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Sports as a risk environment: Homophobia and bullying in a sample of gay and heterosexual men
Abstract and Figures
Research on bullying and homophobic bullying has mainly focused on school contexts, with little research in sports-related contexts. This study used a sample of 88 gay males and 120 heterosexual males between 18 and 36 years of age to examine the frequency of bullying experiences in Italian sports-related contexts. The results showed that gay men reported more frequent bullying and homophobic bullying than heterosexual men. Gay men reported dropping out of sports more frequently, namely due to a fear of being bullied and greater familial pressure to conform to masculine-type sports. It is necessary to promote safer sports-related contexts for people who self-identify as a sexual minority.
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... clothing, styling, physicality, or muscularity) and behaviour (e.g. choice of sports, teams/leagues) (Baiocco et al., 2018;Krane, 2015Krane, , 2016. If athletes fail to meet these expectations, they are suspected of being gender non-conforming and/or homosexual, which might lead to discrimination and denial of athletic abilities for men (Kauer & Krane, 2013;Krane, 2016). ...
... Focussing on men, there is evidence for sport (and non-sport) contexts that gay men feel particularly pressured to conform to typical hegemonic masculine norms and stereotypes because they are at risk of not meeting these norms (Baiocco et al., 2018;Sandfort et al., 2007). This could relate to non-conformity being less accepted among sportsmen than sportswomen and men having generally more negative attitudes towards non-conforming athletes (Laberge & Albert, 1999;Shang et al., 2012). ...
... Heteronormativity is further strengthened by an orientation towards hegemonic masculinity (Connell, 1995) resulting in an implicit demand of masculine behaviour, appearance and physicality for being athletically successful (Cl ement- Guillotin et al., 2012;Kauer & Krane, 2013). Gay men do not conform to assumed heterosexuality and run the risk of further disadvantages in male-dominated and heteronormative sports contexts due to the supposed closeness to femininity as well as the related questioning or denial of athletic abilities (Baiocco et al., 2018;Kauer & Krane, 2013;Sandfort et al., 2007). Our findings support scientific literature suggesting that gay athletes adopt different strategies against this risk: if they are crossing gender boundaries, e.g. ...
From a historical perspective, sport is considered a male domain and heteronormative societal field. Although societal change has happened, in most sports, male, heterosexual athletes, as well as stereotypical masculine behaviour and appearance are still being privileged. Based on heteronormativity and assumed male physical superiority, mindsets about typical and appropriate gender expression permeate sporting environments. Athletes who do not meet these socially constructed, gendered expectations often experience barriers, exclusion and discrimination. Against this background, the study analyses the prevalence of (non-)conforming gender expression and its relevance for experiencing negative episodes in sport, considering the athletes’ sex and the gender-typing of sports practised. The sample consists of lesbian, gay and bisexual + individuals actively participating in sport in Europe (n = 2232). The findings suggest that gender non-conformity is less prevalent among male than female LGB+ athletes, particularly in stereotypically masculine sports. Significant correlations between non-conformity to socially constructed expectations of typical feminine or masculine expression and negative episodes in sport occur. The results indicate that LGB+ athletes use different strategies to avoid ‘homonegative bias’ and that sport needs to be rethought on individual, organisational and societal levels.
... Sport does not seem to be an exception: International studies indicate that discrimination and exclusion of LGBTQ+ people in diverse sport settings is widespread (e.g. Menzel et al., 2019;Müller, Delto, Böhlke & Mutz, 2022;Baiocco et al., 2018;Kulick et al., 2019). Experiences of homo-negativity, homophobia and sexual discrimination can have a negative impact on the mental health of gender and sexually diverse people (Bostwick, 2014). ...
... The term heteronormativity was first introduced by Warner (1991) in one of the key collections on queer theory. It built on previous concepts such as Adrienne Rich's (1978) 'Compulsory Heterosexuality' and Gayle Rubin's (1984) 'Sex Hierarchy' (Barker, 2014). Warner's basic idea is to understand heterosexuality as a fundamental category of social theoretical analyses with the aim of being able to criticize the privilege of a heterosexual culture: Heteronormativity is conceived here as a system of order that by no means refers only to 'the sexual' in the narrower sense but is inscribed into almost all social practices or institutions and is constantly reproduced by them. ...
... Heteronormativity differs from heterosexism, which is discrimination against anyone who is not heterosexual. Since heteronormativity may be insidious as well as pervasive, it is closer to the concept of 'Mundane Heterosexism' (Clarke et al., 2010), which is embedded in everyday language and practice and typically remains unseen (Barker, 2014). In contrast, homophobia implies the fear for and dislike of homosexuality and non-conform gender behavior (Plummer, 2001). ...
There is little empirical research on the sport experiences of gay and lesbian recreational athletes in Germany and their existence and needs within organized, non-professional sports have largely been ignored. Based on twelve in-depth interviews with self-identified male gay and female lesbian adults, this paper explores how queer recreational athletes experience sport in German sports clubs and which particular challenges or discriminatory situations they are confronted with. Findings show that study participants do not experience much discrimination on an explicit level in the sports clubs. Nevertheless, many respondents try to hide their sexuality in the sports context to prevent possible discrimination and questions about their sexuality. After all, it is mainly the discussion about and reduction of their sexuality that is being experienced as problematic. Five main stressors have been identified: (1) the necessity of an outing, (2) the sports club typical mode of communication, (3) the heteronormative pre-structuring of the sports, (4) the feeling of otherness and the assigned special role, (5) the implicit fear of discrimination. The findings point to the need for increased reflection on and reduction of heteronormative structures in German sports clubs.
... Theoretical perspectives in research on LGBTQ athletes' experiences span a wide spectrum, ranging from the concepts of heteronormativity (Kokkonen, 2019;Phipps, 2021) and masculinity (Anderson et al., 2016;Vilanova et al., 2020) to poststructuralist and feminist queer approaches (Caudwell, 2014;Lucas-Carr & Krane, 2012) and minority stress (Baiocco et al., 2018;Hartmann-Tews et al., 2021) and multilayer (Braumüller et al., 2020) models. Furthermore, some studies have examined the intersectionality of GSM identity with race (Anderson & McCormack, 2010;Melton & Cunningham, 2012). ...
... While this provides a widely used theory in sport (Baiocco et al., 2018;Melton & Cunningham, 2012;Symons et al., 2017), some criticisms have been raised over the years. First, the concept is thought to fail to "explain the understandings and behaviors of individual men" (McVittie et al., 2017, p. 126), although this has already been recognised and named by Connell and Messerschmidt (2005). ...
... Referring to this criticism and his own research, Anderson (2009) developed inclusive masculinity theory, which has mainly been used in research on gay athletes (Anderson et al., 2016;Baiocco et al., 2018;Bush et al., 2012). Inclusive masculinity theory is based on an assumed decline in homohysteria, understood as a "fear of being homosexualised" in cultures that reject homosexuality and associate it with femininity, increasing the pressure to appear heterosexual in order not to be associated with homosexuality (Anderson, 2009, p. 7). ...
... For example, Symons et al. (2017) surveyed 294 non-heterosexual sporting people (e.g., athletes, officials, administrators) in Australia and found that these participants frequently experienced sexism and homophobia, with women reporting more experiences of sexism and men reporting more homophobic events. Baiocco et al. (2018) examined homophobia and bullying in a sample of gay and heterosexual men; the results showed that gay men reported more frequent bullying and homophobic bullying than heterosexual men. Gay men also reported dropping out of sports more frequently, primarily due to a fear of being bullied and greater familial pressure to conform to masculine-type sports (Baiocco et al., 2018). ...
... Baiocco et al. (2018) examined homophobia and bullying in a sample of gay and heterosexual men; the results showed that gay men reported more frequent bullying and homophobic bullying than heterosexual men. Gay men also reported dropping out of sports more frequently, primarily due to a fear of being bullied and greater familial pressure to conform to masculine-type sports (Baiocco et al., 2018). ...
... Thus, although today sports spaces seem to have become more inclusive (Channon & Matthews, 2015;Vilanova et al., 2020), sport continues, in general terms, to reproduce hegemonic masculinity norms and, therefore, to explicitly or implicitly exclude women and men who do not comply with sexual orientation/behaviours aligned with socially legitimised heteronormative standards (Dunning, 1986;Piedra, 2015;Sáenz-Macana & Devís-Devís, 2020). This situation leads to abandonment of sport, poor quality social relationships, negative emotions, and poor physical and mental health among the LGBTQIA+ people (Baiocco et al., 2018;Petty & Trussell, 2018). ...
... (In)visibility: PASS faculties as heteronormative institutions PASS faculties are characterised by a large proportion of male students who manifest attitudes and traits traditionally associated with hegemonic masculinity, including emotional repression, competitiveness, domination, displays of strength and ability, and majority occupation of the public space (Bourdieu, 1998a;Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005). A university degree which is related to sport tends reinforce these attributes and traits, strengthen heterosexuality and women 2 traditionally assigned roles (Baiocco et al., 2018;Levant & Kopecky, 1995;Palzkill, 1990). As pointed out by Donoso et al. (2020) and Pereira-García et al. (2021), PASS faculties tend to be spaces where heterosexism is dominant and where a certain normalisation coexists with hostility towards sexual diversity: ...
This research is the first to provide insights into the experiences of gay men studying a university degree in Physical Activity and Sport Science (PASS) in Spain. Drawing on Bourdieu’s categories, one-to-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 PASS students and ex-students that were subsequently studied through deductive-inductive thematic analysis. Our findings show the PASS context to be a heteronormative, masculinised and cisgender social field. Male homosexuality was almost invisible except when antigay language was used. Considering this environment, most of our interviewees chose to remain in the closet, which contributed to low levels of wellbeing and high levels of stress and anxiety. However, the few students that chose to come out experienced relief and felt included by some of their classmates and by staff. Discussed are key aspects of the dominant culture in PASS faculties and the repercussions for the mental health and wellbeing of gay students. Our research also provides new insights into the nature and prevalence of microaggressions regarding sexual orientation that will help PASS and university management develop specific strategies and programmes to foster inclusivity.
... We observed that, among heterosexual men and women, the estimated prevalence of SH was lower with respect to that observed among the LGB community, with prevalence estimates in the bivariate analysis of 31.5% for heterosexuals compared with 53, 39.2, and 34.6% for bisexuals, gays, and lesbians, respectively. Other studies also suggest that non-heterosexuals experience a higher percentage of harassment behaviors compared with heterosexuals [1,3]. These authors also indicate that the most common negative effects of cyberbullying on LGB youth are psychological, emotional and behavioral, causing more problems in the sports world due to fear of being bullied and also showing lower academic performance. ...
Background
Sexual harassment is a type of coercion, including social pressure, intimidation, physical force, and verbal acts, in addition to other forms such as cyber-harassment, recognized as a major important public health problem.
Methods
This cross-sectional study, based on a survey administered online to men and women aged 18 to 35 years and living in Spain throughout 15th and 28th October 2020, aims to analyze the prevalence and factors associated with sexual harassment among young people in Spain within the last 12 months, particularly according to the COVID-19 lockdown period. It has been conducted by bivariate analysis and robust Poisson regression models. The final sample includes 2.515 participants.
Results
The results indicate that women were almost twice as likely as men to experience sexual harassment (49% vs 22.2%). Also, among heterosexual men and women, the estimated prevalence was lower concerning that observed among bisexuals, gays, and lesbians (31.5% vs 53, 39.2, and 34.6% respectively). The prevalence percentage in the 18–24 age group was twice high as that observed in the 30–35 age group. Finally, during the lockdown period, the harassment through electronic channels increased (32.6% vs 16.5 and 17.8% before and after this period, respectively) and decreased on public roads (22.9% vs 63.4 and 54.4% pre-lockdown and post-lockdown periods, respectively).
Conclusion
These findings highlight that sexual harassment presents a high prevalence among young people, especially cyber-harassment, and workplace harassment and it is important to be aware that young women are more likely to suffer harassment and even more if they do not have a partner or have LGB orientation. During the lockdown sexual harassment has moved from public spaces to the social network.
... Additionally, SGM athletes are more likely to experience discrimination when participating in sports, as sports' environments can be unsafe for SGM people [33]. For example, a study in Italy found that gay men were more likely to experience bullying and homosexuality-related bullying in sports contexts and to discontinue sports participation due to bullying [34]. Additionally, a study among SGM students in South Africa found that SGM students were excluded from participating in sports tournaments, alienated from participating in sports by other students, and called derogatory names [35]. ...
Background:
Discriminatory laws and policies are a form of structural stigma that is associated with increased suicidality among sexual and gender minority (SGM) people. Unfortunately, in the United States, there has been an increase in state-level discriminatory laws and policies targeting SGM people in 2021 and 2022, particularly, transgender sports bans. The purpose of this study was to (1) determine if familiarity with transgender sports bans was associated with suicidality among SGM adults; and (2) determine if interpersonal stigma and/or individual stigma mediated this association.
Methods:
This was a cross-sectional study of data collected from a national sample of 1033 SGM adults in the United States between 28 January and 7 February 2022. Univariate and serial mediator models were used in this analysis.
Results:
The increased suicidality was associated with familiarity with state-level transgender sports bans among SGM adults (p-value = 0.0150). Even after interpersonal and individual stigma mediated this relationship, the association between suicidality and familiarity with state-level transgender sports bans remained (p-value = 0.0106).
Conclusion:
State-level transgender sports bans appear to exacerbate existing disparities in mental health, especially for individuals who are familiar with the bans. They directly discriminate against people who are transgender and indirectly stigmatize the broader SGM community.
This study examined the perspectives of six college students enrolled in a physical education teacher education program on sexual identity stereotyping (SIS), the stereotyping of individuals as a certain sexual identity (e.g., homosexual, heterosexual, bisexual) based on external factors. The purpose was to construct a general landscape of physical education (PE) majors’ views on SIS and gender roles, athletic and PE expectations in regards to gender and sexuality, and these ideas’ impact on the efficacy of PE, both for students and educators. Data were collected via semi-structured interviews and analyzed using the standard interpretive methods of analytic induction and constant comparison. These findings revealed that in general, those interviewed were aware of SIS and could identify its potential impact. Still, the participants felt that SIS was not enough of an issue to prevent them from pursuing a career in PE. Multiple participants reported experiences with being stereotyped as a result of their athletic activities of choice. Through the thoughts of the interviewees, the authors of this study hope to enrich the field of PE and provide awareness towards biases that can cloud the quality of education.
Literature on homophobic bullying underlines that many teachers do not intervene in this kind of issue and often underestimate this type of bullying. At the same time, the protective role of teachers’ support for victimized students is well recognized. The present study aims to understand the processes that can lead to teachers’ activation against homophobic bullying. Two hundred and thirteen teachers belonging to different schools in Rome completed an anonymous questionnaire that assessed (a) reactions to homophobic bullying (feeling of powerlessness and positive activations), (b) homophobic attitudes, (c) teachers’ general perceived self-efficacy, and (d) perceived self-efficacy in managing homophobic bullying incidents. We used a structural equation model to test whether self-efficacy, both as a teacher and in managing homophobic bullying incidents, predicts both aspects of teachers’ reactions to homophobic bullying, controlling for homophobic attitudes. We found that lower levels of perceived self-efficacy in managing homophobic bullying incidents and higher levels of homophobic attitudes predict stronger feeling of powerlessness, while higher levels of perceived self-efficacy as a teacher and lower levels of homophobic attitudes predict stronger positive activation toward the victimized student. Theoretical and practical implications are provided.
This study examined the differences between gay men and lesbian women in their negative attitudes towards gay men and lesbians who either confirm or disconfirm stereotypical gender roles. One hundred thirty-eight gay and lesbian participants read 4 gender-typed scenarios: in two, a gay student and a lesbian student were portrayed as more stereotypically masculine, and in the other two, two gay and lesbian students were described as more stereotypically feminine. Participants rated the targets on a scale assessing negative emotions. The results showed that the feminine gay male target provoked more negative emotions than the other 3 targets, among both gay and lesbian participants. Moreover, gay and lesbian participants felt more negative emotions towards the masculine lesbian target than the feminine lesbian one. In the end, while the feminine gay man target elicited more negative emotions than the feminine lesbian target, the masculine gay man target did not elicit more negative emotions than the masculine lesbian one. Implications of the results are discussed.
This study explores differences in shame memories and memories of affiliation with parents during childhood and adolescence, as well as in internal shame and depression, between gay men (N = 53) and heterosexual men (N = 52). Also, it aims to explore whether psychological flexibility and self-compassion play a role on the association between these memories and internal shame and depressive symptoms. Results confirmed the mediating role of psychological flexibility and self-compassion. These findings suggest the appropriateness of promoting acceptance and self-compassion towards difficult memories in a therapeutic setting with gay men experiencing shame and depressive symptoms.
The present study aimed to: (a) investigate the relationship between attitudes toward same-sex parenting and sexism both in heterosexuals and sexual minorities; (b) verify whether sexism predicted negative attitudes toward same-sex parenting via the mediating role of sexual stigma (sexual prejudice in heterosexual people and internalized sexual stigma [ISS] in lesbians and gay men [LG]). An Italian sample of 477 participants (65.6% heterosexual people and 34.4% LG people) was used to verify three hypotheses: (a) heterosexual men showed higher levels of sexism than heterosexual women and LG people; (b) heterosexual men reported more negative attitudes toward same-sex parenting than those of heterosexual women and LG people; and (c) sexual prejudice in heterosexual people and ISS in LG people mediated the relationship between sexism and attitudes toward same-sex parenting. Overall, men and heterosexual people showed stronger sexist tendencies and more negative attitudes toward same-sex parenting. Moreover, sexism affected attitudes toward same-sex parenting via sexual prejudice in heterosexual people and ISS in LG people. These results suggest that negative attitudes toward same-sex parenting reflect sociocultural inequalities based on the traditional gender belief system and points to the necessity of social policies to reduce prejudice toward sexual minority groups.
Adolescence is a challenging developmental period marked with declines in emotional well-being; however, self-compassion has been suggested as a protective factor. This cross-sectional survey study (N = 765, grades 7th to 12th; 53 % female; 4 % Hispanic ethnicity; 64 % White and 21 % Black) examined whether adolescents' self-compassion differed by age and gender, and secondly, whether its associations with emotional well-being (perceived stress, life satisfaction, distress intolerance, depressive symptoms, and anxiety) also differed by age and gender. The findings indicated that older females had the lowest self-compassion levels compared to younger females or all-age males. Self-compassion was associated with all emotional well-being measures, and gender and/or age moderated the associations with anxiety and depressive symptoms. Among older adolescents, self-compassion had a greater protective effect on anxiety for boys than for girls. Additionally, older adolescents with low and average self-compassion had greater levels of depressive symptoms than those with high self-compassion. These results may inform for whom and at what age self-compassion interventions may be implemented to protect adolescents from further declines in emotional well-being.
Coming out has been described as an essential component in the lesbian, gay, and bisexual identity development process and in the mental health of sexual minority people. This study investigated the coming out to family members in lesbian, gay, and bisexual people and analyzed the potential predictors associated to the choice to come out. For this purpose, disclosure of sexual orientation to family members, internalized sexual stigma (evaluated through an adapted short version of the internalized sexual stigma for lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people, measure of the internalized sexual stigma for lesbians, gay, and bisexual), gender, age, sexual orientation, background information, current romantic relationship and the wealth of social network with sexual minority people were assessed on an Italian sample of 291 adolescents and young adults (206 lesbian/gay men and 85 bisexual people). Hierarchical multiple regression showed that higher scores of coming out to family were associated with gay/lesbian identity, liberal political orientation, higher education level, presence of a stable romantic relationship, higher number of lesbian, gay, and bisexual contacts, and lower levels of internalized sexual stigma. Results suggest that bisexual people encounter major difficulties regarding the coming out to family members, respect to lesbian/gay people and indicate that internalized sexual stigma is strongly associated with concealing one's sexual orientation. Clinical implications for the present findings are discussed.
This article analyzes 5,128 comments from thirty-five prominent football fan online message boards located across the United Kingdom and 978 online comments in response to a Guardian newspaper article regarding the decision by former German international footballer, Thomas Hitzlsperger, to publicly come out as gay in January 2014. Adopting the theoretical framework of inclusive masculinity theory, the findings demonstrate almost universal inclusivity through the rejection of homophobia and frequent contestation of comments that express orthodox views. From a period of high homophobia during the 1980s and 1990s, just 2 percent of the 6,106 comments contained pernicious homophobic intent. Rather than allow for covert homophobic hate speech toward those with a different sexual orientation, 98 percent of the comments illustrate a significant decrease in cultural homophobia than was present when Justin Fashanu came out in 1990.
Research examining sexual orientation in sport settings has been limited in scope and lacked theoretical frameworks. To extend this body of research, the current study was framed within social identity theory and examined the impact of Gay Games participation on: (a) social identity, self-esteem, and collective esteem; and (b) expected subsequent social change activities following the Games. One hundred and twenty-five lesbian and bisexual athletes competing in Gay Games V participated in this investigation. The athletes completed a demographic profile and an open-ended questionnaire that asked about their Gay Games experience as well as expected social change activities after the Games. A content analysis of the responses revealed themes consistent with social identity theory. Specifically, these individuals identified the role of the Gay Games on social categorization, personal and social identity, and self and collective esteem. Additionally, these women revealed that following the Gay Games they felt more likely to work towards social change by becoming more out, educating others, and working through political channels.
This important book provides unique new knowledge on the lived experience of openly bisexual men without medicalizing or pathologizing them. Presenting research from sexology, sociology, and psychology, it features extensive findings on the sexual, social, romantic, and emotional behaviors of the 90 men interviewed in the U.S. and U.K. Issues and challenges are examined in such areas as identity and self-concept, along with the burden of social erasure and the paradox of stigma from both the gay and straight communities. However, the research reveals evidence of a recent cultural transition toward acceptance of bisexual identity and behavior, with younger bisexual men experiencing better social lives and increased recognition of the legitimacy of bisexuality.
Among the topics covered:
• Examining the components of sexuality.
• Measuring and surveying bisexuality.
• Bisexual burden
• Demonstrating a generational cohort effect
• Expansion of gendered boundaries.
• Erosion of the one-time rule of homosexuality.
• Coming out in the 21st century.
Bringing clarity and focus beyond the gender binary—and compelling insights into why society and science have trouble shedding that paradigm—The Changing Dynamics of Bisexual Men’s Lives will interest sexuality scholars, sexologists, and social scientists studying the social aspects of sexuality.
This study examines the nature and impact of sexist and
homophobic discrimination experienced by lesbians, gays and
bisexuals (LGB) in Australian sporting settings. A mixed methods
online survey was utilized to collate participant experiences. The
findings suggest that, in sport, participants experienced sexism
directly and systemically, and homophobia explicitly and
implicitly. Women experienced sexism and homophobia, whilst
men reported more homophobic events. The most mentioned
impacts of discrimination were negative emotions such as
sadness, anger, distress and shame, followed by negative
engagement with sport such as disliking sport, or avoiding or
leaving sport. The well-recognized benefits of sport such as
physical and mental well-being, social connections, enjoyment,
positive identity and achievement may be more difficult to realize
within this context of significant social stress.