Article

Police Body-Worn Cameras: Effects on Officers’ Burnout and Perceived Organizational Support

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Abstract

Police departments in the United States are rapidly adopting body-worn cameras (BWCs). To date, no study has investigated the effects of BWCs on police officers themselves, despite evidence suggesting negative effects of electronic performance monitoring on employee well-being. Police officers already experience higher levels of burnout than other professions. We hypothesize that the intense surveillance of BWCs will manifest in how police officers perceive the organizational support of their departments and will increase burnout. We test these hypotheses using data from patrol officers (n = 271) and structural equation modeling. We find BWCs increase police officer burnout, and this effect is statistically different from zero. We also find that BWCs decrease officers’ perceived organizational support, which mediates the relationship between BWCs and burnout. Greater perceived organizational support can blunt the negative effects of BWCs. Our study is the first to situate effects on officers at the center of BWC literature.

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... The continuous deployment of cutting-edge technologies has provided public organizations with an advanced means of monitoring their employees' performance. For example, police departments mandate officers' use of body-worn cameras to track their movements and reduce potential officer misbehaviour (Adams and Mastracci 2019). With a growing number of public employees working remotely, monitoring log-in and log-off times, work patterns and speed, web-browser histories, email, and social media content has become increasingly common (Camarena and Fusi 2022;Charbonneau and Doberstein 2020). ...
... Public sector studies demonstrate that EPM can yield significant benefits, such as improving work engagement and reducing turnover intentions (Miao and Yu 2023), strengthening local governance measures and allowing public organizations to be flexible towards citizens' demands while taking care of employee well-being (Doberstein et al. 2022;Fusi and Feeney 2018). However, EPM also has a darker side, manifested in its intrusive nature, which can lead to individuals feeling disconnected from their organization, posing a threat to the privacy of public employees, and exacerbating digital overload amidst rapid technological advancements (Adams and Mastracci 2019;Camarena and Fusi 2022). ...
... Preventive EPM also has other disadvantages, such as intruding on individual privacy (Chalykoff and Kochan 1989), communicating a lack of trust in employees (Wells, Moorman, and Werner 2007), and employee orientation towards the tasks being monitored, leading to the omission of other important tasks (Stanton and Julian 2002). Consequently, employees may experience psychological disorders such as heightened stress, depression, and social exclusion, and burnout (Adams and Mastracci 2019;Wells, Moorman, and Werner 2007), thereby reducing their well-being because of higher accountability (Yost et al. 2019). Research has shown that when electronic monitoring was in place that was perceived as unjust, employees felt side-lined and betrayed, which prompted them to engage in retaliation and purposefully stop working (Kayas et al. 2019). ...
Article
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Despite prior research, the consequences of electronically monitoring public employees remain unclear. Based on psychological contract theory, this study examines why employees react differently to being monitored and whether perceived electronic performance monitoring (EPM) leads to employee burnout. Using three-part data from 3,744 remote-working public health doctors, we demonstrate that EPM perceived as controlling shapes employees' psychological contracts with their organization and leads to higher employee burnout. Instead, EPM perceived as developmental influences the psychological contract so that employees experience less burnout. Moreover, employees with high levels of public service motivation are more tolerant of EPM used for developmental purposes.
... define work-life balance as encompassing not only employees' beliefs, attitudes, and expectations of their work, but also how these conditions are interpreted, how needs are met, and how these needs are perceived within the company. Additionally, job satisfaction is related to perceived organizational support (Adams & Mastracci, 2018). Employee burnout at work can be significantly affected by low perceived organizational support (Maan et al., 2020;McCarthy et al., 2013). ...
... In addition, other studies conducted by Arief et al. (2021); ; Yusnani & Prasetio (2018), explain that work life balance has a positive and significant effect on job satisfaction, while other studies show that work life balance has no impact on increasing member job satisfaction (Viegas & Henriques, 2021). Furthermore, Adams & Mastracci, (2018) & Ninaus et al., (2021 in their research show that perceived organizational support has a significant effect on job satisfaction. From the description of several previous studies, it can be explained that there is inconsistent research regarding the relationship between quality of work life, work life balance, and Perceived organizational support on job satisfaction, especially in public sector organizations such as the police. ...
... The study utilized a Likert scale (ranging from 'strongly disagree' to 'strongly agree') to measure the variables. The statements used in this study were adopted from previous research.The statements used in this study were adopted from Bhende et al., (2020) for quality of work life and work-life balance, Gumasing & Ilo, (2023) for job satisfaction, and Adams & Mastracci (2018) for perceived organizational support. Table 1 shows the quality of work life, work-life balance, job satisfaction, and perceived organizational support. ...
Article
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Human resources are a crucial factor in achieving organizational success. Therefore, job satisfaction plays a significant role in the success of an organization. This study collected data from 290 members of the Tulang Bawang Police through questionnaires distributed between September and December. The analysis utilized structural equation modeling (SEM). The study found that both quality of work life and work-life balance had a positive and significant impact on job satisfaction. Additionally, quality of work life and work-life balance had a positive and significant effect on perceived organizational support. Furthermore, perceived organizational support mediated the relationship between quality of work life and work-life balance and job satisfaction. Finally, the study found that perceived organizational support had a positive and significant effect on job satisfact.
... Finally, studies have demonstrated that ignoring organizational concerns can have negative consequences on officer well-being. For instance, one study found that officers who wore BWCs not only perceived lower organizational support from their departments but also experienced a greater degree of burnout (Adams & Mastracci, 2019). Burnout is associated with more self-reported use of force (Kop & Euwema, 2001;Kop et al., 1999;Manzoni & Eisner, 2006), higher endorsement of use of force (Burke & Mikkelson, 2005;Kop & Euwema, 2001;Kop et al., 1999), and greater aggressivity (i.e., anger and hostility; Queirós et al., 2013). ...
... In this way, BWCs could potentially lead to the opposite of the intended effect-increasing, rather than decreasing, use of force incidents. Adams & Mastracci (2019) have argued that BWC-induced burnout could be a product of officers feeling like they are distrusted and in constant presence of an invisible audience (Ariss, 2002). Additionally, research on electronic performance monitoring demonstrates that employees who are subject to computerized surveillance report having less control over their work and feel a greater demand from their jobs, resulting in excess stress (Adams & Mastracci, 2019;Carayon, 1993;Siegel et al., 2022;Smith et al., 1992). ...
... Adams & Mastracci (2019) have argued that BWC-induced burnout could be a product of officers feeling like they are distrusted and in constant presence of an invisible audience (Ariss, 2002). Additionally, research on electronic performance monitoring demonstrates that employees who are subject to computerized surveillance report having less control over their work and feel a greater demand from their jobs, resulting in excess stress (Adams & Mastracci, 2019;Carayon, 1993;Siegel et al., 2022;Smith et al., 1992). This line of research suggests that BWCs should be implemented in a way that do not stress officers (Todak & Gaub, 2020) and make them feel like they are constantly watched and controlled. ...
Article
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The extant literature on police body-worn cameras (BWCs) has focused on how this technology would yield beneficial outcomes, such as having a “civilizing” effect on police behavior during interactions with civilians. While such studies have highlighted the potential positive outcomes of using BWCs, it is important to understand why and how police officers “buy-in” to its implementation in their departments. Officer buy-in can be important for several reasons, including officers’ compliance with BWC policy, mental health, and motivation to do their jobs. Therefore, the objective of the present paper was to emphasize the importance of considering officer buy-in when integrating BWCs, propose self-determination theory (SDT) as a theoretical framework to inform research on officer buy-in, and provide future directions for research and policy based on SDT. We use SDT as the basis of our research, as other theories (i.e., self-awareness and deterrence theory) do not sufficiently explicate how officer buy-in may be obtained.
... Os profissionais da segurança pública estão constantemente expostos a situações traumáticas (Heffren & Hausdorf, 2014;Lopes & Barbosa, 2020) e de estresse , traduzindo-se em uma sensação de estarem sempre em perigo (Minayo, Souza, & Constantino, 2008;Oliveira & Faiman, 2019), tanto em horário de trabalho, quanto em seu momento de folga. A exposição aos riscos associados ao exercício da profissão pode gerar grande necessidade de suporte para que se sintam seguros e valorizados (Oliveira & Faiman, 2019), estando o maior PSO associado à redução da percepção de estresse Farr-Wharton et al., 2016) e sintomas de Burnout (Adams & Mastracci, 2019;Kula, 2016). É esperada a valorização do trabalho desses profissionais também por parte da sociedade. ...
... Os artigos analisados foram desenvolvidos com amostras de 18 países com Estados Unidos com maior frequência de estudos (n = 12), seguido de Austrália (n = 4), Índia (n = 4), China (n = 3), Malásia (n = 3), Alemanha (n = 2), Brasil (n = 2), Emirados Árabes (n = 2), Gana (n = 2), Reino Unido (n = 2), Turquia (n = 2), e demais países com apenas 1 estudo ( (Lopes & Barbosa, 2020), o que revela uma negligência com essa população. A minoria dos estudos se dedicou a avaliar os antecedentes de PSO (n = 5), como por exemplo, o uso de câmeras corporais (Adams & Mastracci, 2019) e a perspectiva de promoção (Boag-Munroe et al., 2017). A percepção de justiça organizacional foi a variável preditora mais frequente avaliada (p. ...
... Alguns estudos utilizaram medidas de valência negativa de bem-estar e identificaram uma relação inversa da PSO com burnout (p. ex., Miller et al., 2017;Adams & Mastracci, 2019) e sintomas de estresse (p. ex., Hadiyan, 2019;Violanti et al., 2018). ...
Article
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An integrative review of national and international literature was carried out to identify how the perception of organizational support was investigated in studies conducted in the area of public safety. We seek to present an overview of the scientific knowledge produced on the subject among police and firefighters in the last two decades, showing the development of research over time and the main results obtained. The searches were performed using Publish or Perish software, during the period from 2000 to 2020, in the Google Scholar academic database. A total of 53 articles were analyzed and the predominance of studies in the United States with low growth indicated by Sen's slope estimator (Q = 0.25 [CI99% = 0.05 - 0.50]) was identified. The results showed that in the field of public safety, the perception of organizational support occupies an important role in the relationship between worker and institution, relating to several indicators of well-being and job performance. The contributions of the results found were discussed, as well as the possibilities for future research.
... Yet these opposing ideas may demonstrate a 'larger dysfunction within policecitizen relationships that BWCs may illuminate but not remedy' (Lum, Stoltz, Koper, & Scherer, 2019, p. 104). Adams and Mastracci (2019) found statistically significant results between BWC, burnout, and a diminished feeling of organizational support. Their study demonstrated how BWCs can increase levels of burnout in police officers due to the nonstop scrutiny surrounding their actions. ...
... Their study demonstrated how BWCs can increase levels of burnout in police officers due to the nonstop scrutiny surrounding their actions. BWCs also invoke a stressful environment when it comes to keeping a harmonious relationship between the public and the police (Adams & Mastracci, 2019). They also found that BWCs can explain the reduction in the perceived support officers feel from their organization. ...
... According to Johnson (2015), these feelings of distrust between officers and the department's administration is due to the lack of support officers believe they receive during internal misconduct investigations and citizen complaints. The results of this study demonstrate that BWCs do indeed increase burnout for police officers, but if they receive support from their departments' management during incidents involving the cameras, burnout levels can be mediated (Adams & Mastracci, 2019). This study highlights the importance of recognizing that officers need support in their stressful work environment, especially with the growing surveillance technology, and doing so can help increase approval of BWCs among officers. ...
Article
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The aim of this study is to learn more about the factors that influence citizen perceptions of the public right to view BWC footage of a critical incident as well as police communication afterwards. To accomplish this, we used a 2 × 2 vignette where citizen race and object were manipulated to different conditions. Using a survey instrument sent to Amazon Mturk workers, several notable findings related to demographic and media perceptions were found regarding the public’s right to view the footage. White respondents were more likely to believe that the public should be able to view the footage involving the Black suspect holding a cellphone, whereas White respondents were less likely to believe that the public should be able to view the footage involving a Black suspect holding a handgun. Age was positively related to supporting increased communication from police for the scenario with a Black suspect with a cellphone,among several other significant relationships. As media hostility increased, respondents were less likely to support increased communication from the police. Perceptions of media hostility consistently influenced respondent perceptions of the public’s right to view BWC footage and police communication across all manipulations.
... Adams et al. [22] took a slightly different approach, where most of the other studies focused on the impact felt by residents, but this study focused on the effect felt by officers using BWCs. Although the implementation of BWC has been carried out and has received full support from the organization, it is still found that electronic performance monitoring has a negative effect on employee welfare, even increasing the burden on officers' performance and increasing fatigue. ...
... [21] Unfair/Corrupt [13] § When the perpetrators of the criminal justice system carry out their duties and authorities in a fair manner, it will automatically have an effect on increasing public trust. [13] Cost [21], [23] N/A Implemented BWCs without much scientific evidence [19] § Provide a lot of scientific evidence first before application [19] Increased burnout of officers [22] § Creating patterns and good habits with emotional regulation training for longterm needs [22] § Creating an environment with skills-based training to improve the ability of officers to face an increasingly competitive work environment [22] § Maintain good communication and training to officers regarding departmental policies and practices regarding body-worn cameras [22] Respect [25] § Officers' respectful behavior can have a significant impact on community trust, and this effect is not always evident or predictable [25] Required preconditions for a BWC [18] § Citizens' knowledge of BWC can have a positive effect on their assessment that meetings with the police are considered procedurally fairer than residents who do not have this knowledge. 14] § In an effort to maximize the effect of using BWCs, when carrying out their duties officers notify the public that the interaction is being filmed [23] Loss of legitimacy [21], [28] § Shows that preference can have a positive effect on the adoption of BWCs when compared to other organizational characteristics [28] Bandwich and IT Capacity [20], [21] § Periodically save recordings to storage media and provide empty dockets for use in the next shift [20] Based on the article by Wright et al. [27], it was concluded that although in the early stages of implementation there were anticipated benefits of BWCs, the community still felt skeptical about the use of BWCs, whether it was related to increasing the level of public trust to improving the relationship between police and community relations, especially communities of color. ...
... [21] Unfair/Corrupt [13] § When the perpetrators of the criminal justice system carry out their duties and authorities in a fair manner, it will automatically have an effect on increasing public trust. [13] Cost [21], [23] N/A Implemented BWCs without much scientific evidence [19] § Provide a lot of scientific evidence first before application [19] Increased burnout of officers [22] § Creating patterns and good habits with emotional regulation training for longterm needs [22] § Creating an environment with skills-based training to improve the ability of officers to face an increasingly competitive work environment [22] § Maintain good communication and training to officers regarding departmental policies and practices regarding body-worn cameras [22] Respect [25] § Officers' respectful behavior can have a significant impact on community trust, and this effect is not always evident or predictable [25] Required preconditions for a BWC [18] § Citizens' knowledge of BWC can have a positive effect on their assessment that meetings with the police are considered procedurally fairer than residents who do not have this knowledge. 14] § In an effort to maximize the effect of using BWCs, when carrying out their duties officers notify the public that the interaction is being filmed [23] Loss of legitimacy [21], [28] § Shows that preference can have a positive effect on the adoption of BWCs when compared to other organizational characteristics [28] Bandwich and IT Capacity [20], [21] § Periodically save recordings to storage media and provide empty dockets for use in the next shift [20] Based on the article by Wright et al. [27], it was concluded that although in the early stages of implementation there were anticipated benefits of BWCs, the community still felt skeptical about the use of BWCs, whether it was related to increasing the level of public trust to improving the relationship between police and community relations, especially communities of color. ...
Article
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Many studies have researched the application of BWCs or Body-Worn Cameras in various countries that have implemented the use of BWCs on law enforcement officers. Previous research hasmeasured how effective the implementation of body cameras is in helping law enforcement accountability and transparency, what problems may arise, and how the public perceives the use of BWCs by law enforcement. This study conducts a methodological literature review on previous research sources that have discussed the implementation of BWCs in various countries with varied research methods, resultingin various conclusions. The main study of this study aims to determine the challenges and solutions for implementingBWCs by police officers and the public awareness of BWCs. The approach used is an updatedguideline on PRISMA statement 2020 by compiling 13 main studies from 276 search results, starting from 2017 to 2022,that include problems and solutions for implementing BWCs andmeasuring people’s perceptions of BWCs usage. It was found in this study that some of the challenges in implementing BWCs by law enforcers aretrust, racism, privacy concerns, cost, and IT capacity. Meanwhile, public perception is divided into two groups:those who support and do not support it. Several supporting factors to consider arethat BWCs influence police behavior, accountability, legitimacy, transparency, and procedural justice.
... Such negative impacts could include consequences for workplace culture or wellbeing. Adams and Mastracci located a statistically significant positive relationship between BWCs and officer burnout, potentially by decreasing officers' sense of management support and enforcing social norms related to negative emotional expression (Adams & Mastracci, 2019b, 2019a. However, there is also evidence that the social context of the workplace moderates against the impact of BWCs and that a 'positive leadership climate' produces better consequences for wellbeing (Adams & Mastracci, 2019b, 2019a. ...
... Adams and Mastracci located a statistically significant positive relationship between BWCs and officer burnout, potentially by decreasing officers' sense of management support and enforcing social norms related to negative emotional expression (Adams & Mastracci, 2019b, 2019a. However, there is also evidence that the social context of the workplace moderates against the impact of BWCs and that a 'positive leadership climate' produces better consequences for wellbeing (Adams & Mastracci, 2019b, 2019a. ...
Article
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Body-worn cameras (BWCs) were introduced for ambulance crews in England in 2021 in response to rising rates of abuse targeted towards ambulance crews by members of the public. As part of an evaluation of the effectiveness of BWCs as a tool for reducing occupational violence, we produced a non-systematic literature review to examine the real-world outcomes and cost-effectiveness of BWCs in a variety of settings and countries. Our review identified minimal literature on the topic pertaining to the ambulance sector. While there is considerable evidence relating to BWCs and violence prevention more generally, much of it is poor quality, anecdotal, and focused on specific professions with limited scope for making generalisations. There is some evidence that BWCs have the potential to address violence and abuse directed towards ambulance staff. However, our analysis of costs and benefits also raises questions about evidence concerning the value of BWCs and their potential negative impacts on staff wellbeing. The literature is unclear about the underlying mechanisms through which BWCs might support violence reduction, and it is likely that any benefits will be mediated by the complex and unpredictable environment in which BWCs are being used, which is likely to have strong independent effects on outcomes. The more that BWC research is able to explore such mechanisms in detail to inform our understanding of how and under what conditions specific outcomes are observed, the more we will be able to make sense of the variable findings produced in this area to date.
... The literature also reveals an enduring theme associated with the level of concern the BWCs are used for monitoring officer performance (see Ariel et al., 2015;Adams and Mastracci, 2019;Koen and Willis, 2019;McManus et al., 2019). Appreciatively, a complaint against an officer and the officers' performance are intrinsically linked in the review of BWC footage, initially, during the triaging of a complaint and by the intrinsic nature of such triaging-the wait for the outcome, the officer concern as to the perception of their professionalism-there is impact on an officer's morale and attitude towards the use of BWCs. ...
... The increase in positive relations between the police and community also offers a valuable platform from which to view the role of BWCs in the context of the triaging of complaints and the associated impact on police morale. As indicated in the work of Ariel et al. (2015), Adams and Mastracci (2019), Koen and Willis (2019) and McManus et al. (2019) officers express concern the BWCs are utilized as a performance management tool, specifically, considered in negative terms whereby managers are looking for faults in officer behaviour and professionalism. In this current study the data suggests there is negligible concern by officers and their managers the BWCs are used as a performance management tool, rather, the data suggests officers perceive the BWCs as a positive contributor to supporting evidence of their appropriate behaviour and professionalism. ...
Article
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Globally, police and law enforcement agencies have looked to Body-Worn Cameras (BWC) for the promise they may offer to address the many and varied complex issues faced in policing a rapidly changing modern society. This paper discusses the evaluation of the use of BWCs in the 17,000+ officer New South Wales Police Force (NSWPF) and the results specifically associated with implications for the topical and widely impactful complaints against police domain. The evaluative research is one of the first of its kind in Australia and the quantitative and qualitative data (from questionnaires and interviews) was sourced from members of the community, legal profession, judiciary, front line police officers, police managers, victims of crime advocacy groups, multicultural group representatives and organizational data, to inform on the potential impact from the deployment of BWCs by NSWPF officers. The results indicate potential, substantial advantages with data trends indicating a reduction in the number of complaints received and a reduction in the number of citizen complaints against officers upheld. The efficiency of triaging complaint submissions and the associated reported increase in officer morale are key areas to which the literature to date is an under-explored aspect of the police use of BWCs. This study offers a contribution to the constantly evolving body of literature and importantly contributing to informing policing policy, operational procedures and initiatives in safeguarding police officers and the community they serve.
... Since 2014, BWC research has explored various aspects of this technology such as impacts on police passivity (Adams & Mastracci, 2018;Wallace et al., 2018), citizen perceptions , police interactions with the public (Voight et al., 2017), organizational processes (Koen et al., , 2022, and specialized units (Gaub et al., 2020), most BWC research has considered certain police outcomes and perceptions (Lum et al., 2019;White & Malm, 2020). ...
... While only a handful of studies have considered the impacts of BWCs on police discretion, there is some evidence of BWCs potentially constricting police discretion (Ready & Young, 2015;Adams & Mastracci, 2018;. For example, a study showed that BWCs prompted some officers to cut fewer breaks or let people off with a warning , while more quantitative examinations have found that citation activity seems to increase with the implementation of BWCs (Ready & Young, 2015). ...
Article
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Using the structuration paradigm, the purpose of this paper is to make sense of the implementation body-worn cameras at the Pennybridge Police Department (pseudonym), a mid-sized (< 300 sworn officers), city-level police agency in the USA. More specifically, it examines how BWCs integrated into the structuration processes across 4 key organizational contexts: training, reporting, invoking the law, and supervision. Drawing from 106 semi-structured interviews with officers across all levels of the department, a patrol survey (n = 101), and observations of 149 citizen encounters, this paper explores how organizational structures and practices were shaped over the 3.5 years since BWC adoption. It finds that BWCs were not a significant source of change as the technology seemed to have little impact on the already ingrained structures and practices. When change did occur, it was subtle or because change was mandated through policy. This study provides important implications for scholars and practitioners.
... The literature surrounding BWCs focuses on the impact devices have on officer behaviors, including citizen complaints or unnecessary uses of force (Ariel et al., 2015;Çubukçu et al., 2021;Gaub & White, 2020;Huff et al., 2020;Lum et al., 2019;Malm, 2019;Peterson & Lawrence, 2020;Rowe et al., 2017;White & Fradella, 2018), citizen and officer perceptions (Adams & Mastracci, 2019;Hyatt et al., 2017;Wooditch et al., 2020), and police legitimacy (Gaub et al., 2017;Gaub et al., 2020a). ...
... These positive attitudes towards device effectiveness can be seen in more recent studies that found BWC evidence reduced racial disparities in criminal investigations (Çubukçu et al., 2021) and reduced days to adjudication in misdemeanor cases (White et al., 2019). Those studies which found negative reviews generally saw these stemming from specific areas in officer attitudes, such as technical difficulties, increased workload over report times, increased burnout levels and reduced perceptions of organizational support, and the impact BWCs may have on citizens, rather than a generally negative view (Adams and Mastracci, 2019;Lum et al., 2019;White & Fradella, 2018). ...
Thesis
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The purpose of this paper is twofold. The first purpose is to examine the quantitative aspects of police department body-worn camera utilization as of November 2020. The second part is to conduct a policy content analysis of body-worn camera policies from police departments in the state of Texas. The current dissertation utilized both survey data from 740 police departments on their adoption and utilization of body- worn cameras across the state of Texas, and 218 body-worn camera policies from a sample of those 740 agencies. The dissertation used a mixed-methods approach to better capture a complete picture of the current state of body-worn camera programs in Texas. The results for the descriptive analyses from the quantitative portion show most police agencies who responded (85%) employ body-worn cameras to their officers. Of those agencies, 95% employ cameras to over 75% of their officers. The results for the remaining quantitative analyses point towards the need for additional policy analyses. The qualitative analyses showed BWC policy contents and their specific wordings and how they varied between multiple agency types and sizes. The conclusions and implications showed the importance of increased standardization of body-worn camera policies, of specific wording within policies and how they depict discretionary points, and of the examination of multiple agency types and sizes within police policy analyses.
... As BWC policies proliferated, scholars examined the factors that influenced the adoption of these policies (Nix et al., 2020;Pyo, 2022), the attitudes of officers about these policies (Adams & Mastracci, 2019;Headley et al., 2017), and the influence that these policies have on the public's perceptions (Demir et al., 2020;Wright & Headley, 2021). Concerning the effects of BWCs on police actions, the body of evidence builds primarily from single-agency case studies, providing a mixed and inconclusive picture of the effects. ...
Article
Drawing on the literature on bureaucratic discretion, this study conducts a large‐scale, nationwide causal analysis of the effects of body‐worn cameras (BWC) in the United States (US). It employs a staggered difference‐in‐differences (DiD) approach using 12 years of panel data (2008–2019) covering 697 local police agencies. The findings indicate that BWC adoption had no significant effect on White arrests but led to an approximately 5.5% decrease in Black arrests. Importantly, the reduction in Black arrests was concentrated in alcohol‐related cases, which involve considerable officer discretion, but did not extend to cases categorized as more serious public safety threats, such as violent or property crimes, where officer discretion may be more limited. Meanwhile, there was also a 7.7% increase in White arrests related to weapon offenses, aligning with prior studies that suggest BWCs may serve as a tool for evidence collection. Our findings provide insight into how BWCs have influenced police arrests in the US, advancing beyond previous single‐case evaluations.
... While officers broadly support BWCs, this approval often hinges on the technology's capacity to substantiate officer actions, particularly in incidents involving force or public complaints (Gaub et al., 2016). However, there remains significant apprehension among officers regarding the potential for BWC footage to serve as a "fishing expedition," uncovering minor policy breaches that would otherwise go unnoticed (Adams & Mastracci, 2019b;Watts et al., 2024). By offering direct, unsupervised feedback, which might include policy violations, we aim to make the feedback process more acceptable to officers by circumventing the traditional supervisory route. ...
... For instance, low compliance rates in BWC activations are associated with negative perceptions of the technology . Moreover, buyin and support from line-level officers could help mitigate burnout and improve perceptions of organizational support (Adams & Mastracci, 2019;Drover & Ariel, 2015). Department leadership can reduce potential resistance from officers by actively engaging them in the planning and Mean, Standard deviation in parentheses; Likert scale (1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly agree); AJPD (n = 62), CGPD (n = 6) Will only be used to punish officers. ...
Article
Body-worn cameras (BWCs) have been widely adopted as a tool to promote police reform. However, studies have shown that most of the footage recorded by BWCs (about 95 per cent) is never reviewed or seen, which undercuts the core benefits of BWCs. Artificial Intelligence-driven analytics may overcome this problem. One example is Truleo, which uses natural language processing to analyse the audio footage and produce metrics of risk and professionalism. However, there is virtually no research examining its use and impact in policing. In the current study, we describe preliminary findings from ongoing randomized controlled trials testing the implementation and impact of Truleo in the Apache Junction and Casa Grande Police Departments. We draw on focus groups of officers, sergeants, and upper-level management and officer perceptions via surveys administered pre-deployment of the technology. We conclude with a discussion of policy implications related to the use of AI for BWC footage review, particularly with regard to how the technology may promote professionalism, intensify supervision, and increase organizational efficiency.
... However, despite commercial claims that this technology will dramatically decrease the time officers spend manually writing initial reports (Keough, 2024), no experimental test of those claims has been reported to date. As is often the case, rapid adoption of police technology is often done in advance of the empirical record on the ability of the tool to achieve its aims and avoid unintended consequences (Adams & Mastracci, 2019;Lum et al., 2017). ...
Article
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Objectives This study examines the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) to reduce the time police officers spend writing reports, a task that consumes a significant portion of their workday. Methods In a pre-registered randomized controlled trial, we test this claim within the patrol division of a medium-sized police department (n = 85) at the individual report level (n = 755). Analyses utilize mixed-effects regression accounting for the nested structure of report-writing. Results AI assistance did not significantly affect the duration of writing police reports. Alternative specifications beyond those specified in the pre-registration, including a difference-in-differences approach observing report duration over a full year (n = 6084), confirm the null findings are robust. Conclusions Our findings contradict marketing expectations for the effect of this technology, suggesting no time savings in report-writing can be expected when using AI-assisted report-writing. Several other potential effects remain possible and untested.
... There is evidence indicating that burnout significantly impacts various aspects, including mental health, job performance, turnover intention (2,22,23), attitudes toward violence (24), and behavior in conflict situations (25). Burnout also leads to work-family conflict (26)(27)(28), emotional labor (29), and including suicide (30-33). ...
Article
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Objectives This study aims to investigate the contribution of the double-track human resource management model to the job performance and mental health of frontline police within China’s public security organs. Methodology An individual-centered approach, latent profile analysis (LPA), was utilized in this study, which used cluster sampling to survey all police of all 118 frontline police stations in an economically underdeveloped area of China and 839 personnel were selected for the analysis. This method allowed for a detailed examination of the contribution of the double-track system to job performance and mental health. Findings and conclusion The study identified three subtypes of job burnout among Chinese police: low job burnout, medium job burnout, and emotional exhaustion type. The double-track human resource management model in China’s public security organs has contributed to significant disparities between civilian and auxiliary police, such as more severe job burnout among civilian police, lower job performance, and mental health among auxiliary police. Implications To mitigate the potential risks associated with the double-track human resource management model, adjustments are necessary for both the management system and the treatment distribution system, which would also help address the disparities and improve the overall wellbeing and performance of all police officers.
... Emotional labour has become a crucial component in a variety of professions and service industries (Adams & Mastracci, 2018;Yucebalkan & Karasakal, 2016). The professions mentioned encompass medical practitioners, nursing professionals, educators, airline personnel, social service providers, call centre workers, and sales agents (Han et al., 2022;Bayram et al., 2012). ...
Article
Burnout, characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a diminished sense of personal accomplishment, is an occupational phenomenon now recognized by the World Health Organization. This study explores the interplay between psychological capital and emotional labour in contributing to burnout among workers in a Malaysian non-profit organization (NPO). Psychological capital encompasses positive psychological states such as self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience. Emotional labour involves managing emotions to fulfil job roles, often requiring workers to present emotions that may not reflect their true feelings. The constant need to maintain these emotional displays can lead to emotional dissonance and burnout. Given Malaysia's demographic shifts towards an ageing population, the implications of burnout among NPO workers, who provide critical services to vulnerable groups, are significant. The high workload and emotional demands placed on these workers can result in chronic stress, emotional exhaustion, and a decrease in job performance and motivation. This study aims to fill the research gap by examining the specific factors that contribute to burnout in the Malaysian context, considering the unique cultural and social dynamics that may influence these relationships. The findings of this research can provide valuable insights for developing interventions to enhance psychological resilience and manage emotional labour more effectively among NPO workers. By addressing these challenges, organizations can support their workforce in maintaining high levels of service quality and personal well-being, which is crucial for the sustainability of NPOs and the well-being of the communities they serve.
... However, despite commercial claims that this technology will dramatically decrease the time officers spend manually writing initial reports (Keough, 2024), no experimental test of those claims has been reported to date. As is often the case, rapid adoption of police technology is often done in advance of the empirical record on the ability of the tool to achieve its aims, and avoid unintended consequences (Adams & Mastracci, 2019;Lum et al., 2017). In this pre-registered randomized control trial, we focus specifically on the efficiency aspect of AI-assisted report writing, utilizing a commercial product from Axon called "Draft One." ...
... Ravid et al. (2023) reported a slightly stronger correlation of r = 0.15 based on 23 independent studies, with no significant differences between field and laboratory studies. Similarly small effects on stress have been noted when comparing police officers with and without body-worn cameras (Adams & Mastracci 2019). These findings suggest a consistent but small effect of electronic monitoring on strain reactions. ...
Article
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Employers’ electronic monitoring of employees’ actions, also known as employee surveillance, has become a common phenomenon in contemporary workplaces, enabled by advancements in technology. This comprehensive review synthesizes current knowledge across multiple research streams regarding electronic monitoring. While the overall impact of monitoring on performance appears neutral, a small positive correlation can be observed with strain, and a small negative correlation can be observed with job attitudes. These modest effect sizes may stem from paradoxical effects that counterbalance each other, a phenomenon known as suppression. Moreover, these relationships are likely contingent upon various moderating factors, including individual traits, job characteristics, and national differences, particularly in legal regulations. To foster a more nuanced understanding of electronic monitoring's implications, future research should prioritize methodological rigor, embrace open science practices, and use validated measures and longitudinal designs. Additionally, adopting a process-oriented approach delineating the phases of decision-making, preparation, start, continuation, and discontinuation of electronic monitoring implementation could offer valuable insights.
... Rapid adoption of artificial intelligence technology in the workspace may negatively impact workers generally (Nazareno & Schiff, 2021), by impacting their workplace freedom, sense of meaning, cognitive load, external monitoring, and insecurity. Some of these channels of influence have been documented previously in the BWC context, with the cameras associated with increased burnout (Adams & Mastracci, 2019b) and greater perceived intensity of monitoring by internal and external audiences (Adams & Mastracci, 2019a). Given that backdrop, attending to officers' concerns about automation and artificial intelligence in the police workplace is a critical evaluative step. ...
... Further, perceived organizational support has been activated into four dimensions: fairness, job condition, supervisory support, and organizational reward [22]. As perceived organizational support increases when employees believe they receive favorable treatment from the organization in terms of supervisory support, fairness and procedural justice, and rewards and job conditions [23]. ...
... Based on the JD-R model, we expect that negative community stressors (a demand) relate positively to officer burnout. Along those lines, studies have found that wearing body cameras, which may elicit greater feelings of control from the organization and/or public, can be related to higher levels of burnout (Adams and Mastracci, 2018). On the other hand, community support (a resource) could reduce burnout and enhance engagement, in line with the role of resources in the JD-R model. ...
Article
Purpose Community-police relations have gained increasing public attention during the past decade. The purpose of the present study was to better understand the relationship between perceived community support and police officer burnout and engagement. Design/methodology/approach Data were gathered via online survey from 117 officers from a city police department in the Southeastern United States. Findings Community support was negatively correlated with burnout and positively correlated with engagement. Moreover, multiple regression analyses showed that community support explained significant incremental variance in most dimensions of burnout and engagement, above and beyond demographic factors and community stressors. Qualitative results showed that police officers had mixed perceptions of how they were viewed by the general public, with more negative than positive responses. However, officers felt more positively perceived in their own communities, but concerns were raised that national events affected the perceptions of officers even in positive relationships with their communities. Finally, officers felt that public perceptions impacted their job satisfaction, job performance and personal lives. Practical implications The results have practical implications for how to encourage positive interactions between officers and their community, with recommendations for both law enforcement leaders and civilians. Originality/value This study is one of the few that highlights the officers' perspective on how public perceptions affect their work. This is important in understanding how to maximize quality community interactions while minimizing conditions that would increase burnout.
... En este contexto, la dirección algorítmica parece el último -y quizá definitivo-elemento que permitirá la completa adhesión al modelo de externalización total de la provisión de bienes y servicios de aquellas empresas que todavía no lo hacían (Adams y Mastracci, 2019). ...
Article
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El estudio sostiene que la dirección algorítmica de las personas trabajadoras, en las empresas de plataformas digitales y también en otro tipo de empresas, está incrementando las posibilidades de externalización productiva. La necesidad de la empresa principal de controlar la prestación de servicios de la contratista se consigue con el aumento de las tecnologías de vigilancia y los algoritmos. Este trabajo analiza la relevancia jurídica del control algorítmico por parte de la principal a efectos de la calificación de cesión ilegal de trabajadores. Además, determina que el control algorítmico será un elemento clave dadas las capacidades de control concreto y en tiempo real que proporciona a la principal sobre las personas trabajadoras de la contratista y la relevancia del mismo como medio de producción para poder prestar los servicios contratados. Adicionalmente, califica como insuficiente e inadecuada la regulación actual en materia de cesión ilegal de trabajadores. El trabajo termina con un análisis de los perjuicios que provoca para los derechos de las personas trabajadoras la externalización productiva y, como alternativa a la inadecuada institución de la cesión ilegal de trabajadores, se propone una regulación que obligue a considerar a toda la red empresarial como si de una única empresa se tratara a efectos de ciertas regulaciones laborales con objeto de evitar la «huida del derecho del trabajo» mediante la externalización productiva.
... Reportedly, most U.S. police agencies with BWCs allow pre-report review [8]. Academic research into BWCs has explored various aspects of the technology (Lum, et al., 2019;Malm, 2019;White and Malm, 2020), including impacts on police passivity (Adams and Mastracci, 2018;Wallace, et al., 2018), citizen perceptions , organizational processes Koen and Mathna, 2019;Kyle and White, 2017;, and their use by specialized units (Gaub, et al., 2020). However, much BWC research has centered on police outcomes and perceptions (see Lum, et al., 2019;Malm, 2019;White and Malm, 2020), especially the impacts of BWCs on formal citizen complaints and use-of-force incidents. ...
Article
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Police body-worn cameras (BWCs) have emerged in response to calls for greater police transparency and accountability. Leveraged as techno-regulatory tools with the potential to influence officer behavior, BWCs may also afford officers opportunities to review video footage prior to writing incident reports, which has implications for how police-public interactions are documented in official records. In this study of BWC adoption by a police agency in the United States, we examine how officers’ ideological perspectives on BWCs, technological limitations, and policy-related concerns influenced their decisions about whether and how to review video as part of their report writing practice. In conclusion, we argue that police practitioners and policy-makers should provide clearer policy guidance to officers about how BWC footage should be used in the report writing process and that police administrators, policy-makers, and researchers should directly consider the role that technology might play in regulating officer behavior, even in unintended ways.
... As supported by Ariel et al. (2016), not only BWCs have no effect on police use of force, but they also increase the rate of assaults against officers wearing such cameras. Similarly, a study conducted by Adams and Mastracci (2019) underscored that BWCs increase police officer burnout and, also, reduce their perceived organizational support. Coupled with these findings, officers in Hallandale Beach Police Department were found to become more (albeit slightly) pessimistic after the implementation of BWCs (Headley et al., 2017). ...
Article
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The article explores the Cypriot police officers’ projections on the access of the front-line officers and their supervisors to the recorded material, the ‘censoring’ of police discretion, the improvement of procedural justice, and the respective citizens’ reactions. For collecting the data, a web-based survey—accessed via the intranet of Cypol—has been conducted among 449 sworn police officers, whose responses cast light on the anticipated ways in which officers could possibly react, should the individual bearing of cameras became a mandate. Findings derive from qualitative and quantitative data analysis and overall point out that the great majority (82%) of officers—the legitimators—endorse BWCs, a smaller percentage (11%) of officers reject them—the nihilists—and the smallest faction (7%) are unsure—the agnostics—about this prospect. Furthermore, male officers strongly agree with the use of BWCs to a greater extent than female officers and, also, officers engaged in operational duties, as opposed to other types of duties, support the use of BWCs to a significant degree. In all, the forthcoming of BWCs is conditionally, yet extensively endorsed.
... One way to understand an officer's cutting choices is to examine the technological frames they adopt when activating and deactivating a camera. Some officers, for example, associate body worn cameras with external pressures to maintain a 'by the book' appearance (Adams and Mastracci 2019). Consequently, officers may understand body worn cameras as technologies of scrutiny and, as a result, leave cameras inactive despite policy and training encouraging their activation (Simmons 2014, Newell andGreidanus 2017). ...
Article
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The impact of body worn cameras on policing will depend on multiple factors such as effective training, and high-quality technological design. Among these factors, we argue, are police officer’s understanding and operation of body worn cameras. Operation involves user decisions about when to activate a body worn camera and where to direct its lens. With that in mind, we propose that police officers, especially when ineffectively regulated by policy, can be theoretically understood as filmmakers who determine the footage body worn cameras produce and the stories the technology can tell. In support of our reconceptualization of police officers as filmmakers, we highlight two cinematographic decisions officers make as part of routine police work: the cutting decision and the camera-angle decision.
... The death of Ms. Taylor resulted in the ban of noknock warrants in Louisville (Oppel et al., 2021), whereas the death of Mr. Floyd has provoked a civil rights investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (Arango, 2021). As a means of police reform, lawmakers are creating policies that limit the amount of force police officers can use (Stoughton et al., 2021), require that body cams are worn by all police officers (Adams & Mastracci, 2019), revisit the idea of qualified immunity that is afforded to sworn police officers (Duckett, 2016), or even strip police officers involved in misconduct of their Peace Officer Standards Training (POST) certification and licensure to work as a police officer within the United States (Goldman & Puro, 2001). Although the effort to reform police departments is renewed, it is not entirely new. ...
Article
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Despite decades of attention paid to police reform, cases of office misconduct still continue to plague policing organizations. Assuming that organizations may still experience such officer malfeasance even when attempting to pursue best practices, we aim to explore how things can go wrong when everything else seems right. Specifically, we rely on trickle-down models of organizational justice, group engagement, and social identity to articulate how otherwise desirable organizational outcomes may produce detrimental outgroup biases. Based on our theoretical premise, we articulate specific changes that may be made to personnel systems that can avoid such officer misconduct in policing contexts.
... Perceived organizational support (POS) refers to employees' belief in whether and how the organization is willing to provide them with the help they need in terms of work and stress management [33]. Highly perceived organizational support includes preferential treatment from the organization in terms of employees' perception of their pay and working conditions, justice and fairness, and supervisory support [34]. Moreover, Van der Laken et al. [35] elucidate that the pivotal role of POS includes reducing uncertainty and stress (from the perspective of stress management), providing favorable resources for employees (from the perspective of social capital), and increasing the sense of obligation to contribute to reciprocity (from the perspective of social exchange). ...
Article
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In recent years, Hungary has seen a dramatic increase in the number of international students, particularly since the government launched a scholarship program to encourage more talented overseas students to study at Hungarian universities. The mobilities of these students have notably increased their participation in part-time jobs or internships in the host country. These work experiences could broaden the perspectives of international students regarding the organizational operation modes in the host country’s firms; moreover, they may impact their ability to interculturally adjust to the host country’s culture, clarifying their intentions to stay or not. This article attempts to find out how perceived organizational support (POS) affects international students’ plans to stay and work abroad (IS), as well as what roles conflict management climate (CMC) and intercultural adjustment (IA) play in this relationship. A linear snowball sampling method was used to collect the data. The study’s sample was taken from international students in Hungary with part-time jobs or internships. A self-administrated questionnaire was distributed to the participants through online channels. The PLS-SEM method was used to empirically test the proposed hypothesis. Later, a total of 433 valid answers were used for the analysis. The results reveal that POS positively and significantly affects CMC and IA but has no significant effect on IS. Moreover, IA is the only factor that has a direct impact on IS and it shows a significant mediating impact on the relationship between POS and IS. The findings contribute to the success of Hungarian organizations in retaining talented young (or soon-to-graduate) employees in their companies by encouraging their intentions to stay in the country.
... It is suggested that burnout levels are higher in policing than in other professions and that the high-stress nature of the role poses a severe threat to officers' health (Adams & Mastracci, 2019;Basinska et al., 2014). Numerous surveys validate this research, including that conducted by Elliot-Davies (2018) indicating that 79% of respondents had experienced mental health challenges, the vast majority of whom (94%) claimed that work had caused or worsened their condition. ...
Article
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Burnout is defined as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and reduced efficacy (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). With burnout becoming increasingly prevalent within policing, this study aimed to expand awareness by exploring the lived experience of this syndrome for serving officers. Utilising a qualitative approach, data was derived from five participants using semi-structured interviews and an interpretative phenomenological methodology (IPA) for analysis. Six categories of themes emerged: perceived causes, personal impact factors, experiencing burnout, changed feelings and behaviour, the underlying meaning, and learning derived from the experience. Participants perceived organisational issues as the main cause of their burnout. They also described other aspects of their experience which contributed towards their long-term suffering. The relationship between burnout and spiritual crisis is discussed, an area rarely explored, but one that provides rich material for those focused on burnout research. It is hoped that this study will help inform work-based solutions and provide a platform for future investigation.
... In both Anglo-American and Scandinavian national contexts, body-worn cameras (BWCs) have been adopted without any scientific knowledge of their consequences for the officers who wear them (Adams and Mastracci, 2019;Lum et al., 2020). In this article, we draw on interviews with private security industry representatives in Sweden to explore how they make sense of and legitimize the introduction and use of BWCs in the industry. ...
Article
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Purpose The authors set out to show how key private security industry actors in Sweden establish body-worn cameras (BWCs) as a tool to protect private security officers from the public the officers police and to improve the work environment of the officers. Design/methodology/approach The authors conducted qualitative semi-structured interviews with key personnel involved in the implementation of BWCs. The authors' analysis focused on delineating recurrent moral stories and affirmative environments to show how BWC use was made legitimate as a work environment tool. Findings The authors show how BWC use by private security officers patrolling public spaces in Sweden is legitimized by four organizational narratives: (1) the vulnerable security officer and the caring employer, (2) defenders of protective regulation, (3) moral selves and morally dubious others and (4) function creep and moral guardians. The authors explain how such organizational narratives are key to establishing and legitimizing the use of BWCs as a tool to improve the work environment of private security guards, and how certain narrative environments promote such organizational narratives in Sweden to improve the work environment of private security guards. Originality/value The authors' findings in this article add to a small but growing literature on BWC use in policing outside of the USA and the UK as well as to the hitherto very limited research from the work environment and managerial perspectives. The authors illustrate the importance of organizational narratives and narrative environments for understanding organizational change involving legitimation of new technologies.
Article
Purpose In recent years, organizations have progressively adopted electronic performance monitoring (EPM) to obtain accurate employee performance data and improve management efficiency in response to the growing complexity of the work environment. However, existing research has primarily focused on examining the effect of EPM on employee behaviors within established job designs, neglecting the consequential role of EPM in shaping employees’ bottom-up job redesign (i.e. job crafting). This study aims to explore whether and how EPM affects employee job crafting. Design/methodology/approach To test proposed hypotheses, we conducted two time-lagged surveys across different cultural contexts and a scenario experiment on an online platform in China. Findings The results revealed the negative indirect relationship between EPM and employee job crafting via role breadth self-efficacy. This indirect relationship was moderated by constructive supervisor feedback and job complexity, with the above relationships being weak (versus strong) when constructive supervisor feedback was high (versus low) or job complexity was low (versus high). Practical implications The results have crucial implications for organizational practices, suggesting that managers should provide constructive feedback to break the trade-off between EPM and job crafting. Additionally, managers may need to give employees with high job complexity more autonomy rather than intense monitoring. Originality/value This study is the first to clarify the effect of EPM on employee job crafting. As job crafting captures the important value of employees in organizational job design, our effort helps to enrich the understanding of EPM effectiveness.
Article
Introduction. Professional psychological selection is dedicated for fulfilling the need of the internal affairs bodies of the Russian Federation to identify candidates capable of performing their intended duties, and is a means of preventing deviant behaviour in future officers. There are four categories of professional psychological suitability based on two criteria: the level of development of personal and business qualities and the risk factors for deviant behaviour. The third category of professional psychological selection is the most widespread - it is conditionally recommended. Analysis of individual-psychological characteristics of candidates with this category is able to improve the quality of staffing and increase the efficiency of work with personnel. Methods. The data collection methods were a set of tests and questionnaires corresponding to those recommended for professional psychological selection. Data processing was carried out with the use of the hardware-software psychodiagnostic complex "Multipsychometer". Data analysis was carried out using the computer programme JAMOVI. The methods of descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation coefficient (r-Pearson), one-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used. Results. The results of the research of psychological peculiarities of candidates for the police service, referred to the third category of professional psychological suitability, are presented. The information on differences in the development of personal and business qualities in citizens depending on the results of their professional selection is obtained. The types of candidates recommended conditionally, depending on the presence of a risk factor of deviant behaviourare described. The results of the research prove the validity of the admission to the service of persons classified in the third category of professional suitability and indicate perspective directions of their psychological support at the initial stage of professionalisation.
Article
The behaviour of certain members of a profession can ‘taint’ other workers. In this qualitative study, we explore how police officers perceive media constructions of their profession. Participating police officers feel ridiculed by the media and are overwhelmed by instances of public disdain. They acknowledge moments of esteem, often as a result of self-sacrifice, yet lament that these are generally temporary and fleeting, and instead, their profession is tarnished by the heinous acts committed by some police officers, constructed as representative of the profession as a whole. We discuss police officers’ understanding of the stickiness of ‘taint’ within their occupation and how it can affect perceptions of the self.
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Despite a surge in the number of organizations using surveillance technology to monitor their workers, understanding of the health impacts of these technologies in the broader working population is limited. The current study addresses this omission using a novel measure of an individual’s overall perception of workplace surveillance, which enables it to be asked of all workers, rather than only those in specific occupations or work contexts that have historically been vulnerable to electronic performance monitoring. Structural equation modeling analyses based on a national sample of Canadian workers ( N = 3,508) reveal that surveillance perceptions are indirectly associated with increased psychological distress and lower job satisfaction through stress proliferation. Findings demonstrate that the negative consequences of surveillance are explained by its positive association with three secondary work stressors: job pressures, reduced autonomy, and privacy violations. In the case of psychological distress, these stressors fully mediate a positive association with surveillance. The relationship between surveillance and job satisfaction is more complex, however, with the indirect effects of stress proliferation balanced out by a positive direct effect of surveillance on satisfaction. These results support the use of a stress process framework to examine how surveillance impacts worker well-being through stress proliferation.
Article
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In the last ten years, police organizations in the USA and Europe have started to implement body worn cameras. The main purpose and goal of the implementation of these cameras is aimed at preventing unlawful and unprofessional actions and behavior of police officers and socially undesirable behavior of citizens. Miniature cameras on the body of police officers should deter police officers and citizens from committing illegal and socially unacceptable actions and procedures towards each other. Police organizations try to use body worn cameras to achieve the abovementioned goals as a substitute for other means of correcting unwanted behaviors, primarily training and education of police officers. This paper analyzes the reasons for the implementation of body worn cameras in the police organizations across the USA and in some European countries in order to reach a conclusion about the justification and the possibility to achieve complex and responsible goals only with the help of cameras.
Article
Police body-worn cameras (BWC) have been lauded for their potential to increase transparency and accountability by documenting officers’ actions and interactions with citizens. However, despite their widespread use in recent years, several law enforcement agencies have been hesitant to adopt this technology because of privacy concerns. This article explores the views of police officers and citizens from the Canadian province of Quebec towards the use of BWCs. Specifically, it seeks to: (a) understand how officers feel about being monitored by BWCs and (b) assess citizens’ privacy concerns towards police BWCs. A mixed-method research design was used, including interviews and focus groups with 78 police officers, including 46 officers from four pilot sites, and a telephone survey of 1609 residents from the same sites. The results show that officers are concerned about the potential effects of BWCs on their privacy and the privacy of the public. One major area of concern is the impact it may have on their work performance and the use of adaptative measures that support them in carrying out challenging duties. By contrast, most citizens have no reservations about being recorded by a BWC. Certain individual characteristics—such as age and perceptions of the police—however, were associated with heightened privacy concerns. Without neglecting citizens’ privacy, this study provides insights into the development of BWC policies that preserve officers’ right to privacy and ability to fulfill their duty.
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Job burnout and turnover among those who work for correctional agencies have increased dramatically in recent years and are of primary concern to administrators and staff alike. Recent efforts to curb the exodus have focused on recruiting individuals who are theoretically well-suited for prison work, including former or current members of the U.S. military. We evaluate this strategy by assessing the presence of a “veteran effect” for those employed by the Utah Department of Corrections while also examining its impact across other criminal justice agencies where similar strategies have been implemented, including the Salt Lake County Sheriff’s Office and the Salt Lake City Police Department. Our results indicate that correctional employees are especially susceptible to burnout relative to those in police work, and that veteran status might insulate staff members from reporting these feelings. Implications for theory and policy are discussed, especially as they relate to addressing the current staffing crisis and litany of other benefits that accompany hiring military veterans as corrections personnel.
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Mental health at work associated suicide in police forces with burnout and job stress, which are high in Police. We aimed to identify operational/organizational stress, burnout and suicidal ideation levels in police officers, and to verify if suicidal ideation can be explained through burnout and stress. We applied online in 2021 with institutional authorization, an anonymous questionnaire to 1,802 police officers from PSP, Municipal Polices and GNR. It included sociodemographic/professional questions and Portuguese versions of PSQ-op-org, OLBI and ASIQ. The results indicated moderate means of operational/organizational stress and burnout, and low means of suicidal ideation. However, the cutoff points indicated 72% of the sample with high operational stress, 62% with high organizational stress and 56% in burnout, presenting 68% suicidal ideation, of which 3% in the last month. Comparative analyses did not indicate differences in suicidal ideation, but more stress/ burnout was found in male police officers, with fewer qualifications, in the position of agent/guard, working by shifts and in operational service. Correlations were found between stress/burnout/suicidal ideation, which was explained in 20% by the remaining variables, namely 7.3% by burnout, 6.5% by operational stress, 3.3% by organizational stress and 2.1% by professional variables, without significant contribution of sociodemographic variables. Keywords: burnout, operational stress, organizational stress, police officers, suicidal ideation.
Article
Police units worldwide are going through a three-generational technological shift: from “street” to “screen” to “system” technologies. This paper focuses on how these digital shifts shape police officers’ perceptions. First, concerning the change from “street” to “screen” police, it focuses on how it changes police officers’ perceptions of discretion and burnout. The shift from “screen” to “system” policy focuses on how perceptions towards “screen” technologies shape the receptivity of “system” technologies. We address these questions using a mixed-method approach to analyze Brazilian police officers’ shift from the Military Police to the Environmental Military Police. Findings suggest that changing from “street” to “screen” police reduces burnout and limited discretion among police officers. Moreover, usefulness in achieving professional goals and perceptions of monitoring via “screen” technology predict receptivity to “system” technology. We conclude that street-level bureaucrats’ perceptions of technological shifts are essential to acknowledge when planning and implementing such changes.
Article
Since 2014, China's Ministry of Public Security has begun to reform the national police system, which involves internal command, criminal intelligence and welfare support systems. This research aims to explore how policing reform affects the daily law enforcement of frontline police officers and grassroot police units, and the views of frontline police officers on policing reform. The study also analyses the changes in the organisational structure of grassroot police units and the criminal intelligence system after the policing reform. The research methodology consisted of the researchers conducting a textual analysis of work reports issued by multiple local police units and reform reports in newspapers, and investigating the views of frontline police officers on policing reform. The study found that the reform did help enhance the law enforcement capabilities of grassroot police units and frontline police officers. Most frontline police officers additionally supported the policing reform. However, the policing reform has also led to issues such as the indiscriminate expansion of police power and the work pressure on frontline police officers. Finally, this study is an exploratory observation of China's national police system and can provide new insights into research on policing and the understanding of Chinese policing practices. It can additionally provide different countries with new information about policing reform.
Article
Si l’on se penche sur les études portant sur l’usage de caméras portatives par les forces policières, on constate que le corpus est minime, et qu’il examine surtout d’éventuels effets dissuasifs de ces dispositifs quant au recours à la force par les policiers, et quant au comportement des citoyens lors des interactions avec ces derniers. La présente étude prend appui sur nos précédents travaux, sur des preuves empiriques ainsi que sur quelques anecdotes pertinentes afin d’illustrer trois enjeux méconnus de la question des caméras portatives, problématiques qui participent à encourager actuellement leur utilisation. Ces trois enjeux sont : 1) le marketing et la vente de caméras portatives auprès des forces de l’ordre ; 2) l’utilisation d’enregistrements provenant de ces caméras à des fins promotionnelles pour la police ; 3 le recours aux preuves visuelles à la cour, qui impliquent de plus en plus souvent des enregistrements de caméras portées par des policiers. Bien comprendre ces trois problématiques à la lumière de données empiriques demeure nécessaire afin d’avoir un regard critique sur les raisons pour lesquelles les forces de l’ordre ont recours aux caméras portatives et sur les manières dont elles les utilisent. Le présent article offrira en conclusion une courte discussion et des pistes pour des travaux subséquents.
Article
Les caméras portatives sont aujourd’hui considérées comme le nouvel outil ayant le potentiel de transformer la police. Celles-ci sont perçues comme une solution pour : 1) augmenter la transparence, la reddition des comptes et la légitimité de la police ; 2) améliorer l’efficacité des enquêtes ; et 3) rehausser la sécurité des citoyens et des policiers. Or, les résultats du corpus d’études évaluant les effets réels de ces caméras sont, d’une part, mitigés, d’autre part, majoritairement américains. Le contexte social et légal canadien étant différent de celui des États-Unis, les résultats américains ne sont pas nécessairement transposables au Canada. Quelques évaluations canadiennes sont toutefois disponibles pour guider la prise de décisions relatives aux caméras portatives sur policiers au Canada. L’objectif du présent article est donc de proposer une revue de la portée ( scoping review ) de 28 études sur les caméras portatives menées au Canada entre 2010 et 2021 et ayant soulevé des enjeux de légitimité et d’efficacité de la police. Les constats sont divisés en trois sections distinctes : 1) les bonnes pratiques en matière d’utilisation des caméras portatives dans les organisations policières canadiennes ; 2) le contraste entre les attentes à l’égard de cet outil et son réel potentiel ; et 3) les enjeux et limites associés à cet outil. Alors que l’article met en lumière certains effets positifs des caméras portatives, une réflexion est entamée quant à leur plus-value à la lumière de leurs enjeux et limites.
Book
The forthcoming book is published as part of the Routledge State of the Art in Business Research Series, and is co-authored with Prof. Pete Murphy at Nottingham Trent University. We explore the application of public management theories to emergency services and the development of professionalism within the police, fire and rescue and ambulance services. Drawing on latest research, it examines the increasing need for better collaboration and identifies the nature and extent of the academic and practitioner divide and the research gap between the academic and professional communities in each of the services. The book adds to the small but growing body of evidence in a field which is still under-researched in the management inquiry and will help scholars to appreciate the important role and contribution of these services.
Article
Purpose The objectives of this research were to examine how officer perspectives on body-worn cameras (BWCs) are patterned by broader occupational attitudes, and to analyze stability and change in officers' attitudes toward BWCs before and after the deployment of the technology. Design/methodology/approach The authors analyze panel survey data on individual officers in the Albany (New York) Police Department (APD). Findings Pre-BWC deployment, officers varied in their occupational attitudes and BWC perspectives, and the officers' BWC outlooks bore relationships to several occupational attitudes. BWC outlooks were largely stable following deployment. Individual changes in BWC perspectives were related to officers' assignments and unrelated to officers' occupational attitudes. Originality/value The authors use panel survey data to test hypotheses about the effect of broad occupational attitudes on officers' receptivity to BWCs and to analyze change pre-/post-BWC deployment.
Article
This review focuses on government use of technology to observe, collect, or record potential criminal activity in real-time, as contrasted with “transaction surveillance” that involves government efforts to access already-existing records and exploit Big Data, topics that have been the focus of previous reviews (Brayne 2018, Ridgeway 2018). Even so limited, surveillance technologies come in many guises, including closed-circuit television, automated license plate and facial readers, aerial cameras, and GPS tracking. Also classifiable as surveillance technology are devices such as thermal and electromagnetic imagers that can “see” through walls and clothing. Finally, surveillance includes wiretapping and other forms of communication interception. The following discussion briefly examines the limited evidence we have about the prevalence and effectiveness of these technologies and then describes the law governing surveillance, focusing principally on constitutional doctrine, and how it might—and might not—limit use of these technologies in the future. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Criminology, Volume 6 is January 2023. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Electronic monitoring is more and more widespread and affects many employees around the globe. The current meta-analysis collected data of 70 independent samples (with 233 effect sizes) to estimate the effect of electronic monitoring on job satisfaction, stress, performance, and CWB. A random-effects model indicated a small negative effect of monitoring on job satisfaction, r = −0.10. There was a small positive effect on stress, r = .11, and on CWB, r = .09, but not on performance, r = −0.01. Even though the effects of monitoring on employees’ job satisfaction and stress are small, they have probably a severe negative impact due to long-term use of electronic monitoring. The non-existing relationship of monitoring with performance but positive relationship with CWB questions the benefits of electronic monitoring for organizations. In addition, several moderators are examined and the results are discussed.
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Objectives We reconstruct the networks of officers co-involved in force incidents to test whether interactions with weapon-prone peers impact firearm use. Methods We draw from a statewide dataset of force incidents across law enforcement agencies in New Jersey, and employ conditional likelihood models to estimate whether exposure to peers with histories of firearm use is associated with an officer’s own likelihood of firearm use net of other contextual confounders. Results We find preliminary evidence that officer firearm behaviors, including drawing, pointing, and discharging a firearm, is influenced by an officer’s peers. Greater exposure to colleagues with histories of firearm use is associated with a lower risk of using a firearm. We also find that officer features, including experience and race/ethnicity, are associated with the risk of firearm use. Conclusions Our study suggests officers’ peers structure the risk of firearm use. Our data allow us to look at time order and rule out situational confounders pertaining to firearm use; however, do not allow us to infer causality. We discuss the study’s implications for understanding firearm behaviors and the role of network science in moving policing research forward.
Article
Purpose This study uses an interrupted time series research design to investigate the impact of a body-worn camera (BWC) program on a large police department. Methods We estimated a generalized linear model on a time series of monthly use of force and civilian complaint counts from January 2013 to September 2021 (N = 105) and controlled for other confounding influences. Results We observed a statistically significant increase in use of force incidents after the implementation of the BWC program. In comparison, the time series for civilian complaints experienced a statistically significant decrease over the same period. There was a substantial increase in use of force incidents during the early 2020s even after accounting for the BWC program. This period was defined by major social disruptions and civil unrest such as the protests surrounding George Floyd's death and the COVID-19 pandemic. Conclusions Despite the large number of previous evaluations of BWC programs these results are categorically distinct. The most plausible explanations for these findings are officers either increased reporting of use of force incidents or felt more confident using force because of this oversight. Future research should explore how major events of the early 2020s impacted police-civilian encounters across disparate communities.
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The phenomenon of suicide became a concern, since we observe an increase in the number of suicides, in general, but also in police officers, often using the service weapon and in the job context. It is therefore urgent to study this phenomenon, which some studies associate with the consequences of burnout as an inadequate response to chronic job stress. This work has as research problem the stress/burnout and suicidal ideation in the police forces, posing as research question: will operational/organizational stress and burnout constitute predictors of suicidal ideation in the police forces? Its objectives are: to identify the levels of operational and organizational stress, and of burnout in a sample of police; to know their suicidal ideation; to verify if stress, burnout and suicidal ideation vary according to sociodemographic and professional characteristics; and to verify if stress and burnout are predictors of suicidal ideation. An anonymous and confidential questionnaire was applied online, between February and October 2021, to 1802 police officers, after institutional authorization. This questionnaire included sociodemographic and labor questions and the Portuguese versions of the Operational Police Stress Questionnaire, Organizational Police Stress Questionnaire, Oldenburg Burnout Inventory and Adult Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire. The results revealed that police officers presented moderate averages of operational stress, organizational stress and burnout, and low averages of suicidal ideation. However, due to the dispersion of the results, an analysis of the authors' cutoff levels was performed, revealing 72% of the sample with high operational stress, 62% with high organizational stress, 56% in burnout, and 68% presenting suicidal ideation, of which 3% in the last month. Comparative analyses revealed that male police officers, with fewer qualifications, in the position of agent/guard, working in shifts, and doing operational tasks are the ones with the highest levels of stress/burnout. Suicidal ideation did not presented significant differences. There are significant correlations between stress, burnout and suicidal ideation, which is explained in 20% by the other variables, namely 7.3% by burnout, 6.5% by operational stress, 3.3% by organizational stress and 2.1% by professional variables, without significant explanatory contribution of sociodemographic variables. Thus, it is necessary to adopt stress management strategies to avoid that stress become burnout, as well as to reflect about suicidal ideation, as it is often associated with suicidal behaviors and suicide per se. Keywords: police officers, operational stress, organizational stress, burnout, suicidal ideation, questionnaire.
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The authors reviewed more than 70 studies concerning employees' general belief that their work organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being (perceived organizational support; POS). A meta-analysis indicated that 3 major categories of beneficial treatment received by employees (i.e., fairness, supervisor support, and organizational rewards and favorable job conditions) were associated with POS. POS, in turn, was related to outcomes favorable to employees (e.g., job satisfaction, positive mood) and the organization (e.g., affective commitment, performance, and lessened withdrawal behavior). These relationships depended on processes assumed by organizational support theory: employees' belief that the organization's actions were discretionary, feeling of obligation to aid the organization, fulfillment of socioemotional needs, and performance-reward expectancies.
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Police body-worn cameras (BWCs) are an increasingly prominent research area in criminal justice. This trend mirrors current practice, with more and more law enforcement agencies implementing or procuring BWCs. Yet the evidence on BWCs is substantially long on evidence but rather short on theory. Why should BWCs 'work' and under what conditions or on whom? This article offers a more robust theoretical composition for the causal mechanisms that can explain the efficacy of BWCs. What sets them apart from other surveillance devices, such as closedcircuit televisions (CCTVs), speed cameras, or bystanders' mobile cameras? We introduce the deterrence spectrum, within which BWCs can de-escalate or exacerbate aggressive encounters. We argue that the deterrent effect of BWCs is a function of discretion, whereby strong discretion is inversely linked to a weak deterrent effect that consequently leads to more use of force, and weak discretion is inversely linked to a strong deterrent effect and less forceful police responses. We show that the deterrence effect of BWCs ranges from 'minimal deterrence' to 'maximum deterrence' depending on the officer's discretion. At one extreme, 'over-deterrence' and even 'inertia' are possible, which are manifested in police withdrawal. Given the mechanisms that are in play, more attention ought to be given to officers' discretion, training on appropriate use of BWCs, and technological fixes. We conclude by linking these findings to BWCs discretion policy, as well the willingness of the agency to adopt an evidence-based policing framework. © The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.
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Objectives Recently, scholars have applied self-awareness theory to explain why body-worn cameras (BWCs) affect encounters between the public and police, with its most immediate manifestation being a reduction in the use of force by and complaints against police. In this study, we report on the paradoxical effects of BWCs in the context of assaults on officers. MethodsA multisite randomized controlled trial in ten departments, with officers wearing (or not wearing) BWCs based on random assignment of shifts. Odds ratios are used to estimate the treatment effect on assaults, along with “one study removed” sensitivity analyses. Further subgroup analyses are performed in terms of varying degrees of officers’ discretion, to enhance the practical applications of this multisite experiment. Finally, before-analyses are applied as well, including Bootstrapping and Monte-Carlo simulations to further validate the results under stricter statistical conditions, to illustrate the overall effects. ResultsA total of 394 assaults per 1000 arrests occurred during 3637 treatment shifts (M = 39.35, SD = 17.89) compared with 284 assaults per 1000 arrests during 3697 control shifts (M = 28.38; SD = 15.99), which translate into 37% higher odds of assault in treatment shifts than in control conditions. The perverse direction and relative magnitude in each experimental site in eight out of ten sites were consistent. The backfiring treatment effect was substantially more pronounced in low discretion sites, i.e., where officers strongly followed the experimental protocol (OR = 2.565; 95% CI 1.792, 3.672). At the same time, before–after analyses show that assaults were overall reduced by 61% in the participating police departments, thus suggesting paradoxical effects. Conclusions We explain these findings using self-awareness theory. Once self-aware that their performance is being observed by BWCs, officers become at risk of being assaulted. Results suggest that under some circumstances, self-awareness can lead to excessive self-inspection that strips power-holders of their ability to function under extreme situations. This mechanism is potentially a function of “over-deterrence”. The study further demonstrates the benefits of applying psychosocial theories to the study of social control and deterrence theories more broadly, with a robust and falsifiable mechanism that explains the conditions under which being observed stimulates either appropriate or perverse consequences.
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Police body-worn cameras have been advanced as a solution to disparate perceptions among the citizenry, public officials, community leaders, and the police themselves in the highly contested arena of police-citizen encounters. As with previous innovations in policing it is important that programs or policies developed for street-level application be planned in advance, and the opinions of police officers should be understood prior to implementation. This study provides survey responses from police officers in Buffalo and Rochester regarding their perceptions of body-worn cameras. Survey items were borrowed from prior research in Phoenix and Los Angeles. It also included items intended to measure the officer’s opinions about examining camera images prior to writing a report, an issue that is the subject of some disagreement among policy makers. Findings suggest similar attitudes toward body cameras not only among Buffalo and Rochester police officers, but also with police officers in other agencies. Almost all respondents agree or strongly agree that police officers should have the ability to review body camera images prior to writing a report. The policy implications of this finding are discussed.
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Body Worn Cameras are spreading worldwide, under the assumption that police performance, conduct, accountability, and legitimacy, in the eyes of the public, are enhanced as a result of using these devices. In addition, suspects’ demeanor during police-public engagements is hypothesized to change as a result of the video-recording of the encounter. For both parties-officers and suspects-the theoretical mechanism that underpins these behavioral changes is deterrence theory, self-awareness theory, or both. Yet evidence on the efficacy of Body Worn Cameras remains largely anecdotal, with only one rigorous study, from a small force in Rialto, California, validating the hypotheses. How Body Worn Cameras affect police-public interactions in large police departments remains unknown, as does their effect on other outcomes, such as arrests. With one Denver police district serving as the treatment area and five other districts within a large metropolitan area serving as comparisons, we offer mixed findings as in the Rialto Experiment, not least in terms of effect magnitudes. Adjusted odds-ratios suggest a significant 35% lower odds for citizens’ complaints against the police use of force, but 14% greater odds for a complaint against misconduct, when Body Worn Cameras are used. No discernable effect was detected on the odds of use of force at the aggregate, compared to control conditions (OR=0.928; p>0.1). Finally, arrest rates dropped significantly, with the odds of an arrest when Body Worn Cameras not present is 18% higher than the odds under treatment conditions. The outcomes are contextualized within the framework of reactive emergency calls for service rather than proactive policing. We further discuss officers’ decisions and the degree of the necessity of arrest in policing more broadly, because the burden of proof for tangible evidence necessary for making a legal arrest can be challenged with the evidence produced by Body Worn Cameras: officers become "cautious" about arresting suspects when Body Worn Cameras are present. Limitations associated with the lack of randomly assigned comparison units are discussed, as well, with practical recommendations for future research on Body Worn Cameras.
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Police Body-Worn Cameras breaks down what’s known – and not known – about the promises, perils, and potential best practices around police body-worn cameras. Both law enforcement and civil rights advocates are excited by the potential of body-worn cameras to improve community policing and safety, but there is no empirical research to conclusively suggest that these will reduce the deaths of black male civilians in encounters with police. There are some documented milder benefits evident from small pilot studies, such as more polite interactions between police and civilians when both parties are aware they are being recorded, and decreased fraudulent complaints made against officers. Many uncertainties about best practices of body-worn camera adoption and use remain, including when the cameras should record, what should be stored and retained, who should have access to the footage, and what policies should determine the release of footage to the public. As pilot and permanent body-worn camera programs are implemented, it is important to ask questions about how they can be best used to achieve their touted goals. How will the implementation of these programs be assessed for their efficacy in achieving accountability goals? What are the best policies to have in place to support those goals?
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In the surveillance society, the police are increasingly monitored by a growing network of cameras. Contemporary studies have begun to pay attention to the new and highly visible reality that police officers occupy, and speculate about how this reality impacts police work. Attention is also given to how police officers, as the subjects experiencing this higher visibility, understand, and adapt to camera-packed environments, both of which are key questions in the ongoing process of revealing how the police, one of society’s key socio-legal institutions, are impacted by the emerging surveillance society. This article contributes to the study of police perceptions of cameras by reporting the findings of an exploratory qualitative research project entitled the Police on Camera study (POC). The POC study’s findings show that while participating police officers expectedly express resentment towards cameras and photographers, they more often express the opinion that conducting police work in view of cameras is beneficial as it enables the production of favourable video footage which defends police actions against criticism and complaints. Based on the POC study’s finding, this article argues that police officers’ response to cameras are not necessarily shaped by an effort to avoid being recorded as is sometimes argued, but by an effort to optimise the on-camera experience by producing footage which will discredit complaints and reinforce a favourable assessment of the police institution.
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Despite relatively little extant research, efforts to expand the use of body-worn cameras (BWCs) in policing are increasing. Although recent research suggests positive impacts of BWCs on reducing police use-of-force and citizen complaints, little is known about community members’ perceptions of BWCs. The current study examined perceptions of residents of two Florida counties and found a large majority of respondents supported the use of BWCs. Structural equation modeling was utilized to examine factors that influence views of BWCs. Findings indicate that positive perceptions of police performance and more police interaction were associated with greater perceived benefits of BWCs, whereas concerns about the privacy reduced perceived BWC benefits. Respondents’ views of procedural fairness and crime concern were indirectly related to perceptions BWC benefits. Non-White and younger respondents were indirectly less likely to perceive benefits. Implications of these findings and future directions for research are discussed.
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One of the most compelling perceived benefits of body-worn cameras (BWCs) involves the potential for reductions in citizen complaints and police use of force. A handful of early studies reported significant reductions in both outcomes following BWC adoption, but several recent studies have failed to document such effects. The current study explores this question using data from a randomized controlled trial conducted in the Spokane (WA) Police Department. Approximately half of patrol officers (n = 82) were assigned BWCs in May 2015, while the other half (n = 67) received their BWCs 6 months later (November 2015). The study explores the effects of BWCs on use of force, complaints against officers, and officer injuries, using more than three years of official department data pre-and post-BWC deployment. The outcomes of interest are rare in Spokane, which limited both statistical power and the results from significance testing. However, the within-group trends are consistent with a positive effect, particularly for percent change. Following BWC deployment, the percentage of officers with a complaint in each group declined by 50% and 78% (Control and Treatment, respectively); the percentage of officers with a use of force declined notably (39%) for one group only. The reductions disappeared after 6 months for the Treatment group. There was no relationship between BWCs and officer injuries. The authors discuss the implications of the findings for the ongoing dialogue on BWCs.
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OBJECTIVES: Our multisite randomized controlled trial reported that police body-worn cameras (BWCs) had, on average, no effect on recorded incidents of police use of force. In some sites, rates of use of force decreased and in others increased. We wanted to understand these counter-intuitive findings and report pre-specified sub group analyses related to officers' discretion on activating the BWCs. METHODS: Using pre-established criteria for experimental protocol breakdown in terms of treatment integrity, ten experimental sites were subgrouped into “high-compliance” (no officer discretion applied to when and where BWCs should be used; n=3), “no-compliance” (treatment integrity failure in both treatment and control conditions ; n=4), and tests where officers applied discretion during treatment group but followed protocol in control conditions only (n=4). RESULTS: When officers complied with the experimental protocol and did not use discretion, use of force rates were 37% lower {SMD = (−.346); SE = .137; 95% CI (−.614) – (−.077)}; when officers did not comply with treatment protocol (i.e. officers chose when to turn cameras on/off), use of force rates were 71% higher {SMD = .392; SE = .130; 95% CI (.136) – (.647)}, compared to control conditions. When full discretion (i.e., overall breakdown of protocol) was applied to both treatment and control conditions, null effects were registered {SMD = .009; SE = .070; 95% CI (−.127) – (.146)} – compared to control conditions. CONCLUSIONS : BWCs can reduce police use of force when then officers' discretion to turn cameras on or off is minimized — in terms of both case types as well as individual incidents. BWCs ought to be switched on and the recording announced to suspects at early stages of police–public interactions. Future BWCs tests should pay close attention to adherence to experimental protocols.
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Police use of force is at the forefront of public awareness in many countries. Body-worn videos (BWVs) have been proposed as a new way of reducing police use of force, as well as assaults against officers. To date, only a handful of peer-reviewed randomised trials have looked at the effectiveness of BWVs, primarily focusing on use of force and complaints. We sought to replicate these studies, adding assaults against police officers as an additional outcome. Using a prospective meta-analysis of multi-site, multi-national randomised controlled trials from 10 discrete tests with a total population of +2 million, and 2.2 million police officer-hours, we assess the effect of BWVs on the rates of (i) police use of force and (ii) assaults against officers. Averaged over 10 trials, BWVs had no effect on police use of force (d = 0.021; SE = 0.056; 95% CI: –0.089–0.130), but led to an increased rate of assaults against officers wearing cameras (d = 0.176; SE = 0.058; 95% CI: 0.061–0.290). As there is evidence that cameras may increase the risk of assaults against officers, more attention should be paid to how these devices are implemented. Likewise, since other public-facing organisations are considering equipping their staff with BWVs (e.g. firefighters, private security, traffic wardens), the findings on risks associated with BWVs are transferrable to those occupations as well.
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The study investigated the moderating role of perceived organizational support on emotional labour–burnout relation among 323 secondary school teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria. Participants completed the Teacher Emotional Labor Scale (TELS), Survey of Perceived Organizational Support (SPOS), and Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). Results showed that surface acting, deep acting, and POS significantly predicted emotional exhaustion. Only deep acting and POS significantly predicted depersonalization whereas surface acting did not. Both the two-way interaction terms between surface acting and POS, and that between deep acting and POS were not significant in predicting either emotional exhaustion or depersonalization.
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Many people are enthusiastic about the potential benefits of police body-worn cameras (BWC). Despite this enthusiasm, however, there has been no research on law enforcement command staff perceptions of BWCs. Given the importance that law enforcement leadership plays in the decision to adopt and implement BWCs, it is necessary to assess their perceptions. This is the first study to measure law enforcement leadership attitudes toward BWCs. The study relies on data collected from surveys administered to command staff representing local, state and federal law enforcement agencies in a large southern county. Among the major perceptual findings are that command staff believe BWCs will impact police officers’ decisions to use force in encounters with citizens and police will be more reluctant to use necessary force in encounters with the public. Respondents also believe that use of BWCs is supported by the public because society does not trust police, media will use BWC data to embarrass police, and pressure to implement BWCs comes from the media. Perceptions of the impact of BWCs on safety, privacy, and police effectiveness are also discussed.
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Objective Police use-of-force continues to be a major source of international concern, inviting interest from academics and practitioners alike. Whether justified or unnecessary/excessive, the exercise of power by the police can potentially tarnish their relationship with the community. Police misconduct can translate into complaints against the police, which carry large economic and social costs. The question we try to answer is: do body-worn-cameras reduce the prevalence of use-of-force and/or citizens’ complaints against the police? Methods We empirically tested the use of body-worn-cameras by measuring the effect of videotaping police–public encounters on incidents of police use-of-force and complaints, in randomized-controlled settings. Over 12 months, we randomly-assigned officers to “experimental-shifts” during which they were equipped with body-worn HD cameras that recorded all contacts with the public and to “control-shifts” without the cameras (n = 988). We nominally defined use-of-force, both unnecessary/excessive and reasonable, as a non-desirable response in police–public encounters. We estimate the causal effect of the use of body-worn-videos on the two outcome variables using both between-group differences using a Poisson regression model as well as before-after estimates using interrupted time-series analyses. Results We found that the likelihood of force being used in control conditions were roughly twice those in experimental conditions. Similarly, a pre/post analysis of use-of-force and complaints data also support this result: the number of complaints filed against officers dropped from 0.7 complaints per 1,000 contacts to 0.07 per 1,000 contacts. We discuss the findings in terms of theory, research methods, policy and future avenues of research on body-worn-videos.
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Body-worn video (BWV) is seen internationally as having the potential to reduce public complaints against police, police use of force, and attrition of prosecutions due to lack of physical evidence. Beyond the Cambridge trial in Rialto, California, however, no studies have tested the effects of BWV. The present study documents a Police leaders’ implementation of a randomized controlled trial of the use of BWV. The main objectives are to identify the challenges to implementing a trial and identify how they were overcome. The solutions to these challenges may provide key lessons for police leaders, not only as they undertake evidence-based testing, but also as they manage police operations and implement change.
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Increasing numbers of police professionals have decided to practice evidence-based policing. Yet many of these “early adopters” encounter opposition from their colleagues. Advocates of evidence-based policing (EBP) increasingly ask whether, or how, an entire agency can be transformed at about the same time, rapidly creating a “tipping point” for “totally evidenced” policing—defined as a steady growth of evidence-based decisionmaking on as many practices as possible. Such tipping points may require (1) a powerful advocate for EBP; (2) an “evolutionary” dimension to add on to any “smothering paradigm” that resists the addition of evidence to decision-making; and (3) strong external demands for change. Several attempts to create “totally-evidenced'' decisions across entire agencies are under way. This article describes a hypothesis for how they might succeed, consisting of a 10-point plan to be implemented simultaneously.
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This study evaluated the impact of issuing all police officers on the Isle of Wight with Body Worn Video (BWV) cameras on 1 July 2013. It is based mainly on a series of measures in the year prior to camera issue compared to the same measures in the year after issue. These measures included data on changes in: public opinion; occurrences and crime; criminal justice processes (domestic assault) and complaints against police. In addition, there was also survey of IoW officers’ views on BWV cameras and observational fieldwork. It found that there was a significant change to certain types of occurrences and crimes reported to the police and that arrests, charging, guilty pleas and prosecutions for domestic assault all improved as a result of effective camera use. Police complaints were also reduced. The public and front line police officers had an overwhelmingly positive view of BWV camera use.
Article
Burnout as predictor of aggressivity among police officers This paper aims to understand the relationship between aggressivity and burnout among police officers, more precisely, it investigates whether burnout is a predictor of aggressivity among police officers. The study focuses on the relationship between burnout and aggressivity, using regression analysis to identify aggressivity predictors. The Maslach Burnout Inventory was used to measure burnout, while the Aggression Questionnaire was used to measure aggressivity. A cross-sectional study collected data from 274 male police officers (from PSP – Portuguese Police of Public Security) exercising urban patrol tasks in Porto or Lisbon. Low burnout and moderate aggressivity levels were found, with positive significant correlations. Regression analysis reveals that burnout, more than socio-demographic characteristics, predicts 13% to 22% of aggressivity. In particular, feelings of high depersonalisation and low personal accomplishment are the burnout dimensions that most strongly explain anger and aggressivity, whereas emotional exhaustion only explains 4% of verbal aggression. The study highlights the need to develop prevention strategies of stress, aiming to avoid the development of burnout as occupational chronic stress, and decreasing the risk of developing aggressivity among police officers. Despite the wide literature in the area of police officers’ burnout and individual characteristics (e.g. aggressivity proneness as a personality trait), there is limited research on the relationship between burnout and aggressivity. Within democratic societies where excessive use of force by police officers is criticised, aggressivity predicted by burnout reinforces the need to prevent occupational stress that leads to burnout.
Article
Police body-worn cameras (BWCs) have been widely promoted as a technological mechanism to improve policing and the perceived legitimacy of police and legal institutions, yet evidence of their effectiveness is limited. To estimate the effects of BWCs, we conducted a randomized controlled trial involving 2,224 Metropolitan Police Department officers in Washington, DC. Here we show that BWCs have very small and statistically insignificant effects on police use of force and civilian complaints, as well as other policing activities and judicial outcomes. These results suggest we should recalibrate our expectations of BWCs’ ability to induce large-scale behavioral changes in policing, particularly in contexts similar to Washington, DC.
Article
The growing use of body-worn cameras (BWCs) in law enforcement poses ethical and privacy threats to be considered by policy makers. Law enforcement adoption of surveillance technology often outpaces the laws and regulations that would ensure their appropriate use, and the negative consequences are rarely anticipated, particularly as they relate to privacy concerns. To date, the BWC policy narrative in the United States frames the technology as a method to increase transparency in police–community interactions and build legitimacy. However, irrespective of how noble the original intent, technologies tend to morph from beneficence to overt control in the absence of countervailing friction. This article critiques the increased transparency brought about by BWCs to broadly explore the impact of increased exposure on victims, and concludes by proposing ethical policy principles to limit the harms the new technology could pose to vulnerable victims of domestic and sexual violence.
Article
The aim of this study was to examine whether job demands and job resources predict depression and anxiety levels among police officers and whether emotional exhaustion plays a mediating role in this relationship. In addition, we tested whether job resources can serve as a protective factor against job-related strain. A total of 843 German police officers completed the questionnaires in an online survey. Results showed that job demands (high workload and assaults by citizens) predicted higher levels of depression and anxiety among police officers, mediated through emotional exhaustion. Furthermore, job resources (social support by colleagues, shared values, and positive leadership climate) buffered the effect of job demands on emotional exhaustion and were negatively associated with depression and anxiety levels. The identification of job demands and job resources that are related to psychological strain among police officers provides important information for interventions in order to promote mental health in the context of police work.
Article
Purpose Under certain conditions, experimental treatment effects result in behavioral modifications that persist beyond the study period, at times, even after the interventions are discontinued. On the other hand, there are interventions that generate brief, short-term effects that “fade out” once the manipulation is withdrawn or when the in-study follow-up period is completed. These scenarios are context specific. Methods This study reports the results from a three-year post-experimental follow-up from the world's first randomized controlled trial of police body-worn cameras. Results The results show that initial falls in rates of complaints against police and police use of force during arrest were sustained during the four years following the cameras being introduced. Conclusions The findings suggest that police officers do not become habituated to the effect of the body-worn cameras, and that persistence rather than fade-out effects may characterize this emerging technology.
Article
This research explores determinants of turnover intention of social workers. Retention of social workers is critical in the social welfare field because a high turnover rate is directly related to the deterioration of service quality. Of the many factors affecting turnover intention, this research focuses on emotional labor and organizational trust. The former characterizes social workers’ tasks in that they are regularly in contact with service clients. Surface acting, one of the emotional labor strategies, has shown a negative impact on employee attitudes. However, representing a psychological state of employees toward their organization, organizational trust leads to positive attitudes and behaviors. This research also explores antecedents of emotional labor and organizational trust. Interaction characteristics of emotional labor are considered for the former, and supervisory support and autonomy are tested for the latter. To examine the relationships among the variables, the research conducts structural equation model analysis on 242 social workers in South Korea. The analysis confirms that emotional labor increases turnover intention whereas trust reduces it. The analysis also demonstrates that autonomy and supervisory support enhance organizational trust, while surface acting is affected by the variety of emotions displayed and the duration of emotional labor.
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Treatments of race and police violence in the fields of public administration and policy have drawn eclectically from many disciplinary sources in historical, political, and managerial analysis. From an institutional perspective, emphasis has been on how organizational practices, rules, norms, and values, along with role socialization, shape germane behavior. Of particular interest to the authors is the phenomenon of race-related police violence in its systemic but also attitudinal and behavioral manifestations in the policing role. How does an academic or practitioner researcher specify evaluative perspectives applicable to this policy and administrative challenge? There is a prior need for defined analytical and ethical positions drawing closely from public administration and policy sources. This article suggests ways to develop such grounded frameworks, built on these distinctive traditions but also going beyond them, so as to allow for an integrative approach to evaluative analysis and action on this grave and contentious issue.
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Over the past few years, several events have highlighted the strained relationship between the police and residents in many communities. Police officer body-worn cameras (BWCs) have been advocated as a tool by which police–community relations can be strengthened, while simultaneously increasing transparency and accountability of police departments. Support for BWCs from the public and federal government is strong, and some studies have examined police perceptions of BWCs. However, comparisons of officer perceptions of BWCs in different departments are lacking, as are assessments of officer attitudes pre- and post-BWC deployment. This study compares officer perceptions of BWCs in three police departments in the western United States between 2013 and 2015, both before and after BWC program implementation. The similarities and differences among officer perceptions across departments are examined, and the authors consider the implications of findings for police departments moving forward with BWC technology.
Article
We conducted two studies, wherein participants from across the United States watched, heard, or read the transcript of an actual police shooting event. The data for Study 1 were collected prior to media coverage of a widely publicized police shooting in Ferguson, Missouri. Results indicated that participants who could hear or see the event were significantly more likely to perceive the shooting was justified than they were when they read a transcript of the encounter. Shortly after the events in Ferguson, Missouri, we replicated the first study, finding quite different results. Although dissatisfaction with the shooting was seen in all forms of presentation, video evidence produced the highest citizen perceptions of an unjustified shooting and audio evidence produced the least. Citizens were nonetheless overwhelmingly favorable to requiring police to use body cameras. Body-mounted cameras with high-quality audio capabilities are recommended for police departments to consider.
Article
Racial inequalities in criminal justice are pressing problems for policymakers. Prior literature suggests elected officials promulgate punitive, racially disparate criminal justice policies due to partisanship and racial fears, but scholarship has yet to explain how and why elected officials address racial problems in criminal processing. This article introduces the framework of racial disparity reform policymaking. A racial disparity reform is a policy that seeks to reduce distinctions in criminal justice institutions’ treatment of racial groups. Elected officials pursue these policies due to ideological beliefs in civil rights ideals and political interests in appearing to solve social problems. Using an original database of policy enactments, this article first presents the distribution and types of reform measures adopted by elected officials in all 50 states between 1998 and 2011. It then examines social and political explanations for when state legislatures and executives adopt racial disparity reforms. Policy enactment is predicted by worsening problems of racial disproportion in criminal processing, Democratic control of elected branches, and the absence of judicial efforts to improve racial fairness within a state’s criminal justice system. Similar dynamics encourage the development of different measures types within policies. Such ideological and problem-solving explanations for racial disparity reform show a potential for elected officials to forge more racially just criminal justice practices.
Article
Law enforcement use of video-based technology has substantially increased over the past decade. This systematic review examines the current evidence base for efficacy of body-worn video and the current case for implementation. Five articles were identified as pertinent to this review from a search of five electronic databases, with a further six articles of grey literature included. Inter-rater reliability was high amongst three independent screeners of literature. Articles were short listed for review if they explicitly identified police and recording devices as topic areas. Articles were then excluded if they did not involve an operational trial of body-worn video. Eleven articles were included for review; of the five peer-reviewed studies, two were randomised controlled trials. An abundance of evidence was provided; however, the majority of articles were methodologically weak. Body-worn video was shown to reduce use of force incidents, crime rates for certain crime types and court costs. Public response to body-worn video was varied, as was police officer and public opinion. Due to methodological limitations evident in most studies and the general lack of peer-reviewed material, further research is required; however, there are some considerable benefits reported in the current literature.
Article
Evidence-based policing is one of the latest attempts to change what the police do and how they do it. Within this context the craft of policing is acknowledged but generally undervalued. Neglecting what craft can contribute to science is an overlooked opportunity. This paper examines the insights that officers’ experiences can offer into the kinds of reforms that are both pressing and possible. To do so, we conducted in-depth interviews with 38 patrol officers in a US police department and asked, ‘What are the features of the contemporary police craft that should be taken into account to make science more meaningful and useful for the improvement of actual police practices?’ Our results suggested meaningful reform may require the following: (1) a greater focus on testing a wide array of police responses and the interaction effects between theoretically relevant characteristics of the police officer and the tactic or strategy being tested; (2) using science to help establish performance criteria for measuring work quality; (3) paying more attention to understanding the processes of police interactions, not just outcomes; (4) applying research to improving officers’ communication skills; and (5) discovering ways to use science to advance understanding about the values guiding police discretion.
Article
Highly popular with both the public and political leaders, community policing is the most important development in law enforcement in the last twenty-five years. But does it really work? Can police departments fundamentally change their organization? Can neighborhood problems be solved? In the early 1990s, Chicago, the nation's third-largest city, instituted the nation's largest community policing initiative. This book provides a comprehensive evaluation of that citywide program, examining its impact on crime, neighborhood residents, and the police. Based on the results of a thirteen-year study, including interviews, citywide surveys, and sophisticated statistical analyses, it reveals a city divided among African Americans, whites, and Latinos. By looking at the varying effects community policing had on each of these groups, the book provides an analysis of what works and why. As the use of community policing increases and issues related to race and immigration become more pressing, it will serve the needs of an increasing amount of students, scholars, and professionals interested in the most effective and harmonious means of keeping communities safe.
Article
Purpose To evaluate the effect of police body-worn cameras (BWCs) on officers' response-to-resistance (R2R) incidents and serious external complaints. Methods A randomized experiment was used where 46 officers were randomly assigned to wear BWCs and 43 officers were randomly assigned to not wear BWCs. Pre- and post-BWC implementation outcome data was compared both between and within groups. Results The results suggest that BWCs are an effective tool to reduce R2R incidents and serious external complaints. Specifically, the prevalence of R2R incidents and the prevalence and frequency of serious external complaints were significantly less for officers randomly assigned to wear BWCs. Pre–post comparisons within groups demonstrated that the reduction in the prevalence of R2R incidents (53.4% reduction) and external complaints (65.4% reduction) were statistically significant for the officers who wore the BWCs, and significant reductions in the frequency of these outcomes were detected as well. Overwhelming agreement was also found among officers who wore the BWCs for the utility of BWCs to improve evidence collection and report writing and improve their behavior and police work in general by having the opportunity to review their own BWC videos. Conclusions Police departments would be prudent to consider adopting these devices in their agencies.
Article
It has been widely noted that policing is a stressful occupation, leading to a host of adverse outcomes. Many have posited that, in part, this can be explained by the emotional demands imposed on officers as a consequence of their unique role, organization, and culture. Consistent with this premise, a number of studies have found support for the notion that emotive dissonance is particularly likely to contribute to burnout. However, no studies have previously assessed how the complex emotional demands and strategies exercised within policing produce benefits and consequences for officers. Specifically, how do requirements to express coercion or apologize influence officer burnout? How do requirements to express or suppress positive or negative emotion influence burnout? And, do these effects vary depending upon whether greater surface or deep acting is required? The present study suggests that while some aspects of emotive dissonance may be negatively consequential, other emotional demands and strategies used by officers may have advantages. Specifically, while coercion in particular seems to increase depersonalization, both surface acting and attempts to deeply experience required positive emotions actually serve to decrease burnout among officers. The implications of these findings for theory, research, and the prevention of burnout among police are discussed.
Article
On-officer videos, or body cameras, can provide objective accounts of interactions among police officers and the public. Police leadership tends to view this emerging technology as an avenue for resolving citizen complaints and prosecuting offenses where victims and witnesses are reluctant to testify. However, getting endorsement from patrol officers is difficult. These incongruent cognitive frames are a cultural barrier to the utilization of innovative technologies. Understanding the mechanisms that lead to the deconstruction of these barriers is essential for the integration of technology into organizations. Using affiliation data collected from a large police department in Southwestern United States over a 4-month period, we find that interactions with other officers provide a conduit for facilitating cognitive frames that increase camera legitimacy.
Chapter
Causality was at the center of the early history of structural equation models (SEMs) which continue to serve as the most popular approach to causal analysis in the social sciences. Through decades of development, critics and defenses of the capability of SEMs to support causal inference have accumulated. A variety of misunderstandings and myths about the nature of SEMs and their role in causal analysis have emerged, and their repetition has led some to believe they are true. Our chapter is organized by presenting eight myths about causality and SEMs in the hope that this will lead to a more accurate understanding. More specifically, the eight myths are the following: (1) SEMs aim to establish causal relations from associations alone, (2) SEMs and regression are essentially equivalent, (3) no causation without manipulation, (4) SEMs are not equipped to handle nonlinear causal relationships, (5) a potential outcome framework is more principled than SEMs, (6) SEMs are not applicable to experiments with randomized treatments, (7) mediation analysis in SEMs is inherently noncausal, and (8) SEMs do not test any major part of the theory against the data. We present the facts that dispel these myths, describe what SEMs can and cannot do, and briefly present our critique of current practice using SEMs. We conclude that the current capabilities of SEMs to formalize and implement causal inference tasks are indispensible; its potential to do more is even greater.
Article
Emotional labor—the management of emotional displays as part of one's work role—has emerged as a growth area of study within organizational behavior and customer service research. In this article, we call attention to the human costs of “service with a smile” requirements with little benefits. We first review the evidence showing that requiring positive emotions from employees induces dissonance and depleted resources, which hinders task performance and threatens well-being. We articulate how formalized emotion display requirements limit self-determination by threatening the autonomy, competence, and belongingness needs of employees. Further, via an organizational justice lens, we argue that emotional labor is an unfair labor practice because employees in such circumstances are (1) undervalued by the organization (constituting distributive injustice); (2) disrespected by customers (constituting interactional injustice); and (3) self-undermined by organizational policies (constituting procedural injustice). We then argue for bringing light to the dark side of emotional labor with a “modest proposal”: Organizations and customers should abandon formalized emotion display expectations and replace such efforts with more humanistic practices that support and value employees, engendering positive climates and an authentically positive workforce. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.