internal
struggles. Self-reflection and self-awareness aid in the recovery from external trauma and heal
psychosomatic wounds. We first explain different understandings of the nature of the self and
mechanisms of self-reflection and self-awareness. Then we describe the role of self-reflection and
awareness in ontogenetic, sociogenic, liberative, transpersonal, and spiritual models of adult devel-
opment. Finally, we discuss the practice of Buddhist mindfulness, Westernized forms of mindfulness,
and McMindfulness and their potential for raising the level of self-awareness, increase resilience
during hard times, and heal from trauma.
Trauma is a common and unavoidable part of human existence. Yet responses to aversive,
overwhelming experiences that pose potential long-term, destructive effects on individuals and
communities vary widely. Stanley (2016) distinguished between event-based trauma with
personal debilitating effects and developmental trauma. The latter are due to emotional neglect
in significant relationships in childhood from the absence of attunement, feeling felt, and mutual
resonance with devastating effects on individuals often spanning across generations (Bowlby,
2004; Reis, Collins, & Berscheid, 2000). According to Kessler et al. (2017), trauma exposure is
common throughout the world, averaging 3.2 traumas per capita in an investigation of lifetime
traumas of 68,894 respondents from 24 different countries. Post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) affects about 44.7 million people in the United States (PTSD United, 2018).
Moreover, humans and the entire earth community are facing an unprecedented situation of
amplified uncertainty that involves many interconnected crises, including global climate change,
social inequity, economic instability, terrorism, social upheaval, and digital fragmented knowl-
edge (Mickey, Kelly, & Robbert, 2017).
The development of self-reflection and awareness appear to facilitate healing from trauma
and to find constructive solutions to crises (Ayduk & Kross, 2010). Awareness of self, others,
and the environment is pivotal to obtain the full range of human knowledge and actions that are
necessary to restore a crisis-ridden world (Kelly, 2017). We posit that human development
influences self-reflection capacity, awareness, and openness to self, others, and the world, and
Correspondence should be addressed to Monika Ardelt, Department of Sociology and Criminology & Law,
University of Florida, P.O. Box 117330, Gainesville, FL 32611-7330, USA. E-mail: ardelt@ufl.edu
Research in Human Development, 00: 113, 2018
Copyright © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1542-7609 print / 1542-7617 online
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2018.1489098
conversely, that self-reflection and conscious awareness foster human development and personal
transformation and, ultimately, a better society.
In this article, we first describe the concept of the self and different forms of self-
reflection and self-awareness. Then we discuss the role of self-reflection in ontogenetic,
sociogenic, liberative, transpersonal, and spiritual models of adult development. The final
section introduces different forms of mindfulness that facilitate self-reflection and presents
empirical research on the emotional, cognitive, and self-relational effects of mindfulness,
particularly during hard times.
SELF-REFLECTION, SELF-AWARENESS, AND MINDFULNESS
The concept of self has been described in a variety of ways. In sociology, the self is
considered a socially constructed mental image that arises through the process of socializa-
tion and provides individuals with a relatively stable and distinct sense of who they are
independent of context (Cooley, 1922;Mead,1934). Identities depend on the social context,
the social roles individuals play, and specific social relationships (Brook, Garcia, & Fleming,
2008; Stets & Burke, 2000), whereas the self is more cohesive and allows individuals to feel
that they are the same person across social situations, in different roles, and over time
(Damasio, 2010). Western psychology is often concerned with finding onestrueself,
expressed through self-coherence, self-identification (Weiss, 2015), individuation of self
(Vaughan, 2013), and self-actualization (Maslow, 1971), whereas Buddhism and other
Eastern traditions emphasize the realization of no-self(Bodhi, 2005).
How we perceive self in contrast to other (dualism), relation to other, in communion with
other (participatory view), or immanently as no other (nonduality) shapes beliefs, values,
perceptions, and behaviors. Deeper inquiry, reflection, contemplation, and/or meditation into
What is self?or Who am I?discloses the essence of the self, though fear, anxiety, shame,
guilt, and ignorance about what possibly could be revealed may hamper conscious efforts to turn
toward the self.
Self-reflection from the vantage points of scholarly philosophical discourse through logical
reasoning is inherently disembodied (Varela, Thompson, & Rosch, 2016). For example, Wilhelm
Wundts introspection, as an abstract and conceptual activity to examine internal thoughts and
feelings, emphasizes the observer, third person, distancing perspective (Costall, 2006). This
cognitive kind of self-reflection has the potential to enhance a conceptual, theoretical under-
standing of the self (e.g., I am a compassionate and shy person) yet might limit the possibility
for human transformation (Stanley, 2016).
In the West, abstract reflection has dominated since Descartes spawned Cartesian dualism,
ontologically separating subject and object, self and other, and self and the world of objects
out there as a pregiven (Skirry, 2008). Although there are various interpretations and models of
the self in Western psychology, most share the existence of a separate Ientity based on
psychological structures or schemas. An individual exclusively identified with a sovereign self
is likely to feel fear or greed in response to the perception of threats by all that is other than
self, such as other people, nature, and the rest of the world (Loy, 1996). Therefore, the
development of a secure and strong egois often the goal in Western psychology, defined
in terms of high self-esteem, competence in worldly functioning, and impulse control
2ARDELT AND GRUNWALD
(Welwood, 2000). Regardless of the different self-conceptions in the West (e.g., Damasio,
2010;Harré,1998;Lewis,1990), the tendency of reifying the self prevents self-transcendence
and restricts the transformation of the self.
Yet Western psychology also offers three key strategies to heal the wounded self (Mikulincer
& Shaver, 2016): (1) enhance the capacity for disidentification with self or objects; (2) decrease
attachment to self, other, and the world; and (3) enhance the flexibility to toggle seamlessly
between identification and disidentification with an open and accepting attitude (emotional
resilience and equanimity). The capacity to reflect on oneself, and therefore to disidentify with
painful or traumatic experiences, facilitates healing (Ayduk & Kross, 2010; Holmes, 1997).
Disidentification involves awareness to create some distance to ones self-image and take an
observer (or witness) stance. This awareness of impartially observing the self is cultivated by
mindfulness meditation (Weiss, 2015). The process of disidentification involves a shift in
subject-object relation. Kegan (1982) coined the term reperceiving,which involves a shift in
consciousness so that what was previously subject becomes object. Reperceiving has been
identified as a key to human development across the life span. It involves disidentifying with
thoughts, emotions, and body sensations as they arise and simply being with them instead of
being defined (i.e., controlled and conditioned) by them (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freedman,
2006). Aron (1998) pointed out that the dialectical process of experiencing oneself as a subject
as well as of reflecting on oneself as an object is not exclusively an intellectual observational
function, but also an experiential, emotional, and embodied endeavor.
Self-reflection as interoception (i.e., sensing breathing, arousal, pain, fatigue, feelings, and the
like) provides insight into psychosomatic processes representing the body from within
(Cameron, 2001). To embody the lived experience of a particular moment means to viscerally
feel sensory, motor, emotional, and imaginal experiences and to explore the intricacies and
changes in bodily sensations tied to emotions and thoughts when the self comes in contact with
others and the world (Stanley, 2016). It requires a mindful presence and the ability to feel bodily
sensations triggered, for example, by sadness, despair, anxiety, compassion, happiness, or joy,
which differs from conceptual self-awareness that only engages the mind in an intellectual
thought process (Fogel, 2013).
Self-reflection that is embodied, mindful, and open to the ever-changing nature of bodily
sensations does not presume an independent self that engages in reflection. Instead, the observer
becomes one with the experience of reflection (i.e., similar to a violinist playing in an extra-
ordinary concert, a marathon runner experiencing runners high,or a meditator in a blissful
state of consciousness). Varela et al. (2016) conveyed that embodied reflection is not just a
cognitive act of focusing awareness on experience, but reflection is a form of experience itself. It
is a fully embodied state of being, characterized by the awareness and acceptance of bodily
sensations, nonattachment to self, letting go, and letting be (Loy, 2015; Sahdra, Shaver, &
Brown, 2010). In this way, embodied reflection provides a path for human transformation and
personal growth.
Self-reflection and awareness are important tools in overcoming PTSD resulting from trauma.
Bisson et al. (2007) used a meta-analysis to assess the efficacy of different psychological
treatments for chronic PTSD and discovered that trauma-focused Cognitive-Behavioral
Therapy was among the therapies that improved PTSD symptoms. This therapy teaches self-
reflection to increase awareness of distorted thinking and behavior patterns that contribute to
psychological, behavioral, and somatic problems (American Psychological Association, 2018).
XXXX 3
Hence, human development and trauma release require enhancement of self-reflective capacity
and awareness, which include disidentification from fixed-action cognitive patterns of interpre-
tation, reframing of perceptions (specifically negative ones associated with trauma), transforma-
tion of unconscious perceptions into conscious ones, somatic reflection capacity, body
awareness, emotional awareness, and emotional resilience (Marlock, Weiss, Young, & Soth,
2015; Stanley, 2016; Van der Kolk, 2014).
THE ROLE OF SELF-REFLECTION IN MODELS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Various models have articulated specific stances for self-reflection and awareness in the context
of human development. These models can be roughly divided into ontogenic, sociogenic,
liberative, transpersonal, and spiritual models of human development. Although ontogenic
models assume a maturation-driven universal path toward human development, sociogenic
models emphasize the influence of culture and social structure on individual development, and
liberative, transpersonal, and spiritual models describe forms of advanced human development
that might only be reached by a few exceptional individuals who have transcended the
constraints of biology, culture, the social environment, and the egoic self. However, self-
reflection and awareness play a pivotal role in all models of human development, although
many of the models do not specify if they refer to a cognitive or embodied form of self-reflection
or both.
ONTOGENETIC MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT
Ontogenetic models, such as Eriksons model of psychosocial development, assume that devel-
opment follows a sequence of maturation-driven events that all individuals encounter with
advancing age. Erikson (1963) divides individualslives into a series of eight psychosocial
developmental crises or tasks, starting in infancy with the crisis of basic trust versus mistrust.
The successful resolution of each crisis results in a specific virtue, which aids in the resolution of
the next and all subsequent crises. By contrast, if a person cannot resolve a psychosocial crisis,
either due to an unwillingness to face a specific developmental task or due to a failure to solve
the crisis successfully, psychosocial development might be halted or fixated at an early devel-
opmental stage (Clayton, 1975). Hence, to resolve the eighth crisis of ego integrity versus
despair in old age successfully, all previous seven psychosocial developmental task have to be
mastered first. Because four of the crises occur in childhood, the quality of the relationship with
parents and other significant others is crucial in psychosocial development (Bowlby, 2004;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016; Reis et al., 2000).
During the eighth psychosocial crisis, older adults are confronted with the impermanence of
life as expressed in the loss of social roles, physical vigor, mental acuity, the nearing of death,
and a changing sense of self. To achieve ego integrity rather than succumb to despair over past
mistakes and failures, lost opportunities, the inalterability of the past, and the loss of a healthy,
vigorous, and socially important self, individuals need to reflect on and accept the totality of
their lives, which includes confrontation with unresolved previous psychosocial tasks. Even
though reflecting on ones life is not limited to old age (Staudinger, 2001), self-reflection, life
4ARDELT AND GRUNWALD
review (Butler, 2002), and an awareness and acceptance of the changing nature of the self are
particularly important in old age to obtain a sense of wholeness. According to Xu (in press),
mindfulness practice can help older adults reach acceptance, ego integrity, and transcendence:
By observing past memories and experiences without judgment and reaction and with freshness,
openness, receptiveness, and wholeness, older people can integrate both pleasant and painful life
experiences as a whole, gaining a balanced, flexible, and integrated perspective on what they were.
Older adults who have achieved ego integrity gain the virtue of wisdom, which Erikson
(1964, p. 133) describes as detached concern with life itself in the face of death itself.
Integrated individuals do not cling to life but understand and accept that each life is but a
sequence in the endless flow of generations. Rather than being concerned only about themselves,
such an understanding leads to the transcendence of the individual sense of self and a concern
for the well-being of future generations.
SOCIOGENIC MODELS OF ADULT DEVELOPMENT
Sociogenic models question the premise that adult development is guided by universal devel-
opmental stages and instead emphasize multiple pathways of adult development based on the
influence of culture, social structure, and social interaction on personality, behavior, and life
chances (Dannefer, 1984). For example, according to the life-course paradigm (Elder, 1994),
adult human development does not follow a specific sequence but is affected by the culture and
subculture of a society at a specific period in history, social relationships, and the timing,
sequence, and duration of social roles that individuals inhabit, either voluntarily and on time
(e.g., as spouse, parent, or employee) or nonvoluntarily (e.g., being drafted into the military or
losing a spouse) and off time(e.g., a teenage mother or a young widow). Yet adult develop-
ment is not completely determined by social structure and the social environment but also
depends on human agency, defined as self-determined choices individuals make within the
constraints of their cultural, social, and economic boundaries. Even if action and intentionality
are themselves organized by larger socio-historical forces(Dannefer, 1989, p. 11) collective
action has the power to overcome social injustices to allow individuals to reach their full
potential (Dannefer, 2015). Therefore, the goal of adult development within the sociogenic
model is the elimination of social injustices, such as socioeconomic disadvantages, racism,
sexism, misogyny, homophobia, and ageism, through a process of critical social reflection and
self-reflection (Dannefer, 1996) to transcend cultural and social boundaries and expand human
agency.
LIBERATIVE MODELS OF ADULT DEVELOPMENT
According to Levenson and Crumplers(1996) liberative model, adult development consists of
more than maturational changes or an interaction with the social environment. Instead, it requires a
conscious commitment to personal development to liberate oneself from external and internal
conditioning. Through contemplative practices, such as mindfulness meditation and self-
reflection, greater self-knowledge and self-insight are attained that weaken conditioned constraints
XXXX 5
and lead to a higher (or freer) form of consciousness (Levenson & Aldwin, 2013). The goal is
self-transcendence in the form of inner freedom, particularly from negative conditioning (or in
Buddhist terms, defilements), such as fear, anxiety, shame, anger, hatred, jealously, lust, and
greed, that might have had some evolutionary advantages (Nesse & Ellsworth, 2009) but are
obstacles in achieving liberation and inner peace. Through self-reflection, self-insight, and self-
understanding, individuals obtain true mental health that is not simply characterized by the absence
of mental problems but by the elimination of self-pity and the projection of blame, better coping
abilities when confronted with adversity and stress, and greater tolerance, empathy, compassion, and
concern for the well-being of others (Allport, 1961;Jahoda,1958). Culture and the social environ-
ment provide opportunities or obstacles for adult development toward liberation. For example, it
might be easier to include meditation into ones daily routine in a Buddhist culture, whereas people
who have two jobs to make ends meet might not possess the necessary time, energy, and motivation
to engage in mindfulness and awareness practices. Indeed, Maslow (1971) proclaimed a hierarchy
of needs, stating that self-transcendence can only be achieved after the lower-order needs of biology,
safety, social integration, self-esteem, and self-actualization have been satisfied.
TRANSPERSONAL MODELS OF ADULT DEVELOPMENT
Similar to the ultimate goal of liberative models, the goal of transpersonal models of develop-
ment is self-transcendence, but the focus is primarily on the transcendence and transformation of
the self beyond the ordinary ego (Grof, 2008; Hartelius, Rothe, & Roy, 2013), specifically on
experiences, processes, and events where the normal, ordinary self is altered by feelings of
connection to a larger, more meaningful reality (Daniels, 2005). This may include feelings of
deeper connection with other people, humankind in general, life, the planet, or nature (Walsh &
Vaughan, 1993). Daniels (2013) described three vectors in transpersonal self-development. The
first is the descending path of individuation into the realm of the unconscious and dynamic
ground of being turning inward (domain of psychology). The second is the ascending path
toward wisdom where the ego is perceived as the lowerself and transcendence is toward union
with the Higher Self (capital S), the Divine perceived as Higher Mind (Superconscious)
(domain of religion). The third is the extending path through participation in the mystery of
life enacting (i.e., bringing forth) key virtues of compassion, love, and generosity (domain of
humanism). This path focuses on the extension of the self, implying expansion of the boundaries
of moral, ethical, and spiritual concerns outward. The purely self-centered stance is enlarged to
encompass other people and global, political, economic, and ecological systems toward the
cosmic dimension. All three paths increase self-awareness. Often trauma, a crisis, or existential
needs are motivators and triggers to descend into the inner self, ascend toward wisdom and
union with the Higher Self, or extend the self into social/cosmic worlds.
SPIRITUAL MODELS OF ADULT HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Although many spiritual models of adult human development exist, we use Buddhism as an
illustration. In Buddhism, the spiritual realization of Buddha Nature (Sanskrit, tathāgatagarbha)
is paramount, and emotional and moral virtues, such as the six Great Perfections (Sanskrit,
6ARDELT AND GRUNWALD
pāramitā)generosity, discipline, patience, joyful endeavor (diligence), meditative concentra-
tion, and insight or wisdom awarenessare cultivated to bring forth loving-kindness (Sanskrit,
maitrī) and equanimity (Sanskrit, upekā) (Esposito, Fasching, & Lewis, 2015). According to
Buddhist teachings, attachment to the I/self, a subject looking out at an external world, creates
suffering because the true nature of self and the world is considered formless, ever changing, and
impermanent (Loy, 1997; Ray, 2008). Attachment to an isolated, individualized, and substantive
I/self that is in reality always changing causes suffering, particularly when this I/self grows old,
gets sick, and ultimately dies. Through mindfulness meditation, embodied self-reflection, and
self-awareness, the true nature of the self as a process rather than a substance can be realized
(Gowans, 2003). Self-inquiry, awareness, and mindfulness meditation practices are viewed as
critically important on the path of becoming fully human (Ray, 2008).
No-self corresponds to the emptiness of self in Buddhism, where the self is considered empty
of a substantive existence (Van Gordon, Shonin, & Griffiths, 2017). The concept of no-self is
intrinsically interwoven with the concept of nonattachment (Shonin, Van Gordon, & Griffiths,
2014). Nonattachment to self, intrinsic states, and the external world results in psychological
flexibility, emotional equanimity, quick recovery from upsets, and a general sense of ease.
Nonattachment has the subjective quality of not being stuck or fixated on images, ideas,
concepts, or sensory objects, and not feeling an internal pressure to acquire, hold, avoid, or
change (Sahdra et al., 2010). In Buddhist psychology, liberation is found through letting go of a
rigid self and mental fixations to simply let be (McLeod, 2007).
BUDDHIST MINDFULNESS, SECULAR MINDFULNESS, AND MCMINDFULNESS:
DEFINITIONS, ASSESSMENTS, AND EMPIRICAL FINDINGS
Self-reflection, awareness, and mindfulness meditation are closely aligned. Mindfulness medita-
tion aids in self-reflection, and awareness is common to many definitions of mindfulness from
ancient Wisdom traditions to modern Western psychology (Bodhi, 2011; MacDonald, Walsh, &
Shapiro, 2013; Quaglia, Brown, Lindsay, Creswell, & Goodman, 2015). As Weiss (2015)
pointed out, awareness involves heightened sensitivity of sensory, fully embodied present
moment experience. The cultivation of mindfulness meditation in different classic Buddhist
traditions has been translatedinto secular forms of mindfulness training in Western psychol-
ogy (Quaglia et al., 2015), such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (Kabat-Zinn, 2003), and
utilized in various therapeutic programs.
Empirical studies have used a variety of quantitative methods to assess the emotional,
cognitive, and self-relational effects of mindfulness. Several mindfulness scales have been
developed, including the prominent 15-item Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) by
Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, and Toney (2006), which assesses nonreactivity, observing,
acting with awareness, describing, and non-judging; the 15-item Mindful Attention Awareness
Scale (MAAS) by Brown and Ryan (2003); and the 12-item Cognitive and Affective
Mindfulness Scale (CAMS-R) by Feldman, Hayes, Kumar, Greeson, and Laurenceau (2007),
which measures attention, awareness, present-focus, and acceptance/nonjudgment of thoughts
and feelings. The 30-item Nonattachment Scale (NAS) by Sahdra et al. (2010) assesses feelings
and perceptions of I and other, self-reflection, openness, and self-acceptance. The 11-item
decentering factor of the Experiences Questionnaire by Fresco et al. (2007) was designed to
XXXX 7
measure the ability to observe ones thoughts and feelings as temporary events in the mind, as
opposed to expressions of the self. The 16-item Self-Other Four Immeasurable (SOFI) scale by
Kraus and Sears (2009) measures four qualities of Buddhist teachings: acceptance toward self
and others, loving kindness, compassion, and joy. Mindfulness scales have been found to be
positively correlated with subjective and psychological well-being, mental health, perspective
taking ability, emotional intelligence, emotion regulation, acceptance, self-compassion, auton-
omy, self-actualization, and generosity and inversely with emotional and physical ill-being and
materialism (Baer et al., 2006; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Feldman et al., 2007; Fresco et al., 2007;
Kraus & Sears, 2009; Sahdra et al., 2010). In addition, mindfulness (Beaumont, 2011) and
meditation experiences (Williams, Mangelsdorf, Kontra, Nusbaum, & Hoeckner, 2016) were
positively related to three-dimensional wisdom, consisting of cognitive, reflective, and compas-
sionate dimensions (Ardelt, 2003). Meditation was also positively associated with self-
transcendence, assessed by the Adult Self-Transcendence Inventory (Levenson, Jennings,
Aldwin, & Shiraishi, 2005).
Neuroscience-based studies using brain imaging technology have associated neural corre-
lates, such as cortical thickness and gray matter density, with mindfulness meditation (Hölzel
et al., 2008; Lazar et al., 2005; Luders, Toga, Lepore, & Gaser, 2009), whereas electroence-
phalogram (EEG) studies that have measured the electrical activity of neurons in form of
wavebands in meditators suggest that during meditation, brain and heart activities become
more coordinated whereas functional interdependence between brain regions is reduced and
that cognitive restructuring and learning take place (Fell, Axmacher, & Haupt, 2010;Gao
et al., 2016; Lehmann et al., 2012). Other empirical studies have used qualitative methods to
assess the effects and experiences of meditation. For example, Chen, Qi, Hood, and Watson
(2011) studied the phenomenological structure of mystical experience among Chinese Pure
Land and Chan Buddhist monks and nuns, whereas Pagis (2010) used qualitative interviews
with Vipassana meditation practitioners to analyze the Buddhist constructs of dissatisfaction,
impermanence, and no-self in the form of embodied experiences.
Davidson (2010) and Davidson and Kaszniak (2015) addressed several key methodological
and conceptual issues in the empirical study of mindfulness. Mindfulness can be investigated in
reference to either states or traits and as an independent variable that is manipulated in an
experimental trial (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Evidence-based research on secular mindfulness has
demonstrated positive associations with stress-reduction, well-being and health, emotion regula-
tion, cognitive appraisal, and social relationships (Goyal et al., 2014; Greeson, 2009; Hempel,
Shekelle, Taylor, Marshall, & Solloway, 2014; Khoury et al., 2013; MacDonald et al., 2013).
However, most research has been largely disconnected from any spiritual or religious context.
Despite research progress, secularizing the term mindfulness has raised serious concern in
Buddhist communities (Blacker, Boyce, Winston, & Goodman, 2015). Ng and Purser (2015) and
Purser and Ng (2015) critiqued commodified forms of Buddhist mindfulness as McMindfulness,
which is a watered-down version of traditional mindfulness that has been decontextualized from its
religious/spiritual roots and ethics. For instance, mindfulness applied in the military to train
soldiers and treat PTSD is decontextualizing mindfulness from its ethical roots of no harm,
universal loving kindness, and compassion for all beings as articulated in Buddhist ethics
(Purser, 2014). The merging of the ancient tradition of mindfulness meditation and Western
psychotherapy (e.g., Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy) has raised concerns and at the
same time opened opportunities for new integrated therapeutic healing modalities (Fennell &
8ARDELT AND GRUNWALD
Segal, 2011; Welwood, 1999). In terms of the depth of self-reflection capacity, McMindfulness
and secular mindfulness may help to set the seed and shift habitual reactivity and mindless
behavior but might lack the deeper exploration of subjective knowing connected to Buddhist
beliefs and ethics. According to Wilson (2014), the secularized form of mindfulness becomes a
label for supposedly enlightened consumption to spend money and promise healing yet bypasses
the real practice of deep attention, profound awareness, and insights stemming from reflections
onto self. Although mindfulness is practiced in secular and nonsecular forms, its relationship to
self-reflection differs widely. Carrette and King (2005) contrasted the Revolutionary Spiritualities,
focused on deep self-reflection through mindfulness meditation, liberation of self, and social
connectedness, with Reformist Spiritualities, Individualist/Consumerist Spiritualities, and
Capitalist Spiritualities. For example, the Reformist Spiritualities legitimize ethically oriented
spiritual business enterprises (e.g., in the Quaker tradition), whereas Individualist/Consumerist
Spiritualities go one step further and use capitalist approaches and marketing (e.g., Mega
Churches, U.S. tele-evangelism), and Capitalist Spiritualities adopt a corporate orientation of
profit for its own sake that is spiritually detraditionalized. The three latter types of spiritualities
tend to promulgate individualistic orientations, reinforcing the commodification of life and
spiritual/religious domains, while distancing themselves from lived experience, which is in direct
opposition to the Buddhist view.
FINAL REMARKS
All models of adult human development are about overcoming crises and obstacles. These might
take the form of maturational crises in ontogenetic stage models, social injustices in sociogenic
models, external and internal conditioning in liberative models, or the transcendence of the self-
centered ego in transpersonal and spiritual models of development. In the end, the goal of self-
reflection and awareness in all models of adult development is fulfillment and well-being for
oneself, others, and society at large and the achievement of true mental health that includes
cognitive, emotional, and social well-being (Jahoda, 1958). Embodied self-awareness provides
the most integrative lens, emphasizing the lived experience and social body and mind that is
coupled to the environment. The practice of self-reflection and mindfulness enhances awareness
to moment-to-moment experiences, which augments problem-solving capacity, increases resi-
lience during hard times, and aids in the recovery from trauma (Ayduk & Kross, 2010).
ORCID
Monika Ardelt http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4313-8742
Sabine Grunwald http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9023-1720
REFERENCES
Allport, G. W. (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
American Psychological Association. (2018). What is cognitive behavioral therapy? Retrieved April 16, 2018, from
http://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/patients-and-families/cognitive-behavioral.aspx
XXXX 9
Ardelt, M. (2003). Empirical assessment of a three-dimensional wisdom scale. Research on Aging,25, 275324.
doi:10.1177/0164027503025003004
Aron, L. (1998). The clinical body and the reflexive mind. In L. Aron & F. S. Anderson (Eds.), Relational perspectives
book series (Vol. 12, pp. 338). Mahwah, NJ: Analytic Press.
Ayduk, O., & Kross, E. (2010). From a distance: Implications of spontaneous self-distancing for adaptive self-reflection.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,98, 809829. doi:10.1037/a0019205
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to
explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment,13,2745. doi:10.1177/1073191105283504
Beaumont,S.L.(2011). Identity styles and wisdom during emerging adulthood: Relationships with mindfulness and savoring.
Identity: an International Journal of Theory and Research,11,155180. doi:10.1080/15283488.2011.557298
Bisson, J. I., Ehlers, A., Matthews, R., Pilling, S., Richards, D., & Turner, S. (2007). Psychological treatments for chronic
post-traumatic stress disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis. The British Journal of Psychiatry,190,97104.
doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.106.021402
Blacker, M. M., Boyce, B., Winston, D., & Goodman, T. (2015). The mindfulness movement: What does it mean for
Buddhism. Buddhadharma: The Practitioners Quarterly,4655.
Bodhi, B. (Ed.). (2005). In the Buddhas words: An anthology of discourses from the Pali Canon. Somerville, MA:
Wisdom Publications.
Bodhi, B. (2011). What does mindfulness really mean? A canonical perspective. Contemporary Buddhism,12,1939.
doi:10.1080/14639947.2011.564813
Bowlby, R. (2004). Fifty years of attachment theory. London, England: Karnac Books.
Brook, A. T., Garcia, J., & Fleming, M. (2008). The effects of multiple identities on psychological well-being.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,34,15881600. doi:10.1177/0146167208324629
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological
well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,84, 822848. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822
Butler, R. N. (2002). The life review. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 35, 710.
Cameron, O. G. (2001). Interoception: The inside storyA model for psychosomatic processes. Psychosomatic Medicine,
63, 697710. doi:10.1097/00006842-200109000-00001
Carrette, J. R., & King, R. (2005). $elling spirituality: The silent takeover of religion. New York, N.Y.: Routledge.
Chen, Z., Qi, W., Hood, R. W., Jr., & Watson, P. J. (2011). Common core thesis and qualitative and quantitative analysis
of mysticism in Chinese Buddhist Monks and Nuns. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion,50, 654670.
doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2011.01606.x
Clayton, V. P. (1975). Eriksons theory of human development as it applies to the aged: Wisdom as contradictory
cognition. Human Development,18,119128. doi:10.1159/000271479
Cooley, C. H. (1922). Human nature and the social order. New York: Scribner. (Rev. ed.).
Costall, A. (2006). Introspectionismand the mythical origins of scientific psychology. Consciousness and Cognition:
an International Journal,15, 634654. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2006.09.008
Damasio, A. R. (2010). Self comes to mind: Constructing the conscious brain (1st ed.). New York, N.Y.: Pantheon Books.
Daniels, M. (2005). Shadow, self, spirit: Essays in transpersonal psychology. Charlottesville, VA: Imprint Academic.
Daniels, M. (2013). Traditional roots, history, and evolution of the transpersonal perspective. In H. L. Friedman & G.
Hartelius (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of transpersonal psychology (pp. 2343). Wiley-Blackwell.
Dannefer, D. (1984). Adult development and social theory: A paradigmatic reappraisal. American Sociological Review,
49, 100116. doi:10.2307/2095560
Dannefer, D. (1989). Human action and its place in theories of aging. Journal of Aging Studies,3,120. doi:10.1016/
0890-4065(89)90022-4
Dannefer, D. (1996). Commentary. Human Development,39, 150152. doi:10.1159/000278431
Dannefer, D. (2015). Right in front of us: Taking everyday life seriously in the study of human development. Research in
Human Development,12, 209216. doi:10.1080/15427609.2015.1068043
Davidson, R. J. (2010). Empirical explorations of mindfulness: Conceptual and methodological conundrums. Emotion,
10,811. doi:10.1037/a0018480
Davidson, R. J., & Kaszniak, A. W. (2015). Conceptual and methodological issues in research on mindfulness and
meditation. American Psychologist,70, 581592. doi:10.1037/a0039512
Elder, G. H., Jr. (1994). Time, human agency, and social change: Perspectives on the life course. Social Psychology
Quarterly,57,415. doi:10.2307/2786971
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. New York, NY: Norton.
10 ARDELT AND GRUNWALD
Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility. lectures on the ethical implications of psychoanalytic insight.
New York, NY: Norton.
Esposito, J. L., Fasching, D. J., & Lewis, T. T. (2015). World religions today (5th ed. ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.
Feldman, G., Hayes, A., Kumar, S., Greeson, J., & Laurenceau, J.-P. (2007). Mindfulness and emotion regulation: The
development and initial validation of the Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised (CMS-R). Journal of
Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment,29, 177190. doi:10.1007/s10862-006-9035-8
Fell, J., Axmacher, N., & Haupt, S. (2010). From alpha to gamma: Electrophysiological correlates of meditation-related
states of consciousness. Medical Hypotheses,75, 218224. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2010.02.025
Fennell, M., & Segal, Z. (2011). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: Culture clash or creative fusion? Contemporary
Buddhism,12, 125142. doi:10.1080/14639947.2011.564828
Fogel, A. (2013). Body sense: The science and practice of embodied self-awareness. New York, N.Y.: W.W. Norton.
Fresco, D. M., Moore, M. T., van Dulmen, M. H. M., Segal, Z. V., Ma, S. H., Teasdale, J. D., & Williams, J. M. G.
(2007). Initial psychometric properties of the Experiences Questionnaire: Validation of a self-report measure of
decentering. Behavior Therapy,38, 234246. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.08.003
Gao, J. L., Fan, J. C., Wu, B. W. Y., Zhang, Z. G., Chang, C. Q., Hung, Y. S., Sik, H. H. (2016). Entrainment of
chaotic activities in brain and heart during MBSR mindfulness training. Neuroscience Letters,616, 218223.
doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2016.01.001
Goyal, M., Singh, S., Sibinga, E. M. S., Gould, N. F., Rowland-Seymour, A., Sharma, R., Haythornthwaite, J. A.
(2014). Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Jama
Internal Medicine,174, 357368. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018
Greeson, J. M. (2009). Mindfulness research update: 2008. Complementary Health Practice Review,14,1018.
doi:10.1177/1533210108329862
Grof, S. (2008). Brief history of transpersonal psychology. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies,27,4654.
doi:10.24972/ijts.2008.27.1.46
Harré, R. (1998). The singular self: An introduction to the psychology of personhood. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hartelius, G., Rothe, G., & Roy, P. J. (2013). A brand from the burning: Defining transpersonal psychology. In H. L.
Friedman & G. Hartelius (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of transpersonal psychology (pp. 322). Malden,
MA: Wiley & Sons.
Hempel, S., Shekelle, P. G., Taylor, S. L., Marshall, N. J., & Solloway, M. R. (2014). Evidence map of mindfulness.
Washington, D.C.: Department of Veterans Affairs.
Holmes, J. (1997). Attachment, autonomy, intimacy: Some clinical implications of attachment theory. British Journal of
Medical Psychology,70, 231248. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8341.1997.tb01902.x
Hölzel, B. K., Ott, U., Gard, T., Hempel, H., Weygandt, M., Morgen, K., & Vaitl, D. (2008). Investigation of mindfulness
meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometry. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,3,5561.
doi:10.1093/scan/nsm038
Jahoda, M. (1958). Current concepts of positive mental health. New York: Basic Books.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology:
Science and Practice,10, 144156. doi:10.1093/clipsy/bpg016
Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self: Problem and process in human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Kelly,S.(2017). Five pr inciples of integral ecology. In S. Mickey, S. Kelly, & A. Robbert (Eds.), The variety of integral ecologies:
Nature, culture, and knowledge in the planetary era (pp. 189227). Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press.
Kessler, R. C., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Benjet, C., Bromet, E. J., Cardoso, G., Koenen, K. C. (2017). Trauma
and PTSD in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. European Journal of Psychotraumatology,8,116.
doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1353383
Khoury, B., Lecomte, T., Fortin, G., Masse, M., Therien, P., Bouchard, V., Hofmann, S. G. (2013). Mindfulness-based
therapy: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review,33, 763771. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.05.005
Kraus, S., & Sears, S. (2009). Measuring the immeasurables: Development and initial validation of the Self-Other Four
Immeasurables (SOFI) Scale based on Buddhist teachings on loving kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity.
Social Indicators Research,92, 169181. doi:10.1007/s11205-008-9300-1
Lazar, S. W., Kerr, C. E., Wasserman, R. H., Gray, J. R., Greve, D. N., Treadway, M. T., Fischl, B. (2005).
Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness. NeuroReport,16, 18931897. doi:10.1097/
01.wnr.0000186598.66243.19
XXXX 11
Lehmann, D., Faber, P. L., Tei, S., Pascual-Marqui, R. D., Milz, P., & Kochi, K. (2012). Reduced functional connectivity
between cortical sources in five meditation traditions detected with lagged coherence using EEG tomography.
Neuroimage,60, 15741586. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.01.042
Levenson, M. R., & Aldwin, C. (2013). The transpersonal in personal wisdom. In M. Ferrari & N. M. Weststrate (Eds.),
The scientific study of personal wisdom: From contemplative traditions to neuroscience (pp. 213228). New York,
NY: Springer.
Levenson, M. R., & Crumpler, C. A. (1996). Three models of adult development. Human Development,39, 135149.
doi:10.1159/000278429
Levenson, M. R., Jennings, P. A., Aldwin, C. M., & Shiraishi, R. W. (2005). Self-transcendence: Conceptualization and
measurement. International Journal of Aging & Human Development,60, 127143. doi:10.2190/XRXM-FYRA-7U0X-
GRC0
Lewis, M. (1990). Self-knowledge and social development in early life. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality:
Theory and research (pp. 277300). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Loy, D. (1996). Lack and transcendence: The problem of death and life in psychotheraphy, existentialism, and Buddhism.
Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press.
Loy, D. (1997). Nonduality: A study in comparative philosophy. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press.
Loy, D. (2015). A new Buddhist path: Enlightenment, evolution, and ethics in the modern world. Boston, MA: Wisdom
Publications.
Luders,E.,Toga,A.W.,Lepore,N.,&Gaser,C.(2009). The underlying anatomical correlates of long-term meditation: Larger
hippocampal and frontal volumes of gray matter. Neuroimage,45,672678. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.12.061
MacDonald, D. A., Walsh, R., & Shapiro, S. L. (2013). Meditation: Empirical research and future directions. In H. L.
Friedman & G. Hartelius (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of transpersonal psychology (pp. 433458). Malden,
MA: Wiley & Sons.
Marlock, G., Weiss, H., Young, C., & Soth, M. (Eds.). (2015). The handbook of body psychotherapy & somatic
psychology. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.
Maslow, A. H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York, NY: The Viking Press.
McLeod, K. (2007). An arrow to the heart: A commentary on the Heart Sutra. British Columbia, Canada: Trafford.
Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self and society. Chicago, Il.: University of Chicago Press.
Mickey, S., Kelly, S., & Robbert, A. (2017). Introduction - The history and future of integral ecologies. In S. Mickey, S.
Kelly, & A. Robbert (Eds.), The variety of integral ecologies: Nature, culture, and knowledge in the planetary era
(pp. 130). Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press.
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2016). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change (2nd ed.). New York,
N.Y.: Guilford Press.
Nesse, R. M., & Ellsworth, P. C. (2009). Evolution, emotions, and emotional disorders. American Psychologist,64,
129139. doi:10.1037/a0013503
Ng, E., & Purser, R. (2015). White privilege and the mindfulness movement. Buddhist Peace Fellowship. Retrieved from
http://www.buddhistpeacefellowship.org/white-privilege-the-mindfulness-movement/
Pagis, M. (2010). From abstract concepts to experiential knowledge: Embodying enlightenment in a meditation center.
Qualitative Sociology,33, 469489. doi:10.1007/s11133-010-9169-6
PTSD United. (2018). Retrieved April 15, 2018, from http://www.ptsdunited.org/ptsd-statistics-2/
Purser, R. (2014). The militarization of mindfulness. Inquiring Mind,30,1746.
Purser, R., & Ng, E. (2015). Corporate mindfulness is bullsh*t: Zen or no Zen, youre working harder and being paid
less. Salon. Retrieved from http://www.salon.com/2015/09/27/corporate_mindfulness_is_bullsht_zen_or_no_zen_
youre_working_harder_and_being_paid_less
Quaglia, J. T., Brown, K. W., Lindsay, E. K., Creswell, J. D., & Goodman, R. J. (2015). From conceptualization to
operationalization of mindfulness. In K. W. Brown, J. D. Creswell, & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of mindfulness:
Theory, research, and practice (pp. 151170). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Ray, R. A. (2008). Touching enlightenment: Finding realization in the body. Boulder, CO: Sounds True.
Reis, H. T., Collins, W. A., & Berscheid, E. (2000). The relationship context of human behavior and development.
Psychological Bulletin,126, 844872. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.126.6.844
Sahdra, B. K., Shaver, P. R., & Brown, K. W. (2010). A scale to measure nonattachment: A Buddhist complement to
western research on attachment and adaptive functioning. Journal of Personality Assessment,92,116127.
doi:10.1080/00223890903425960
12 ARDELT AND GRUNWALD
Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical
Psychology,62, 373386. doi:10.1002/jclp.20237
Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). The emerging role of Buddhism in clinical psychology: Toward
effective integration. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality,6, 123137. doi:10.1037/a0035859
Skirry, J. (2008). René Descartes (1596-1650). Internet encyclopedia of philosophy: A peer-reviewed academic resource.
Retrieved from http://www.iep.utm.edu/descarte
Stanley, S. (2016). Relational and body-centered practices for healing trauma: Lifting the burdens of the past. New York,
N.Y.: Routledge.
Staudinger, U. M. (2001). Life reflection: A social-cognitive analysis of life review. Review of General Psychology,5,
148160. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.5.2.148
Stets, J. E., & Burke, P. J. (2000). Identity theory and social identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly,63, 224237.
doi:10.2307/2695870
VanderKolk,B.A.(2014). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. New York, N.Y.: Viking.
Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., & Griffiths, M. D. (2017). Buddhist emptiness theory: Implications for psychology.
Psychology of Religion and Spirituality,9, 309318. doi:10.1037/rel0000079
Varela, F. J., Thompson, E., & Rosch, E. (2016). The embodied mind: Cognitive science and human experience (revised
ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Vaughan, A. G. (2013). Jung, analytical psychology, and transpersonal psychology. In H. L. Friedman & G. Hartelius
(Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of transpersonal psychology (pp. 141154). Malden, MA: Wiley & Sons.
Walsh, R., & Vaughan, F. (1993). On transpersonal definitions. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology,25, 199207.
Weiss, H. (2015). Consciousness, awareness, mindfulness. In G. Marlock, H. Weiss, C. Young, & M. Soth (Eds.), The
handbook of body psychotherapy & somatic psychology (pp. 402410). Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.
Welwood, J. (1999). Realization and embodiment: Psychological work in the service of spiritual development.
International Journal of Transpersonal Studies,18, 169186.
Welwood, J. (2000). Toward a psychology of awakening: Buddhism, psychotherapy, and the path of personal and
spiritual transformation (1st ed. ed.). Boston, MA: Shambhala.
Williams, P. B., Mangelsdorf, H. H., Kontra, C., Nusbaum, H. C., Hoeckner, B., & Urgesi, C. (2016). The relationship
between mental and somatic practices and wisdom. PLoS ONE,11, e0149369. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0149369
Wilson, J. (2014). Mindful America: The mutual transformation of Buddhist meditation and American culture.
New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.
Xu, J. (in press). A tripartite function of mindfulness in adjustment to aging: Acceptance, integration, and transcendence.
The Gerontologist. doi:10.1093/geront/gnx100
XXXX 13
... As mindfulness meditation increased participants individual affective well-being, making them more serene and less stressed, this may have different consequences for the perceptions of the (threatened) self. Increased mindfulness may facilitate self-reflection and self-compassion (van Wietmarschen et al., 2018), which in turn may enable personal growth in hard times (Ardelt & Grunwald, 2018). At the same time, it may be responsible for reduced orientation toward others and decreased prosociality (Schindler et al., 2019). ...
... Relationship mindfulness may therefore be a critical component of longterm health and wellbeing, but may vary across race. More generally, mindfulness has origins in Buddhist traditions and has been adopted by Western culture (Bodhi, 2011), and the concept has undergone a metamorphosis from its original conceptualization (Ardelt & Grunwald, 2018). While a full discussion is beyond the scope of the current study, the adaptation of mindfulness in different cultures will result in specific racial and cultural groups creating their own specific meanings, interpretations, and behaviors that may be consistent across groups but may also differ (Greeson et al., 2022;Watson et al., 2016). ...
Article
Full-text available
Objectives Mindfulness research has flourished over the past several decades with prominent effects on health and wellbeing. More recently, mindfulness has been expanded to interpersonal contexts, notably within couples. Relationship mindfulness, or mindfulness within the context of romantic relationships, has also demonstrated significant effects on relationship quality beyond individuals’ dispositional mindfulness. Given the novelty of relationship mindfulness, there has been little psychometric evaluation of couple-oriented mindfulness scales. The goal of the current study was to test measurement invariance of the Relationship Mindfulness Measure (RMM) as well as the Positive–Negative Relationship Quality (PNRQ) across White and Black women. The associations between relationship mindfulness and positive and negative relationship quality were subsequently examined using latent variable modeling. Method A sample of 393 women was recruited from two universities (Mean age White = 27.54, Mean age Black = 30.99). A multiple group confirmatory factor analysis was utilized to test measurement invariance, and latent variable structural equation modeling was used to test associations between relationship mindfulness and positive and negative relationship quality. Results Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated configural, metric, and scalar invariance across race for both the RMM and PNRQ. Race did not affect the significant associations found between mindfulness and relationship quality. Conclusions The results indicate two key findings: (1) Relationship mindfulness was consistent across White and Black women, and (2) the effects of relationship mindfulness on relationship quality did not differ between Black and White women. Preregistration This study is not preregistered.
... Reflection is important for self-improvement and developing a sense of urgency (Kondrat, 1999). Not engaging in reflective and self-care practices can negatively impact our health, making it very difficult to manage our struggles when we need to deal with stressful situations (Ardelt & Grunwald, 2018). In our study, users reported that using the iCare app eventually allowed them to explore more about themselves, and they stated that they "would love to use this app forever!" ...
Article
Full-text available
Persuasive Technologies (PTs) are widely used for managing stress and improving well-being. PTs could contribute to the effort toward equality by making mental healthcare more accessible, even among underserved communities. However, most existing persuasive applications (apps) focus on designing for people in developed countries. Therefore, to address this gap, this paper presents the evaluation of iCare, a mobile health (mHealth) app for managing stress and improving well-being among an underserved population-the working-class Indian women. Specifically, we combined the power of mobile health and PTs to design the iCare app. To evaluate the effectiveness of iCare for stress management, 30 participants were recruited to use the app for two weeks and completed a post-test questionnaire about their experience followed by an optional interview with 22 participants to uncover additional insights. Quantitative questionnaire data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, while qualitative interview data was analyzed using a thematic analysis. Results showed that the iCare app was perceived as highly motivational, persuasive , and useful. Also, results show that using the iCare app brought significant positive changes by helping participants to better manage their stress and anxiety. We contribute to HCI research and practice by offering guidelines and insights for designing technologies for people from under-served communities.
... The final stage of reflection, a new perspective, allows for a deeper understanding and stimulates affective, cognitive, and behavioral changes. By engaging in reflective thinking, individuals can enhance their decision-making and initiate the healing process by changing their behaviors (Ardelt & Grunwald, 2018). ...
Article
Full-text available
This paper explores the transformative power of the Buddhist perspective in self-healing, rooted in the Four Noble Truths and the Eight-Fold Path. It emphasizes recognizing pain and self-stigma as essential milestones, highlighting compassion’s role in alleviating suffering and fostering resilience. The study underscores the significance of spiritual practices for self-regulation, enabling the identification and transformation of suffering. By integrating these principles and techniques, individuals can embark on a transformative journey of self-discovery and liberation from suffering. Offering pragmatic guidance, this study serves as a valuable resource for those seeking purposeful paths to self-healing and holistic well-being.
Preprint
Full-text available
We are currently facing a potential ‘polycrisis’, a critical inflection point that requires a whole-of-society response aimed at building collective foresight and preparedness for short-, medium-, and long-term risks. The role of higher education institutions and social stakeholders is decisive to make an impact. This paper depicts the alignment of academia, governance, and industry with the aim to challenge, inspire, and encourage universities to go beyond commodified courses and mere employability, enhance student growth and bind macro-scale measures that lead to a sustainable future. A modest teaching innovation project has served as a transforming lever, with the private sector joining in, to create a platform that reaches more than 50 000 undergraduate students and teaching staff. The resulting structure, rooted in the University’s strategic plan, has served to channel local and regional initiatives, establish effective partnerships with broad social members, raise awareness and promote actions to advance in the pursuit of Sustainable Development Goals. Chronology, materials and methodology, together with a description of the different courses, programmes and actions are provided. The paper concludes with some recommendations for future research, policy and cooperation among stakeholders. Research methodology posted on clinicaltrials.gov under ID NCT04392869, NCT05598944, and NCT05775978.
Article
Full-text available
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the measurable impact of Buddhist liberal arts courses on college students’ ability to engage in self-reflection. This study uses the data gathered to establish, through statistical analysis, any correlations between two variables—Buddhist liberal arts as courses as the independent variable and self-reflection intelligence as the continuous dependent variable. First, the following results of the study show that the mean of the four self-reflection sub-categories for the students who found that the courses were helpful was higher than that of the students who found that they were not helpful: self-awareness (4.10 ± 0.49 > 3.90 ± 0.87), self-design (3.84 ± 0.66 > 3.40 ± 0.97), self-regulation (4.01 ± 0.04 > 3.48 ± 0.18), and self-examination (4.21 ± 0.03 > 3.94 ± 0.15), respectively. Second, the mean of the four self-reflection sub-categories for students who experienced a positive change of their perception in the courses was higher than that of students who experienced a negative change, as follows: self-awareness (4.08 ± 0.50 > 3.75 ± 0.82), self-design (3.84 ± 0.68 > 3.51 ± 0.93), self-regulation (4.00 ± 0.59 > 3.56 ± 0.67), and self-examination (4.17 ± 0.49 > 4.04 ± 0.73), respectively. This study illuminates the role of Buddhist-related liberal arts courses in higher education, specifically in fostering students’ self-reflection skills. It offers valuable insights into educational practices aimed at enhancing self-reflection levels.
Article
Full-text available
This article examines the dilemmatic situation faced by Kaledupa (Buton) fishers who are the victims of the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) terrorists kidnapping in the waters of Sabah, Malaysian-Philippine. On the one hand, they face a dangerous threat in these water areas, but on the other hand, they seem to have no other choice to meet their economic needs. This is a qualitative research with an ethnographic design, a type of research oriented to describe a culture. Data collection techniques include library research (using secondary data) and field research by conducting interviews, observations, and documentation. We find that fishers who risk their lives in foreign seas are an example of what experts call the uncertainty condition of migrants. In the host country, they face a number of problems, such as facing huge financial problems, being away from family, and feeling uncertainty, vulnerable, and insecure with their lives. Therefore, because the root of this problem is the economy, a solution is needed so that Kaledupa fishers can fulfill their daily needs without having to sail to this dangerous area. In other words, the Indonesian government must have a solution in order to stop the chain of migration for Indonesian citizens who work as fishers in the area.
Article
Full-text available
Background: Although post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) onset-persistence is thought to vary significantly by trauma type, most epidemiological surveys are incapable of assessing this because they evaluate lifetime PTSD only for traumas nominated by respondents as their ‘worst.’ Objective: To review research on associations of trauma type with PTSD in the WHO World Mental Health (WMH) surveys, a series of epidemiological surveys that obtained representative data on trauma-specific PTSD. Method: WMH Surveys in 24 countries (n = 68,894) assessed 29 lifetime traumas and evaluated PTSD twice for each respondent: once for the ‘worst’ lifetime trauma and separately for a randomly-selected trauma with weighting to adjust for individual differences in trauma exposures. PTSD onset-persistence was evaluated with the WHO Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Results: In total, 70.4% of respondents experienced lifetime traumas, with exposure averaging 3.2 traumas per capita. Substantial between-trauma differences were found in PTSD onset but less in persistence. Traumas involving interpersonal violence had highest risk. Burden of PTSD, determined by multiplying trauma prevalence by trauma-specific PTSD risk and persistence, was 77.7 person-years/100 respondents. The trauma types with highest proportions of this burden were rape (13.1%), other sexual assault (15.1%), being stalked (9.8%), and unexpected death of a loved one (11.6%). The first three of these four represent relatively uncommon traumas with high PTSD risk and the last a very common trauma with low PTSD risk. The broad category of intimate partner sexual violence accounted for nearly 42.7% of all person-years with PTSD. Prior trauma history predicted both future trauma exposure and future PTSD risk. Conclusions: Trauma exposure is common throughout the world, unequally distributed, and differential across trauma types with respect to PTSD risk. Although a substantial minority of PTSD cases remits within months after onset, mean symptom duration is considerably longer than previously recognized.
Article
Mindfulness has been gradually incorporated into clinical intervention and personal growth. Considerable research demonstrates that mindfulness is associated with positive health and well-being outcomes. Researchers have begun to inquire into the mechanisms of mindfulness. Building on empirical and theoretical insights and Buddhist philosophy, this article argues that mindfulness can serve a tripartite function of acceptance, integration, and transcendence in adjustment to aging. More specifically, mindfulness would help older adults (a) to accept phenomenal impermanence, emotional experience, and what they are, (b) to integrate life and death and integrate the ego, and (c) to transcend the ego and develop into the self. This article concludes by highlighting the acceptance-integration-transcendence framework as a heuristic framework for practice and suggesting directions for future research on mindfulness and aging.
Book
A new edition of a classic work that originated the “embodied cognition” movement and was one of the first to link science and Buddhist practices. This classic book, first published in 1991, was one of the first to propose the “embodied cognition” approach in cognitive science. It pioneered the connections between phenomenology and science and between Buddhist practices and science—claims that have since become highly influential. Through this cross-fertilization of disparate fields of study, The Embodied Mind introduced a new form of cognitive science called “enaction,” in which both the environment and first person experience are aspects of embodiment. However, enactive embodiment is not the grasping of an independent, outside world by a brain, a mind, or a self; rather it is the bringing forth of an interdependent world in and through embodied action. Although enacted cognition lacks an absolute foundation, the book shows how that does not lead to either experiential or philosophical nihilism. Above all, the book's arguments were powered by the conviction that the sciences of mind must encompass lived human experience and the possibilities for transformation inherent in human experience. This revised edition includes substantive introductions by Evan Thompson and Eleanor Rosch that clarify central arguments of the work and discuss and evaluate subsequent research that has expanded on the themes of the book, including the renewed theoretical and practical interest in Buddhism and mindfulness. A preface by Jon Kabat-Zinn, the originator of the mindfulness-based stress reduction program, contextualizes the book and describes its influence on his life and work.
Article
This paper explores the important place of psychological work in the service of spiritual development, as part of a larger question: how to realize impersonal true nature in a thoroughly personal, human form. The challenging truth is that spiritual realization is relatively easy compared with the much greater difficulty of actualizing it, integrating it fully into the fabric of one’s embodiment and one’s conditioning. To more deeply explore the relationship between contemplative practice and psychological understanding, personal and impersonal truth, individuation and liberation, a larger integrative dialogue between East and West is advocated.