The Autonomous Shipping Era. Operational, Regulatory, and Quality Challenges

Abstract

The article provides a description of the Autonomous ship, studies existing relevant projects, and examines the related Operational, Regulatory, and Quality assurance challenges raised due to the development and actual deployment of such vessels in the near future. After reviewing the main operational procedures, existing regulations, and quality assurance standards, a number of possible solutions and approaches to overcome the identified challenges are indicated. Some of the conclusions may be used not only in the Autonomous ships but also in traditionally manned vessels.

Full text

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1 INTRODUCTION
Inrecentyears,aremarkabledevelopmenthas
attractedtheattentionoftheshippingandmaritime
sector,namelythe“Unmanned”and/or
“Autonomous”(AtS)shipprojects.Combinedand
reinforcedbyInformationandCommunications
Technology(ICT)inventions,theseprojectshave
broughtrevolutionarychangestotraditionalshipping
practicesandrevealanewdimension,leading
owners,operators,andmanufacturerstoan
innovativerethinkingofshipping.(LloydsRegister,
2016).
Theseconceptshavegainedgroundamongstthe
shippingindustry’sresearchprojectsand,asanew
trend,havegeneratedseveralongoingprototypeand
explorationendeavours.However,thereareseveral
issuestobeaddressedbeforetheyarefullyfunctional
anduniversallyacceptedassafe,secure,andviable
meansoftransportation.Anincreasinglypositive
attitudeintheshippingindustrytowardstheissuesof
autonomy,automation,unmannedoperations,Big
Data,enterprise‐gradeconnectivity,andanalyticsis
steadilyexpandingtheshippingandmaritime
agenda.
UsingthelatestICTsystems,shipsarebuiltwith
enhancedcontrolcapabilities,communication,and
interfaces,andtheywillsoonberunbyremoteland‐
basedoroffshoreservices,wheneverandwherever
theyarerequired.Thesesystemshavethepotentialto
enhancethesafety,reliability,andperformanceof
shippingcompanies,butalsoposechallengesand
risksthatmustbeidentified,understood,and
addressedsothatnewinnovativetechnologies
integratewiththedesignandoperationoftheshipsto
ensuresafety.
BecausetheAutonomousandUnmannedships
consistofseveralinterconnectedsystems,anddueto
therapidevolutionoftechnology,itcannotbe
assumedthatsuchvesselswillbesafe,based
exclusivelyonknowledgegainedfromearlier
systems.Therefore,aholisticsystemapproachis
needed(totalsystems)‐asystemthatconsidersallthe
differentsystems(asystemofsystems)onboardand
ashore,howtheyaredesignedandinstalled,how
The Autonomous Shipping Era. Operational,
Regulatory, and Quality Challenges
A. Komianos
TheNauticalInstitute,London,UnitedKingdom
ABSTRACT:ThearticleprovidesadescriptionoftheAutonomousship,studiesexistingrelevantprojects,and
examinestherelatedOperational,Regulatory,andQualityassurancechallengesraisedduetothedevelopment
andactualdeploymentofsuchvesselsinthenearfuture.Afterreviewingthemainoperationalprocedures,
existingregulations,andqualityassurancestandards,anumberofpossiblesolutionsandapproachesto
overcometheidentifiedchallengesareindicated.Someoftheconclusionsmaybeusednotonlyinthe
Autonomousshipsbutalsointraditionallymannedvessels.

http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 12
Number 2
June 2018
DOI:10.12716/1001.12.02.15

336
theyrelate,andhowtheywillbemanagedand
regulated.
Comparabletoadrone,theunmannedvesselis
alreadyinuseformilitary,aerospace,orscientific
purposes.Submersibleunmannedvehicles,suchas
theautonomousunderwatervehicles(AUV)orthe
remotelyoperatedvehicles(ROV)whichareusedfor
deep‐seaexplorationoftheseabedorofwrecks,in
additiontocruisemissiles,surfacetoairmissiles,air
toairmissiles,airtosurfacemissiles,andintelligent
torpedoesareallexamplesofatechnologywhichis
alreadyinuseandcontinuestodevelop.
The“Autonomousvessels”willbeequippedwith
systemsallowingself‐steeringbysensor‐based
detectionofobjectssuchasobstaclesandwillbeable
toself‐initiateanactione.g.toavoidcollisionswith
otherobjects.Thismaybeachievedbytechnical
systemsinstalledon‐board,whichuseprogrammed
algorithmsandinputdatagatheredbysensors.The
introductionoftheAutonomousshipconcepttothe
shippingindustrymightstartaneweraandbecomea
gamechangerintermsofcostefficiency,accident
prevention,andhumanresources.AccordingtoRolls‐
Royce(aleadingcompanyinAutonomousship
research)andothersupportersoftheproject,themain
advantageofsuchshipsisthattheymightreduce
maritimeaccidentscausedbyfatigueandalcohol
abuse(Rolls‐Royce,2015).
Animportantissuefortheshippingindustry,
accidentsaremostoftenrelatedtohumanfactors,
suchasfatigue,duetoanincreasingworkloadanda
decreaseinthecrewsizepership,andalcoholor
drugabuse.Althoughtheshortageofseafarersis
becomingaglobalissue,apotential(andhopefully
controlled)decreaseinthenumberofseafarers
neededonboardcouldeaseandresolvethisproblem.
Paradigmsofappliedunmannedsystemscan
alreadybefoundinothermodesoftransport,suchas
airplanes,trains,andintheautomobileindustry,
whichisalreadytryingtodevelopautonomous
vehicles.However,averydistinctandserious
problemexistsintheshippingandmaritimesectors,
namely,thelackofAutonomousships’coverageand
inclusioninrelevantsafety,security,and
environmentalprotectionconventionsand
regulations.Theinitiationofanewperspectiveis
thereforeneededbeforeAutonomousshipscanbe
introducedtocommercialshipping,inordertoensure
thepreventionofmaritimeaccidentsandthe
protectionoftheenvironment.
2 BACKGROUND
Thenumberofautonomousvehiclesbeingusedinthe
air,ontheground,andintheseaisincreasing.As
Mindel(2015)states,humansrepeatedlyfind
manned,“remoteandautonomousvehiclesevolving
together,eachaffectingtheother”.
Therearealreadyseveralsmall‐sizeunmanned
andautonomouscraftsinthemaritimesectorwhich
havebeenengagedinsurfacenavigation,research
andscientificactivities,underwateroperations,and
specificmilitaryactivities.Provensafe,thesevessels
arethepathtowardstheeliminationofhumanerror
andthusaccidentminimization[32].
TheEuropeanTechnologyPlatformdescribesthe
autonomousshipasanextgenerationmodular
controlandcommunicationstechnologysystemof
systemswhichwill“enablewirelessmonitoringand
controlfunctionsbothonandoffboard.Thesewill
includeadvanceddecisionsupportsystemsto
provideacapabilitytooperateshipsremotelyunder
semiorfullyautonomouscontrol”[31].
Therearetwogenericalternativesthatare
combinedinanautonomousship,namely“the
remoteshipwherethetasksofoperatingtheshipare
performedviaaremote‐controlmechanisme.g.bya
shorebasedhumanoperator”,and“theautomated
shipwhereadvanceddecisionsupportsystemson
boardundertakealltheoperationaldecisions
independentlywithoutinterventionofahuman
operator”.
TheMaritimeUnmannedNavigationthrough
IntelligenceinNetworks(MUNIN)startedin2012
andendedin2015.ItwasfundedbytheEuropean
Commission(EC),withthepurposeofinvestigating
thetechnical,economic,andlegalfeasibilityof
unmannedships[31].Themostimportant
characteristicsofthisprojectincludetheabilityofthe
shiptobeoperatedbyanautonomousshipping
systemonboard(whilehavingtheabilitytobe
supervisedandcontrolledbylandoperators),its
abilitytominimizetheriskofcollisionandcomply
withtheConventionontheInternationalRegulations
forPreventingCollisionsatSea(COLREG),andthe
factthatitssafetyandoperationsensorscanbeused
tosearchforobjects.
ThislastcharacteristicdoesnotsatisfyRule5of
COLREG,whichrequiresproperlook‐outbyeyeand
earoneveryshiptoassessthesituationandtherisk
ofcollision.

Figure1.TheMUNINproject.www.unmanned‐ship.org
(AccessedOctober2017)
Anotherexampleofsuchaprojectisthatofthe
AdvancedAutonomousWaterborneApplications
Initiative(AAWA).LaunchedbyRolls‐Roycein2015,
itspurposeistobringtogetheruniversities,ship
designers,equipmentmanufacturers,and
classificationsocietiestoexploretheeconomic,social,
legal,regulatory,andtechnologicalfactorswhich
needtobeaddressedinordertomakeautonomous
shipsareality.Itwillproducethespecificationand
preliminarydesignsforthenextgenerationof

337
advancedshipsolutions.“Autonomousshippingisthe
futureofthemaritimeindustry”arguesMikael
Makinen,presidentofRolls‐Royceʹsmarinedivision,
inawhitepaperpublishedbythecompany.“As
disruptiveasthesmartphone,thesmartshipwill
revolutionisethelandscapeofshipdesignandoperations”
[35].

Figure2.TheAdvancedAutonomousWaterborne
ApplicationsInitiative.ImagefromtheRolls‐Royce
www.rolls‐royce.com(AccessedOctober2017)
AthirdprojectistheReVolt,anunmanned,60‐
metre‐long,zero‐emission,shortseavessel,
developedbyDNVGL.Thevesseliscrewless,fully
batterypowered,autonomous,and,accordingtothe
company’swebpage1,itoffers“asolutiontothe
growingneedfortransportcapacity”.Theprojectwas
startedinordertomanagethetrafficcongestionin
urbanareasontheEU’sroadnetwork.Thisbecame
anissuebecausepopulationgrowthhascreateda
demandfortransportationthatexceedsthecapacity
ofexistingroads.
Toeasetheseproblems,administrationsallover
theEUare“tryingtomovesomeofthefreightvolume
fromroadstowaterways.However,profitmarginsinthe
short‐seashippingsegmentaresmall”.

Figure3.ReVoltdockarrivalImagefrom
https://www.dnvgl.com(AccessedSeptember2017)
Theresultofamulti‐disciplinary,team‐based
developmentproject,ReVoltisbasedonan
assessmentofcurrentrequirementsalongshort‐sea
routes.Theshipwilloperateataspeedof6knots
witharangeof100nauticalmilesandacargo
capacityof100twenty‐footcontainers.Beingcrew‐
less,therewillbenoneedforaccommodationwhich
usuallyformsthevessel’ssuperstructure.Compared
toadiesel‐runship,thevesselcouldsaveuptoUSD

1https://www.dnvgl.com/technology-
innovation/revolt/index.html
34millionduringitsestimated30‐yearlifetime,
savingmorethanamillionUSDannually,duetothe
resultingincreaseinloadingcapacityandthelow
operatingandmaintenancecosts.ThevisionofDNV‐
GListheextensionoftheprojecttoinvolveland‐
basedchargingfacilitiesandcapacitiesaswell.
TheendeavourdevelopedbyLloyd’sRegister(LR)
isnamedtheCyber‐enabledshipproject,which
discussestheproceduresandguidancefor
autonomousshipoperations.UnderLRguidancefor
Cyber‐enabledships“Deployinginformationand
communicationstechnologyinshipping–Lloyd’s
Register’sapproachtoassurance”,thecyber‐enabled
shipisperceivedasa“systemofsystems”[28].

Figure5.Lloyd’sRegisteredLevelsofAutonomy
www.lr.org/cyberAccessedOct2017
As such, six main risks have been identified,
namely the System, the Human-system, the
Software, the Network and communications, the
Data assurance, and last but not least the Cyber
security. For each of these risks, the guideline
describes the aspects which should be studied in
addition to a short description of cyber-enabled
systems. Furthermore, “Cyber-enabled ships:
Ship Right procedure – autonomous ships” was
developed, naming seven levels of autonomy
ranging from a Manual-no autonomous function
to a fully autonomous operational mode.
This approach identifies the proper actions
needed, based on the desired level of autonomy.
More specifically, during the Manual – no
autonomous (AL 0) function, all actions and
decisions (such as navigation, surveillance, etc.)
are performed manually by humans on board,
although some systems may have a level of
autonomy, with ‘human in/on the loop’ such as
the Periodical Maintenance System (PMS) and
the engine control.
RegardingOn‐shipdecisionsupport(AL1), the crew
onboarddecidesandactswiththeoptionalaidof
decision support tools on the shipsuchastheDynamic
Positioning (DP) capability. The Onandoff‐shipdecision
support(AL2) is similar to (AL 1) with theadditionofa
data provision option,providedbysystemsonboardor
fromashorefacility,e.g.routingplanning(onboard)
andweatherrouting(shorebasedguidance).
Withregardsto‘Active’humanintheloop(AL3), all
decisionsandactionsonboardareperformed
autonomouslyunderhumansupervision.Datamay

338
beprovidedasin(AL 2),butdecisionswhichmay
seriouslyimpactthesafetyandsecurityofthevessel
requirehumanintervention.
Similarly,asregardstheHumanontheloop–
operator/supervisory(AL4),humansupervisionmay
intercedeandover‐rideautonomouslyperformed
decisionsandactionswhichmayhaveaserious
impact.AFullyautonomous(AL5)system,which
allowssomeaccessduringamission,isan
unsupervisedorrarelysupervisedoperationduring
whichdecisionsandactionsaremadebythesystem.
Finally,aFullyautonomous(AL6)system, which
allowsnoaccessduringmissionfunction,isatotally
unsupervisedoperationduringwhichdecisionsare
madeandactionedbythesystem.
AnotherrelevantprojectistheAutonomousMarine
OperationsandSystems(AMOS)Project3,whichwas
developedbytheDepartmentsofMarineTechnology
andEngineeringCyberneticsattheNorwegian
UniversityofScienceandTechnology(NTNU)in
collaborationwithinternationalandnational
partners. Itisrelatedtotheunmannedshipsand
focusesonthefollowingtopics:Autonomoussystem
andpayloadarchitectures,Coordinatedoperationofa
sensornetworkofunmannedvehiclesandfloating
nodes,Integratedunderwaternavigationand
mapping,Autonomousobjectdetectionandtracking
inmarineenvironmentsusinginfraredsensors,
Sensor‐basedguidanceandpathoptimization,
Coordinatedandcooperativecontrolarchitecturesfor
intelligenttaskexecution,andcollisionavoidancein
uncertainmaritimeenvironments[32].

Figure6.NTNUresearchareas.Imagefrom
www.ntnu.edu/amos(AccessedSep2017)
Oneofthelatestprojectsrelatedtothe
AutonomousShipistheʺYARABirkelandʺ (YB).
YARAandKONGSBERGhaveenteredinto
partnershiptobuildtheworld’sfirstfullyelectric
containerfeedervessel.Theprojectstartedin2017as
amannedvessel,isworkingtowardsremote
operationby2019,andisscheduledtogofully
autonomousby2020.Byremovingupto40,000truck
journeysinpopulatedurbanareas,itwillreduceNOx
andCO2emissions,improveroadsafety,alleviate
trafficcongestion,andwillthuscontributetothe
achievementofUNsustainabilitygoals2.

2 https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300

Figure7.TheʺYARABirkelandʺ/www.km.kongsberg.com
(AccessedOctober2017)
This120TEU(Twenty‐footEquivalentUnits)open
topcontainervesselwillbebattery‐powered(fully
electrical)andispreparedforremotecontroland
autonomousoperation.Duringthefirststageofthe
project,abridgewithcrewfacilitieswillbeusedina
containerisedform.
Thiscompartmentwillbeliftedoffduringthe
autonomousoperationphase.Electriccranesand
relevantequipmentwillbeusedforautomaticload
andunloadcargooperations.Insteadofballasttanks,
theshipisdesignedtouseherbatterypacksas
permanentballast.Additionally,shewillbeabletobe
berthedautomaticallyorgounderwaywithoutany
humaninterventionbyusinganautomaticmooring
system,whichwillnotrequireanyspecialdock
structureorextraportfacilities.
Thevesselwillbeprogrammedtosailwithin12
nauticalmilesoftheNorwegiancoast,betweenthree
portsofthecountry’ssouthernareawhichissafely
coveredbyTheNorwegianCoastalAdministrationsʹ
VTSsystematBrevik.Threecontrolcentreswith
diverseoperationalprofileswillhandleall
operationalissuesinadditiontoanyemergency
situations,orothersafetyandsecurityaspects.
Inadditiontotheabove‐mentionedprojects,a
numberofresearchpapersareveryinformative.“The
productionofunmannedvesselsanditslegalimplications
inthemaritimeindustry”UniversityofOslo(UiO
FacultyofLaw),arguesthatanylegalproblemsposed
byunmannedvesselsareofanorganizationalrather
thanatechnicalnature[38].
Thiskindofshipdesignissonew,duetotherapid
scientificdevelopmentsinthemaritimeindustry,that
suchvesselsarenotyetcoveredbyanyinternational
ruleorregulation.TheInternationalMaritime
Organization(IMO)hasnotgivenanyapprovalfor
thistypeofvesselnorhasitreceivedanyproposal
fromthecontractinggovernmentstoregulate
unmannedvessels.
Giventhelackofproperregulatoryframeworkfor
unmannedvessels,theresearchfocusedon“howthe
unmannedvesselscomplywiththeframeworksetby
presentinternationalmaritimeConventionssuchas
SOLASandISMCode6”.Thepaperconcludedthat
althoughtheexistingmaritimetechnologymaycover
anysafety,environmental,andcommercialconcerns,
thelackofaproperregulatoryframeworkmaydelay
theactualuseofsuchvessels.
Thisregulatoryvacuumgeneratesvariousissues
suchastheinabilityoftheclassificationsocietiesto

339
certifythevessels.Lackingtheclassification
certificates,thevesselscannotbeinsured,thusthey
cannotsail,andeventuallytheywillnotbechartered.
Althoughsomeregulatoryaspectsofmannedvessels
arealsoapplicabletounmannedvessels,suchas
specificclausesoftheISMCode,thereareseveral
internationalregulationsthatneedtobeamended.
“Apre‐analysisonautonomousships”(2016)byM.
Blanke,M.Henriques,J.Bang,theTechnical
UniversityofDenmark(DTU),istheresponseofthe
TechnicalUniversityofDenmark(DTU)toarequest
fromtheDanishMaritimeAuthority.Theconcept
includedresearchintothe“connectionandplanningof
taskstobeincludedincomingeffortstoshedlightonthe
importanceofunmannedshipstoBlueDenmark”.The
paperbrieflydescribesvariouslevelsofoperation,
rangingfromthecompletelymanual(lowest),to
higherlevelsofdecision‐support,whereautomation
fulfilsmoretasks,uptotheleveloftotalautonomy.
Thestudy,besidesotherscientificinputs,wasbased
onself‐propelledcars,unmannedaircraftexperience,
andknowledgefromongoingsimilarautonomous
shipprojects.
“Existingconventionsandunmannedships–need
forchanges?”(2016),byTomotsuguNoma,theWorld
MaritimeUniversity(WMU),researchesthenecessity
forchangesinexistingconventionswhenthe
unmannedshipsareintroducedintothemaritime
transportationsystemand,amongothersubjects,his
researchfocusesonsurveyschemes,especiallywith
respecttoregulationsofSOLASChapterV.Having
studiedexistingsurveyschemesandhaving
identifiedthechallengesrelatedtosurveysand
technical,operational,administrative,andregulatory
problems,thepaperprovidesdefinitionsof
unmannedships,listingthemaincharacteristics[32].
Theimplementationofanautonomousvesselwill
providetheopportunitytoincreasetheefficiencyof
shipoperationaswellasenhancethe‘sustainability’,
whichisthegreatestdriverinanyindustry[37].
AsBenCucksonofLloyd’sRegisterargues,
minimalsafetyrisk,minimalenvironmentalimpact,
andmaximumcommercialbenefitsarethemost
importantdimensionsofasustainabledevelopment
intheshippingworld.Thesefactorsareillustratedin
Figure8.

Figure8.Marineindustry’ssustainabledevelopmentfactors
(Source:Cuckson,2015)

ReportsfromDrewryShippingConsultants
predictthateconomiesofscale(whichgavebirthto
theMega‐ships’constructionanduse)willsoonbein
decline.AMcKinseyanalysiscalculatedthat“slow
steaminghadaddedaround3daystotransits,costing
shippingcustomers$5.7billioninadditionalannual
inventoryandobsolescencecostsworldwide”
(AutonomousShipWhitepaper,2016).The
constructionofintelligentvesselswouldchangethis
situation,creatingabetter,moreprofitable,and,
hopefully,safershippingmarket.InanearlierUnited
StatesCoastGuard(USCG)report,themarine
causalitiescaused(tosomeextent)byhumanerror
wasbetween75‐96%[36].
Burmeisteretal.claimedthatthedevelopmentof
autonomousvesselssuchasthoseintheMUNIN
Projectwillofferawide‐rangingsolutiontomeetthe
mainchallengesofthemaritimetransportindustry,
resultinginadecreaseintheoperationalexpenses,
betterenvironmentalprotectionpractices,andhuman
fatigueminimization[4].However,thereareseveral
challengestobeovercomebeforesuchvesselsare
commerciallyacceptedintheinternational
frameworksobservingtheIMO’s(International
MaritimeOrganisation)rulesandregulationsonthe
seas.
Althoughhighlyadvancedtechnologieswhich
enablethedesignandconstructionofautonomous
vesselsalreadyexistinthemarket,thesesystems
createanumberofchallengesespeciallyinthesocial,
economic,andregulatoryareas.Ontheotherhand,
theupcomingintroductionofautonomousshipsin
themarketreinforcestheexpectationsofapotential
decreaseinaccidentscausedbyhumanerroranda
likelycostreduction,andintensifiestheanticipation
ofbetterservicesinshippingoperations.
StudiesconductedbyBryant[3],Mccallumet
al.[30],andRothblum[36]amongstothers,discovered
thattheproportionofmaritimeaccidentscausedby
humanerrorwasashighas64%to96%.These
errorsweretheresultoffatigue,poormaintenance
andstandards,inadequateknowledgeand
information,andpoorcommunicationskills[36]).
Regardingtheexpectedcostreduction,themain
shipoperationexpensesconsistmostlyoffuelcost
andcrewcompensation.Accordingtothe2011
Drewryreport,crewcostswere“onaveragebetween
31and36%ofthetotalshipoperationcosts”forbulk
carriers.
Apartfromthepreviouslymentionedchallenges
whichmayarisefromtheintroductionofthe
autonomousshipstothemaritimeindustry,Zakirul
arguesthatnewdesignsandtechnologicalfeatures,
whileaffectingthenewbuildingcosts,theavailability
androbustnessofsystems,cybersecurity,and
harmonisedstandardsdevelopments,“arenot
primarilycausedbytechnicalobstaclesandtheyare
arguablytheintegrationoftheautonomousshipinto
theexistingmaritimeoperation”[40].
Regardingthehumanelementintheautomatic
systems,Endsley&Jonesconsiderthe“human‐out‐
of‐the‐loopsyndrome”tobeanimportantissue
becauseanAutonomousshipmayberegardedas
riskiercomparedtoatraditionallymannedvessel,
andthe“socialacceptability”factormustbevery

340
seriouslyconsideredespeciallyinpassengerships.In
addition,amassiveshiftinthefuturefrommannedto
semi‐autonomousorunmannedshipsmayproduce
unwantedresults,suchashighunemploymentinthe
seafaringprofessionandsocialdiscomforttosea
nations[11].
Asforthecomplianceoftheautonomousships
withexistingregulationsatseasuchasSOLAS(Safety
ofLifeatSea)andCOLREGS(CollisionRegulations),
thereisaneedtoupdateoradjustexisting
internationalconventionstoembracethe
developmentofsuchsystems.Updatedtechnicaland
operationalstandardswillbeneededtocoverthe
developmentoftheautonomoussystemsincluding
thecommercialagreementse.g.chartering,
management,andinsurance[34].Moreover,the
memberstatesofIMOmustagreeonthe
implementationoftheautonomousvesselsandthe
liabilityforanyaccidentsinwhichtheseshipsmaybe
involved.
Thecostimpactfortheoperationofthe
autonomousshipsseemstobeconcentratedmostlyin
newbuildingexpensesduetothenoveldesignsand
innovativetechnologicalfeatures,withoutexcluding
newinfrastructurerequirementsfortheshiptoshore
commandi.e.thecontrol,communication,
information,andoperationcentre(e.g.anadvanced
VTScentre).Althoughcostsrelatedtothecrewon
boardtheshipwillbereduced,additionalcostsfor
land‐basedservicessuchasthecontrolcentre,
equipment,maintenancecrewsinportexpenses,and
shorepersonnelwageswillbeincreased[4].
Allautonomousvehiclesshouldoperatesafely
andeffectivelyinareal‐worldenvironmentwhile
doingoperationsofdirectcommercialvalueand
shouldbemanufactured,maintained,deployed,
operated,andretrievedatanacceptablecost[34].
Furthermore,Koopman&Wagnerarguethatthe
challengesofdevelopingsafeautonomousvehicles
aresignificant[27].Indeed,ensuringthatvehiclesare
saferequireseitherfollowingtheISO26262V
process,ordemonstratingthatasetofequally
rigorousprocessandtechnologypracticeshasbeen
applied.InOctober2017,RollsRoycemarine
announcedthatitwilluseGoogle’sCloudMachine
LearningEngine“acrossarangeofapplications,designed
tobothmaketoday’sshipssaferandmoreefficient,andto
launchtheshipsoftomorrow”.Theprojectisenvisaged
toproduceafullyautonomousshipthatwillsetsail
by2020[12].
Justtwoyearsbeforethisannouncement,D.
Mindelinhisbook“Ourrobotsourselves,robotics,and
themythsofautonomy”(2015)hearguesthat,“wehave
themythoffullautonomy,theutopianideathatrobots,
todayorinthefuture,canoperateentirelyontheirown.
Yes,automationcancertainlytakeonpartsoftasks
previouslyaccomplishedbyhumans,andmachinesdoact
ontheirowninresponsetotheirenvironmentsforcertain
periodsoftime.Butthemachinethatoperatesentirely
independentlyofhumandirectionisauselessmachine.
Onlyarockistrulyautonomous,andevenarockwas
formedandplacedbyitsenvironment”.
3 ANALYSIS
ThemainOperationalfeaturesofaseaadventure
maybesummarisedasfollows:Seaworthiness,
desirablePropulsionandElectricPower,pre‐planned
Endurance,safeNavigation,properMaintenance,
reliableCommunications,CollisionandGrounding
avoidance,continuousRiskAssessment,danger
Mitigation,timelyResponsetoANYsafetyorsecurity
issues,Environmentalprotection,safeandon‐time
DeliveryoftheCargo,andLiability/Insurance
coverage.
RegardingthemostimportantRegulationsthat
applytotheshippingindustry,nouniformseasafety,
securityorenvironmentalprotectionrulesfor
internationalshippinghadinitiallyexistedsincethe
creationoftheIMO(InternationalMaritime
Organization)in1948undertheauspicesofthe
UnitedNations(ChurchillR.andLoweA.,1992).This
oversightwascorrectedbycreatingaframeworkof
regulationsfortheshippingindustrythatis“fairand
effective,universallyadoptedanduniversally
implemented”3.Abriefoutlineofthemostimportant
signedconventionsfollows:4
 TheSafetyofLifeAtSeaconvention(SOLAS).
 TheInternationalManagementCodefortheSafe
OperationsofShipsandforPollutionPrevention
(ISMcode).
 TheInternationalConventionofStandardsof
Training,CertificationandWatchkeepingfor
Seafarers(STCW).
 ConventionontheInternationalRegulationsfor
PreventingCollisionsatSea(COLREG)
 TheInternationalConventionforthePreventionof
PollutionfromShips(MARPOL).
 TheInternationalConventiononMaritimeSearch
andRescue(SAR).
 TheInternationalConventiononLoadLines(CLL
68/88)whichdefinestheminimumfreeboard,
watertightintegrity,andsurvivabilityofships.
Otherimportantregulatoryandtechnology
innovationfactorsthatstrengthenthesafetycultureof
internationalshippinginclude:
 TheInternationalConventionoftheMaritime
SatelliteOrganization(INMARSAT).
 TheInternationalConventionforSafeContainers.
 TheDoubleHull/DoubleBottom(DH/DB)
regulation,whichplaysanimportantroleinoil
spillpreventionandtheInertGasSystem(IGS)
whichoperatesinsuchawaythatitrendersthe
atmosphereofthecargotanksnon‐flammableand
maintainsincombustibility.
Theminimizationofhumanfactorerrors5(dueto
poorjudgment,stress,inadequatestaffing,poor
livingconditions,fatigue,etc.)byimprovingtraining,
safety,thecultureofenvironmentalawareness,and
communicationbetweenmulticulturaland
multilingualcrewsandPortStateControl(PSC),an
internationallyagreedregimewhichhasbeenan

3www.imo.org (Accessed 20 September 2017)
4With no policing powers the IMO can only argue the
implementation of these conventions and rely on the
efficacy of flag and port state control.
5The U.S Coast Guard defines human error as acts
or omissions or personnel which affect successful
performance.

341
importantsafetyandsecuritycompliancetoolsince
1982,6havealsocontributedtosafetyandsecurityin
themaritimeindustry.
ThemainQualityassuranceissuesidentified
throughtheresearchare,inshort,thevessel’s
construction,design,equipment,information
technology,dataprocessing,software,algorithms,
communications,trainingofshorebasedpersonnel,
safetyandsecurityprocedures.
3.1 SOLAS
TheConventiononSafetyoflifeatsea(SOLAS)
specifiestheminimumacceptablestandardsfor
construction,equipment,operations,andrequired
certificationsofships.Theresponsibilityof
complianceisgiventotheflagstates,inadditionto
theinspectionrightofforeignvesselsvisitingtheir
ports.(Adopted:1974‐Intoforce:1980).Following
theTitanicimmersion,itwasinitiallyenteredinto
forcein1914andproperlyamendedtoitslatest
version.ContractingGovernments(FlagStates),must
ensurethatallshipsundertheirflagsatisfythe
requirementsofSOLAS.Whentherequirementsare
met,acertificateofcomplianceisissued[20].
Intheeventthatashiporitsequipmentbreach(or
thereisasuspicionofviolationof)these
requirements,aPortStateControl(PSC)authorityis
allowedtoinspecttheshipwhenenteringtheareaof
PSC’sresponsibility.Oneofthemostimportantissues
whichmaychallengetheveryessenceofthe
AutonomousshipisChapterVRegulation14of
SOLAS,regardingthemanningofships.Theother
oneisRegulation33(DistressSituations:Obligations
andProcedures)ofthesamechapter,whichwillbe
analysedunderparagraph3.5SearchAndRescue.
TheAutonomousshipisnotexcludedfrom
ChapterI,thusthephrases“shallbesufficientlyand
efficientlymanned”and“shallbeprovidedwithan
appropriateminimumsafemanningdocumentor
equivalent”,meansthatsomehowtheserequirements
mustbefulfilled,otherwisetherulemustbeadapted
toreflectthenewrealityofashipwithoutcrewon
board.Ontheotherhand,asalreadymentioned,most
oftheAutonomousshipprojectsincorporateatleast
oneRemoteControlCentre(YaraBirkelandproject
willusethree).Theseremotestationswill(hopefully)
bemannedwithsufficientpersonnel,whilethe
“efficiency”requirementmaybecoveredbythewide
rangeofhigh‐techsystems(varioussensors,
computers,automations,remotecontrolledmachines
etc.).Thiscombinationwillassisttheremote
commandandcontrolofthevessel,andwillfulfilthe
requirementsofRegulation14.
3.2 STCW
TheSTCW(InternationalConventiononStandardsof
Training,CertificationandWatchkeepingfor
Seafarers)establishedthebasicinternational

6Vessels using port facilities may be subject to
inspections and additional control measures.
standardsinthisfield[21].TheConventionwas
adoptedin1978andwentintoforcein1984.
Todayitisapplicabletopersonnelonboardaship
(a.k.a.seafarers,crewetc.)notpersonswhoare
responsibleforoperatinganAutonomousshipfroma
remote‐controlcentre(RCS)basedonshoreoratany
otherrelevantlocationotherthantheshipherself,nor
theprogrammerswhohavepre‐programmedher
autonomouscoursebeforeshegoesunderway.These
personnelarenotregulatedbySTCW,althoughthey
havebeendelegatedtheauthoritytocontrol
Autonomousships.
Additionally,underUNCLOS,Art.94(4)(b),flag
statesmustensurethateachshipis“inthechargeofa
master...whopossess[es]appropriatequalifications,in
particularinseamanship,navigation,communicationsand
marineengineering”.AsVealandTsimplisargue[39],
theobviousquestionis“whetheritispossibleforan
unmannedship,byitsverydefinition,tohaveamaster”.
Furthermore,theworkloadoftheonshorepersonnel
fortheRemote‐ControlCentresisexpectedtobequite
heavy.A“shorebasedmaster”assistedbyoneto
threeoperatorsmaycontrolasmallflotillaof
autonomousvesselssimultaneously.Theminimum
numberofsuchvesselswhichareallowedtobe
handledatoncehasnotyetbeendetermined.
Theconditions,whichvarydependingonthe
geographicalarea,thetypesofcargo,theweather
conditions,whetheravesselisarrivingatorsailing
fromaport,thesafety,thesecurity,thefatigueofthe
operators,whattheacceptedminimumprevious
experienceonboardsameorsimilartypesofshipsis,
andtheupdatedcompetencytests,allhavetobe
seriouslyconsidered.Theseprerequisitesmustbe
incorporatedintoexistingSTCW,orasimilar
conventionspecificallytailoredfortheneedsof
Autonomousships.Inaddition,trainingrequirements
andcertificationschemesmustbeadoptedinline
withtheinternationallyacceptedstandardssimilarto
thosewhichapplytotheVesselTrafficServices(VTS)
operators.
Finally,althoughlabourlawwouldapplytothe
operatorsoftheRemoteControlCentresor thepre‐
programmersofatotallyAutonomousship,specific
rulessimilartothoseapplicabletoseafarers(suchas
thedutytoreportsignalsofdistress,etc.),mayneed
tobeadjustedandappliedaswell.
3.3 COLREG
TheConventionontheInternationalRegulationsfor
PreventingCollisionsatSea(COLREG)(Adopted:
1972‐Intoforce:1977),revisedtheInternational
RegulationsforpreventingCollisionatSeaof19607.
TheyarepublishedbytheInternationalMaritime
Organization(IMO)andamongotherissues,they
definethenavigationrules(a.k.aʺRulesoftheroadʺ)
tobefollowedbyshipsandothervesselsatseato
preventcollisionsbetweentwoormorevessels[5].

7Marsden, Reginald. G, (2003), Collision at sea,
Sweet and Maxwell

342
Theyapplytoallvesselsuponthehighseasandin
allwatersconnectedtherewithnavigablebyseagoing
vessels.UnderRule3“GeneralDefinitions”
paragraph(a),theexplanationofthewordʺvesselʺis
givenas“everydescriptionofwatercraft,includingnon‐
displacementcraftandseaplanes,usedorcapableofbeing
usedasameansoftransportationonwater.”This
definitiondoesnotexcludetheAutonomousship
from beingcharacterisedasa“vessel”.Rules2,5,6,
7,8,17,19and20willbeanalysedinrelationto
Autonomousshipoperations.
Rule2:Thisrulemustbeadjustedtoreflectthe
absenceofmasterandcrewontheAutonomousship.
Apossible“transfer”ofresponsibilityfromtheon‐
boardmasterandcrewtotheshore(orelsewhere)
basedpersonnel(e.gControlCentreetc.)mustcover
the“ordinarypracticeofseamen”.Thisseemstooblige
anyfutureControlCentremanningschemetoinclude
personnelwithadequateseamanshipexperience.
Rule5:Althoughitmaybepossibletosubstitute
thehuman“sightandhearing”withtechnicalmeans
suchassupersensitivemicrophonesandultra‐high
analysisandvisioncameras,thisRuleisthesubjectof
muchdebateregardingtheeffectivenessofsuch
means.Theexpression“properlook‐outbysightand
hearing”followedbythephrase“aswellasbyall
availablemeansappropriateintheprevailing…”indicates
thatALLothertechnicalmeanshavealreadybeen
considered,andtheimportanceofhumansenses(in
particularthefacultyofsight,andhearingbywhich
thebodyperceivesexternalstimuli),judgmentand
experiencedreaction,isdeemednecessaryasalast
resorttoavoidacollision.
Rule6:Thedefinitionof“safespeed”and“proper
andeffectiveaction”isrelatedtothecollision
avoidance.Intheeventthatacollisionfinallyoccurs,
thespeedthatwaschosenwouldbecharacterisedas
“unsafe”becauseoftheresult.Thisrulecombined
withpreviousrule,Rule5,makesitessentialto
adjusttheexpressionordefineotherprotective
measures.Asuitableamendmentmightread,‘an
autonomousshipwithsuchcharacteristics(shape,
cargoload,etc.)sailingundertheseweatherandsea
stateconditions,muststayclearofanyothervessel
byadistanceofxwhenunderwaywithspeedofy.’
Rule7:Thisrule,combinedwithRule5andRule6
dictatestheimportanceofappropriatejudgementand
seamanshipto“determineifriskofcollisionexists”.
Althoughitisplausibleforthiskindofrisk
assessmentandmitigationtobegeneratedfroma
remote‐controlstation,the“scantyradarinformation”
phraseindicatesonceagaintheimportanceofthe
audioandvisualinformationtoahumanpresenceon
board.
Rule8:AsinRule2,goodseamanshipisdeemed
essentialforthepreventionofcollision.The
InternationalConventionofStandardsofTraining,
CertificationandWatchkeepingforSeafarers(STCW)
whichintroducedthebasicinternationalstandardsin
thisfield,mustbetheguide(inpartoratleastasa
goodreference)forthebasictrainingoftheshore‐
basedoperatorsoftheAutonomousships.
Rule17:Thereisdoubtconcerningtheefficient
andeffective“manoeuvreofthelastsecond”without
theinterventionofahumanpresenceonboard.
However,thereisthephysicaldelayofthehuman
brainasitdecidestheexecutionofthemanoeuvre.
Absolutelyreliable,safe,anddelay‐free
communicationscoupledwithsecureandfastdata
transferbetweentheautonomousshipandthecontrol
centremustexist.
Rule19:Thehearingofthefogsignalofanother
vesselasdescribedinRule19,obligesthevesselin
questiontotakeallappropriatemeasuresforaltering
herspeedand/orcourseinordertonavigateinsuch
awaythatwillavoidthecollision.Onceagainand
similartoRule5,theword“hears”impliestheneedof
ahumanpresenceonboard.
Rule20:Navigationallightsandshapesare
paramounttothesafetyoftheshipswhenunderway.
Inahypotheticalscenariowhereallavailable
electromagneticandelectroacousticnavigationaland
surveillancemeansoftheshipsinquestionare
operatingproperly,safenavigationandcollision
avoidancearemostlyassured.Unfortunately,there
areplentyofrecordedaccidentsatseawherethe
aboveweretrue,buttheoperators(Officerofthe
watch,Navigator,Radaroperatoretc.)duetofatigue
orotherreasons,failedtoproperlyevaluateor
processthe“message”fromthemachines.
Fortunately,therearenumerousotherexamplesof
last‐secondcourseand/orspeedalterationand
collisionavoidancesduetotherecognitionofthe
navigationallightsandshapesshown“withthe
keepingofaproperlook‐out”.
3.4 MARPOL
MARPOL(TheInternationalConventionforthe
PreventionofPollutionfromShips,1973),as
amendedin1978,setsthestandardsforthe
preventionofpollutionbyoil,chemicals,harmful
substances,andgarbage.Ithasbeeninforcesince
1983anditsobjectiveistopreservethemarine
environmentfrompollution[17].Beingcrewless,an
Autonomousshipwillhavenogarbageandhuman
wasteofwhichtodispose.
Inaddition,theintentionalpollutionbyoil,
chemicals,andotherharmfulsubstances,whichmay
occurwiththecomplicityofsomeorallthemembers
ofacrew,isnotpossible.Strictregulationsandrecord
keepingofallelectronicorders(e‐Orders)fromthe
RemoteControlCentretotheAutonomousshipwill
preventanysuchactions.
However,unintentionalpollution,eitherasthe
resultofanaccident(collision,malfunction,
cyberattack,virus,etc.)orduetounforeseenreasons
(heavyweather,capsize,explosion,etc.)would
continuetobeaproblem.Insuchsituations,atimely
andefficientresponseisofparamountimportance,
andisfurtheranalysedinparagraphs3.7and3.8.
3.5 SAR
TheSARconvention(InternationalConventionon
MaritimeSearchandRescue)wasadoptedin1979
andisaimedatdevelopinganinternationalSARplan
[19].Therescueofpersonsindistressatseais
coordinatedbyaSARorganizationorbyco‐operation

343
betweenneighbouringSARorganizationswhen
necessary.Theobligationofshipstoassistvesselsin
distresspreviouslyexistedbothintraditionandin
internationaltreatiessuchasSOLAS.Withthe
adoptionoftheSARConvention,aninternational
systemwascreated,coveringsearchandrescue
operationsonaworldwidescale.SARandGuidelines
ontheTreatmentofPersonsRescuedatSea
(RESOLUTIONMSC.167(78)adoptedon20May
2004)involvemannedvesselsandnoreferenceis
madetoAutonomousones.
SARRegulation3.1.9specificallyreferstothe
masterofthevessel,whileUNCLOSArticle98(1)
Dutytorenderassistance,demandsthateveryState
“requirethemasterofashipflyingitsflag,insofarashe
candosowithoutseriousdangertotheship,thecrewor
thepassengers:(a)torenderassistancetoanypersonfound
atseaindangerofbeinglost;(b)toproceedwithall
possiblespeedtotherescueofpersonsindistress,...(c)
afteracollision,torenderassistancetotheothership,its
crewanditspassengersand,...”
Anyseafarerwhohaseverbeeninvolvedina
SearchandRescueoperation,knowsverywellthe
mental,psychological,emotional,andphysicalstress,
thechallenges,andthedifficultyinproperlyfulfilling
suchatask.Thiskindofoperationinvolvestherescue
oflifeindangeratseaandassuch,generatesnotonly
operationalandinsuranceobligationsbutalsoethical
ones.TheresponsibilitiesofContracting
GovernmentsandMastersincludetheassistanceand
embarkationofrescuedsurvivorson‐boardtheir
vesselswhenpossibleandanumberofother
supportiveactionsinrelationtotheoperation.
IntheeventthatanAutonomousshipiscloseto
suchaninstance,shemostprobablywillnotbeable
toprovidetherequiredassistanceanditmayalsobe
difficulttoavoidamanoverboardoranunconscious
castaway.
FortheAutonomousship,suchactionsrangefrom
beingverydifficulttobeingimpossibletoperform.A
properadjustmentoranexemptionofAutonomous
shipsfromtheSearchandRescueoperationsseemsto
bethemostappropriatesolution.However,itshould
benotedthatanexemptionofANYkindofvesselat
seafromtheSARinvolvementandobligations,may
raisetheconcernofseafarerswithrespecttohowthe
shippingindustry,variousregulatorybodies,and
relativeorganizationsregardtherescueoftheirlives
atsea.
3.6 RISKASSESSMENTANDRESPONSETO
EMERGENCIES
ExtensiveresearchonthetopicofRiskAssessment
andResponsetoEmergencieshasalreadybeen
conductedintheMUNINproject,includinganalysis
oftopicssuchastheUnmannedshipandShore
ControlCentre,Unmannedmaintenanceand
technicaloperationprinciples,Heavyweather
implications,Sensorsystems,andCybersecurity.
Chaptertwoof“MUNIND9.2:Qualitative
assessment”describesindetailtherisksrelatedtothe
operationofanunmanneddrybulkcarrier.Potential
hazardswereidentified,theexpectedfrequenciesand
consequencesofincidentsrelatedtothehazardswere
rated,andtheriskwascalculatedasafunctionofthe
frequencyandconsequencesofanincident.A
completelistoftheidentifiedhazardswiththeresults
oftheriskratingprojectcanbefoundinAnnexB:
HazardAnalysisresultsoftheMUNIND9.2paper.
InregardtotheresponseofanAutonomousship
duringanemergencysituation,thereareanumberof
issuesthatmustbeanalysed.Forexample,under
UNCLOSArticle98(1)assistanceindistresssituations
istheobligationofallvesselssailingintheareaofthe
incident,althoughtheriskssuchassistancecould
posetothecrew,itspassengers,andtheshipitself
mustallbetakenintoconsideration.
TheArticledelegatestheauthorityandburdenof
initiatingthetasktothemaster,havinginmind
mannedvesselsandnotacrewlessship.Ifweassume
thatthisobligationistransferredautomaticallytothe
“masteronshore”,anewissuearises,thatofthetime
neededforaresponsefromshoreduringemergency
situations(Hapag‐Lloyd,2016).
Totacklethesesituations,properequipmentcould
beinstalledonboardtheAutonomousship.Afterits
efficacyhadbeenverified,thisparticularsolution
wouldhavetobeacceptedanditmayincreasethe
overallstructuralcost,minimizingtheeconomic
benefitsofthecrewlessvessel.
3.7 MAINTENANCE
Oneofthemostimportantfactorsofthesafetyand
seaworthinessofashipistheproper,daily,
periodical,andtimelymaintenanceofallhersystems,
structures,andhull.
Alonglistofperiodicalmaintenanceprocedures,
butalsoofemergency(orunforeseenfailure)fixes
existsonboardallships.Well‐trainedexperienced
personnelarethekeyfactorresponsibleformeeting
theserequirementssuccessfully.Thefollowingrule
setsthebasicprerequisitesforsuchactions.
Ashipunderwayisaremotesystemusually
sailingfarfrommaintenancecentres,shipyards,ports
orotherrepairfacilities.Althoughcertainincidentsor
malfunctionsmayberepairedremotelyeitherby
softwareupdates,orbythefuturisticuseof“robots
insidearobot”(i.e.aremote‐controlled
maintenanceroboton‐boardanAutonomousship),
therewillbecertaincircumstanceswherethe
presenceofanexperiencedhumanteamwouldbe
indispensable.Insuchcases(iftimeconstraintsand
thesituationpermit),theremustbetherequired
proceduresinplace,sufficientinfrastructurefacilities,
andappropriatearrangementstoreceivesuchateam.
3.8 FIREFIGHTINGANDDAMAGECONTROL
Itisexpectedthatavarietyofsensorsandsystems,to
dealwithfiredetectionandextinguishmentbutalso
damagecontrolandrepairs,willbepresentonboard
theAutonomousship.Thelevelofsophistication,the
minimumrequirements,andtheaccepted
effectivenessshallberegulatedandproperly
enforced.

344
ThecosttoprotecttheAutonomousvesselwith
suchsystemsfrompotentialfire,waterinflowor
otherdamagewillmostprobablybeconsiderable
comparedtothecostofmethodsalreadyusedon‐
boardmannedships.Intermsofareacoverage,time
efficiency,diversityofincidentmanagement,
sequenceofunpredictablefactors,andeffectiveness,it
isdifficulttoduplicatethemobilityandfocused
interventionofthefirefightinggroupsanddamage
controlparties(varyingfromonetoeightdepending
onthetypeoftheship)whodealwiththesesituations
onmannedvessels.
3.9 ISPSCODE
InresponsetotheterroristactsofSeptember11th
(2001)intheUnitedStates,theneedtoprotectthe
internationalmaritimetransportsectoragainstthe
threatofterrorismwasrecognised.Thus,onJuly1st
2004,anewmaritimesecurityregulatoryregimewas
introducedintotheInternationalConventionforthe
SafetyofLifeatSea(SOLAS),namelychapterXI‐2on
Specialmeasurestoenhancemaritimesecurity,which
includestheInternationalShipandPortFacility
Security(ISPS)Code.TheISPSCodeenteredinto
forceinDecember2002andistheresultof
cooperationbetweenGovernments,Government
agencies,localadministrations,andshippingandport
industries[16].
Inparticular,SOLASRegulationsXI‐2andXI‐3of
ChapterXI‐2–“Specialmeasurestoenhancemaritime
security”preservestheInternationalShipandPort
FacilitiesSecurityCode(ISPSCode).PartAofthe
Codeismandatory,whilepartBcontainsguidanceon
howtobestcomplywiththemandatory
requirements.
UnderRegulationXI‐2/8,“Themastershallnotbe
constrainedbytheCompany,thechartereroranyother
personfromtakingorexecutinganydecisionwhich,inthe
professionaljudgementofthemaster,isnecessaryto
maintainthesafetyandsecurityoftheship.Thisincludes
denialofaccesstopersons(exceptthoseidentifiedasduly
authorizedbyaContractingGovernment)ortheireffects
andrefusaltoloadcargo,includingcontainersorother
closedcargotransportunits”.Additionally,“If,inthe
professionaljudgementofthemaster,aconflictbetween
anysafetyandsecurityrequirementsapplicabletotheship
arisesduringitsoperations,themastershallgiveeffectto
thoserequirementsnecessarytomaintainthesafetyofthe
ship.Insuchcases,themastermayimplementtemporary
securitymeasuresandshallforthwithinformthe
Administrationand,ifappropriate,theContracting
Governmentinwhoseporttheshipisoperatingorintends
toenter.Anysuchtemporarysecuritymeasuresunderthis
regulationshall,tothehighestpossibledegree,be
commensuratewiththeprevailingsecuritylevel.When
suchcasesareidentified,theAdministrationshallensure
thatsuchconflictsareresolvedandthatthepossibilityof
recurrenceisminimised.”
Otherregulationsinthischapterrequireallships
tobeequippedwithashipsecurityalertsystem,to
provideinformationtotheIMO,andtobeinfull
controlinport(whichincludesdealingwith
circumstancessuchasadelay,detention,anda
restrictionofoperations,includingmovementwithin
theportorexpulsionofashipfromport).
Inordertoaccomplishtheseobjectives,SOLAS
ContractingGovernments,portauthorities,and
shippingcompanies“arerequired,undertheISPSCode,
todesignateappropriatesecurityofficersandpersonnel,on
eachship,portfacilityandshippingcompany”.These
securityofficers,designatedPortFacilitySecurity
Officers(PFSOs),ShipSecurityOfficers(SSOs),and
CompanySecurityOfficers(CSOs)mustassess,
prepare,andimplementeffectivesecurityplansthat
areabletomanageanypotentialsecuritythreat.
AsfarastheAutonomousshipisconcerned,the
absenceof“securityofficersandpersonnel”,presentsa
serioussecuritygapwhichmustberemediatedeither
byapplyingappropriateriskmitigationsystemsand
methods,orbyexcludingthisparticulartypeofvessel
fromthisobligationduringdeep‐seanavigation.The
lattermaybeachievedbyassigninggeographicareas
closetothePortLimitswhereateamofproperly
trained,qualifiedpersonnelwillattestthatthevessel
issafeandsecuretoleaveorentertheport.
3.10 CYBERSECURITY
AccordingtotheMerriamWebsterdictionary,the
definitionofcybersecurityis“measurestakentoprotect
acomputerorcomputersystem(asontheInternet)against
unauthorizedaccessorattack”,whiletheonlineOxford
dictionarydefines‘cybersecurity’as“Thestateofbeing
protectedagainstthecriminalorunauthorizeduseof
electronicdata,orthemeasurestakentoachievethis”.
ISO/IEC27032defines“Cybersecurity”or
“Cyberspacesecurity”,asthe“preservationof
confidentiality,integrityandavailabilityofinformationin
theCyberspace”.TheCyberspaceisdefinedas“the
complexenvironmentresultingfromtheinteractionof
people,softwareandservicesontheInternetbymeansof
technologydevicesandnetworksconnectedtoit,which
doesnotexistinanyphysicalform”8
TheInternationalTelecommunicationsUnion
(ITU),whichisa specialized United Nations agency for
information and communication technologies, initsITU‐
TX.1205(4/2008)document,definescybersecurityas
“thecollectionoftools,policies,securityconcepts,security
safeguards,guidelines,riskmanagementapproaches,
actions,training,bestpractices,assuranceandtechnologies
thatcanbeusedtoprotectthecyberenvironmentand
organizationanduserʹsassets.Organizationanduserʹs
assetsincludeconnectedcomputingdevices,personnel,
infrastructure,applications,services,telecommunications
systems,andthetotalityoftransmittedand/orstored
informationinthecyberenvironment.Cybersecurity
strivestoensuretheattainmentandmaintenanceofthe
securitypropertiesoftheorganizationanduserʹsassets
againstrelevantsecurityrisksinthecyberenvironment.
Thegeneralsecurityobjectivescomprisethefollowing:
Availability,Integrity(whichmayincludeauthenticityand
non‐repudiation)and,Confidentiality.”
SincetheAutonomousshipconceptwilldepend
heavilyoninformationtechnologysystemson‐board
andashore,thereisafargreaterlikelihoodofacyber‐

8http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?c
snumber=44375

345
attackwhencomparedtoaconventionalvessel,
althoughthismightnotbethecaseundercertain
circumstances.Theadvanceoftechnologyhasalready
“digitised”awidespectrumofprocessesand
proceduresonboardshipsfromsteering,propulsion,
andcargocontroltoECDIS,GPS,AIS,and
communicationsystems.Alltheabovecomputerised
processesarepotentialcyber‐attacktargets.Onthe
otherhand,marineinsuranceforcyber‐attackperilsis
notnew,andthustheautonomousshipconceptmay
wellbeincludedinsuchprovisions.Althoughthe
threatofacyber‐attackisgenerallyexcludedfromthe
InstituteCyberAttackExclusionClause(CL380)
10/11/2003(forloss,damage,orliabilitycausedeither
directlyorindirectlybytheuseofacomputerandits
associatedsystemsandsoftware),intheProtection
andIndemnityInsurancesector,alimitofUS$30
millionpershipexiststomitigatesuchthreats(unless
theattackisanactofterrorismorwar).Althougha
plethoraofdefinitionsandaholisticapproachtothe
issueexists,ashasalreadybeenshowninthe
previousparagraph,on23rdofNovember2017,IHS
FairplayDailymaritimeshippingnewsrevealedthat
duringFebruaryofthesameyear,hackerstook
controlofacontainership’snavigationalsystemsfor
almost10hours.ThevesselwasnotanAutonomous
orremote‐controlledvessel,buta“conventional”
containership.
3.11 INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY
TheAutonomousshipwillbedependentoncomputer
systemsnotonlyforthevariousrequiredfunctionsto
sailwithsafety,butalsoforaseriesofupdatesrelated
totheconditionofthevesselwhenatsea,duetothe
factthatphysicalinspectionswillmainlybepossible
inport.AsRødseth,H.,BrageMo,B.(2014)observed,
theuseofKeyPerformanceIndicators(KPIs)willbe
veryusefulinmonitoringdifferentpartsoftheship.
Variousdatawillberecorded,measured,and
analysedinordertomonitortheintegrityoftheship’s
structureandthefunctionalityoftheequipmentand
themachinery.TheRemoteControlCentrewillplay
animportantroleduringthisprocessbycoordinating
andschedulingmaintenanceusingthedatareceived
fromtheship.
3.12 LIABILITY
Liability,asapartoftheinsurancesystem,protects
theinsuredfromtherisksposedbylawsuitsand
claimsalike.
Someofthemostimportantareascoveredarethe
seaworthiness(ashipʹsabilitytoperformthe
contractedvoyagesafely,eitherundercommonlaw,
orwheneverthecontractedpartiesvoluntarilyaccept
the‘Hague‐Visby’Rules),thecharter‐party(acontract
usuallybetweenaship‐ownerandacharterer),the
billoflading(adocumentsignedonbehalfofaship‐
ownerregardingtheloadedcargoʹsquantity,
condition,potentialharmfulness,andother
parameters),thecollision,andtheliabilityofthemaster.
Althoughmaritimeregulatorymattersareusually
enforcedundertheauspicesoftheIMO,liability
issuesaresubjecttovariousnationaljurisdictions.
Thelawsapplicabletoamarinedisputeandthecourt
towhichthisdisputemaybebrought,dependon
factorssuchaswheretheepisodehappened,its
nature,theflagofthevessels,andthenationalityof
thecrews. 
Additionalcontractualprovisionsandlegal
requirementssuchasTheHague‐VisbyRules,require
theimplementationofcertainresponsibilitiesbythe
masterandthecrew,thuscreatingadilemmafor
Autonomousships.
Forexample,underTheHague‐VisbyRules,
Art.IIIr.2thecareofcargorequiresaphysical
inspectionandhumaninterventionwhenrequiredfor
somegoodssuchasthedangerousones.Wheneveran
unsafeorhazardouscargoneedstobejettisonedor
neutralisedwhileanAutonomousshipisunderway,
onlytheexistenceofacrewon‐boardislikelyto
preventaccidentsandkeepthevesselseaworthy.
3.13 INSURANCE
Marineinsurancecoversawidespectrumofissues
varyingfromtheHull,Machinery,andCargotoother
Third‐Partyliabilitycoverageandisregulated
throughtheMarineInsuranceActof1906(MIA),
underEnglishlaw.NotonlydoestheActaffect
marineinsuranceforships,cargos,andtheProtection
andIndemnitycover,butithasalsoinfluencedthe
subjectmatterworldwideandhasbeenadoptedby
otherjurisdictionsaswell.Twomodernstatutes,the
ConsumerInsurance(Disclosureand
Representations)Actof2012(“CIDRA”)andthe
InsuranceActof2015,havemadeamendmentsto
insurancelaw.TheInsuranceActof2015inparticular
(2015c.4,aUnitedKingdomActofParliament)makes
significantreformstoinsurancelaw.
Awidelistofprerequisitesischeckedandagreed
beforeashiporitscargo(orboth)areinsured.Oneof
themostimportanttermsinmarineinsuranceisthe
“seaworthiness”ofaship,whichdependsonvarious
factors.AndrewBardot(theexecutiveofficerofthe
InternationalGroupofP&IClubswhosemembers
insure90percentoftheglobalfleet}arguesthat
“Unmannedshipsareillegalunderinternational
conventions,whichsetminimumcrewsizes.Ifdrones
don’tcomplywithsuchrules,they’dbeconsidered
unseaworthyandineligibleforinsurance”9.
3.14 QUALITYASSURANCE
UNCLOSArt.94(4)(a)requiresthat“eachship,before
registrationandthereafteratappropriateintervals,is
surveyedbyaqualifiedsurveyorofships”.Althougha
numberofclassificationsocietiesarealready
preparingsuitablechecksandcompetentsurveyors
forAutonomousShips,nostandardisationhasbeen
agreedonorintroduced.Anothercodeoftheutmost
importance,notonlyforthesafetybutalsoforthe
QualityAssuranceofthemaritimeindustryistheISM
Code.Thecodeanditscompulsorynaturewillbe
analysedinmoredetailinChapter5,whichfollows.

9http://www.synergy.ie/index.php/articles/health‐safety/item/375‐rolls‐royce‐
are‐developing‐drone‐ships

346
Inadditiontotheseregulatoryobligations,there
areanumberofQualityStandards,self‐imposedby
theindustry,whicharemostlybasedonthe
InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO),
aSwiss‐basedprivateinternationalstandards
developmentandpublishingbodycomposedof
representativesfromvariousnationalstandards
organizationswithmultiplecommittees.Such
standardsincludeamongstotherstheISO9000:2015
(Internationalstandardsforqualitymanagement)
series,theISO28007‐1:2015Internationalstandards
forShipsandmarinetechnology–Guidelinesfor
PrivateMaritimeSecurityCompanies(PMSC)
providingprivatelycontractedarmedsecurity
personnel(PCASP)onboardships(andproforma
contract),andtheISO/TS29001:2010International
standardsforPetroleum,petrochemical,andnatural
gasindustriesandSector‐specificquality
managementsystems,layingdowntheRequirements
forproductandservicesupplyorganizations.As
previouslymentioned,someclassificationsocieties
havealreadystartedtolaythebasisforquality
standardsfortheautonomousship.However,thereis
notasyetasystematicapproachtothesubject.
4 ISMCODEANDTHEAUTONOMOUSSHIP
TheInternationalManagementCodefortheSafe
OperationsofShipsandforPollutionPrevention
(ISM),whichformschapterIXofSOLAS,was
introducedafteranumberofseriouspollution
accidents.(Adopted:1993‐Intoforce:1998).This
ChaptermakestheInternationalSafetyManagement
(ISM)Code,whichrequires“asafetymanagement
systemtobeestablishedbytheshipowneroranyperson
whohasassumedresponsibilityfortheship(the
ʺCompanyʺ)”,compulsory[15].
TheobjectivesoftheCodearethepreventionof
humaninjuryorlossoflife,theavoidanceofdamage
totheenvironment,andtoensuresafetyatsea.Its
aimistoapplyasafetymanagementsysteminorder
totrainthepersonnelinvolvedintheoperationofa
shiptoreactappropriatelyduringpossibleemergency
situations.Everyorganisation(shippingcompany)is
allowedtodevelopitsownSafetyManagement
System(SMS)usingpolicies,procedures,instructions,
andinternalauditsinordertodiscover,report,and
correctanydeficiencies.
Paragraph5“Masters’Responsibilityand
Authority”,andparagraph6“Resourcesand
Personnel”oftheCodemustbeeitheralteredby
includingadefinitionofa“Shore‐based”masterand
“crew/remotecontroloperators”withthesame
responsibilitiesoftheon‐boardMasterandcrew,or
beadjustedtothenewautonomousship’screwless
naturebyexcludingsuchvesselsfromthe
responsibilitiesofparagraphs5.1.1to5.1.4,6.2,6.6ʺ,
6.7,andparagraph’s7phrase“thesafetyofthe
personnel”.Paragraphs5.1.5,5.2and6.1,6.3,6.4,6.5
and7(withoutthephrase“thesafetyofthepersonnel”)
shouldcontinuetoapply,regardlessofwhetherthe
crewisonboardorinremotecontrolcentres.
5 CONCLUSIONS
 Atpresent,internationalconventions,rules,and
codessuchastheUNCLOS,SOLAS,COLREG,
MARPOL,STCW,ISM,andSAR(tonamebuta
few)donotincludetheAutonomousshipconcept
asadefinition,orasapotentialmodusoperandi.
Furthermore,theexistingregulationsandthe
traditionallyusedphrasingchallengeratherthan
facilitatetheoperationaldeploymentofsuch
vesselsinthefuture.
 Acautiousreviewofallrelevantregulatory,
operational,andqualityassuranceframeworks,
followedbytheproperamendmentsisneededin
ordertolegallyshieldandtechnicallyassurethe
Autonomousshipconceptthusmakingitaccepted
byandfavourabletothemaritimecommunityand
theshippingindustryalike.
 Throughouttheresearch,itwasobservedthat
therewereanumberofaccidentscausedby
humanerror,affirmingtheusefulnessofthe
Autonomousshipconcept.Nonearaccidentsor
potentialcatastrophespreventedbyhuman
interventionwerementioned(althoughtheyvery
oftenoccur),whichmakesanycomparisontothe
disasterscausedbyhumanmistakesimpossible.It
issuggestedthatfurtherexaminationofsuchnear
incidentswillhelpinunderstandingthe
Autonomousship’srealcontributiontomaritime
safety.
 Finally,furtherresearchonissuessuchasthe
ethicalconcernsregardingtheuseofautonomous
systemsreplacinghumans,thepsychological
impactonseafarersofsuchause,thedegradation
ofseamanship,andthepotentiallossoftimeatsea
thatwouldbeexperiencedbyasignificantnumber
ofcompetencemariners,shouldbeconsidered.
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