Females Higher Education in Pakistan: An Analysis of Socio-Economic and Cultural Challenges

Abstract

The developed nations around the world pay equal attention to male and female's higher education, however female's higher education in developing countries is most neglected sector, and same is true for Pakistan. Though the total enrollment in HEI's has increased from 0.276 million during 2001-02 to 1.298 million by 2014-15, but still Pakistan's GER in higher education was just 10% during 2015-16. For instance female's enrollment has increased from 36.8% to 47.2% by 2014, but the dream of gender equality in higher education is far away. Therefore, the present study is an effort to investigate the socioeconomic and cultural challenges to female's higher education in Pakistan. To support the argument primary data had obtained through a survey feedback of 601 individuals across the country, and results explain that females are facing wide ranging socioeconomic and cultural challenges during the attainment of higher education.

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Advances)in)Social)Sciences)Research)Journal)–)Vol.5,)No.6)
Publication)Date:!June.!25,!2018!
DoI:10.14738/assrj.56.4658.!
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Females)Higher)Education)in)Pakistan:)An)Analysis)of)Socio-
Economic)and)Cultural)Challenges))
)
Sumara)Mehmood)
Master!Degree!Candidate!in!Higher!Education,!
School!of!Humanities!and!Social!Sciences,!
Dalian!University!of!Technology!China.!!
)
Li)Chong)
Vice!Dean!and!Associate!Professor!
Graduate!School!of!Education,!
Dalian!University!of!Technology!China.!!!
!
Mehmood)Hussain)
PhD!Fellow!
International!Relations!at!School!of!International!&!Public!Affairs!(SIPA),!
Jilin!University!China.!
!
ABSTRACT)
The) developed) nations) around) the) world) pay) equal) attention) to) male) and) female’s)
higher) education,) however) female’s) higher) education)in) developing) countries) is) most)
neglected) sector,) and) same) is) true) for) Pakistan.)Thou gh)the) total) enrollment) in) HEI’s)
has)increased)from)0.276)million)during)2001-02)to)1.298)million)by) 2014-15,)but) still)
Pakistan’s)GER)in)higher)education)was)just)10%)during)2015-16.)For)instance)female’s)
enrollment) has) increased) from) 36.8%) to) 47.2%) by) 2014,) but) the) dream) of) gender)
equality) in) higher) education) is) far) away.) Therefore,) the) present) study) is) an) effort) to)
investigate)the)socio-economic)and)cultural)challenges) to) female’s)higher)education)in)
Pakistan.) To) support) the) argument) primary) data) had) obtained) through) a) survey)
feedback) of) 601) individuals) across) the) country,) and) results) explain) that) females) are)
facing) wide) ranging) socio-economic) and) cultural) challenges) during) the) attainment) of)
higher)education.)
)
Keywords:)Pakistan,! Female’s! Higher! Education,! Socio-Economic! and! Cultural! Challenges,!
Gender!Discrimination,!Coeducation!!
)
INTRODUCTION)
In!the!era!of!rapid!globalization!and!economic!interdependence,!higher!education!is!considered!
a! capital! investment! and! is! of! paramount! importance! for! socio-economic! development! of!
states.! The! higher! education! institutions! for! centuries! had! a! fundamental! role! in! producing!
professionals,! scientists,! political! leaders,! and! economists,! religious! and! social! scholars,! who!
serve!the! society!to!enrich!its!values!and!develop!its!resources.!In!the!modern!era!young!men!
and! women! equipped! with! higher! education! skills! lead! countries! towards! development! and!
social!justice.! However,!the!problem!with!developing!countries! including!Pakistan!is!that!they!
have!given!low!priority!to!higher!education! (Haider,! 2008).! The! World! Bank!(2000)!reported!
that!developing!countries!will!find!it!more!difficult!to!benefit!from!the!global!knowledge-based!
economy!if!they!fail!to!give!relative!importance!to!better!higher!education.!!
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Since! the! inception! in! 1947,! state! of! higher! education! in! Pakistan! is! not! satisfactory! and! the!
sector! is! neglected! by! policy! makers! to! develop! a! coherent! policy! to! reform! the! education!
system.! In! Pakistan,! Gross! Enrollment! Ratio! (GER)! in! higher! education! was! just! 10%! during!
2015-16,!which!is!lower!than!many!other!developing!countries!in!South!Asia.!For!example,!GER!
of!India!in!higher!education!was!24%,!followed!by!21%!in!Sri!Lanka,!16%!in!Nepal!and!13%!in!
Bangladesh! for! same! period.! Though! the! enrollment! of! females! in! higher! education! has!
increased!from!36.8%!in!2001!to!47%!by!2014,!but! it!is!still!far!behind!to!catch!gender!parity!
(MFEPT,! 2017).! The! country! is! spending! only! 2.7! percent! share! of! its! GNP! on! education! as!
compared!to!4!percent!recommended!by!UNESCO!for!all!developing!countries.!!
!
It! is! worldwide! acknowledgement! that! females! equipped! with! higher! education! plays! a!
significant! role! in! building! the! human! capital! and! the! overall! socio-cultural,! and! economic!
development!of!a!country.!Higher!education!empower!females!in!two! ways.! It! assist! qualified!
females!to!become!leaders!in!society!and!permit!them!to!become!role!models!for!younger!girls.!
At!the!same!time,! it! ! help!females!to!choose!domains!of! expertise,! whether! this!is!as!decision!
makers! through! influence! on! policy! issues! related! to! social,! economic,! and! cultural!
development,! or! by! their! participation! in! family! and! community! life! (Pell,! Winter! 2015).!!
Unfortunately!education!of!females!in!Pakistan!persistently!neglected!by!society!and!state.!The!
female! literacy! rate! exposed! that! investment! in! human! development! tends! toward! favoring!
men! over! women.! Females! have! limited! opportunities! to! acquire! higher! education,!
professional! and! technical! degrees.! Thus,! the! gender! inequality! persistently! increasing! in!
education!sector!with!passage!of!time.!!
!
The! present! study! is! intended! to! uncover! the! impacts! of! socio-economic! and! cultural!
challenges! to! female’s! higher! education! in! Pakistan.! The! study! is! broken! down! in! following!
sections.!Section!one!is! addressing! the!independence!of!females!for!travel!in!public!transport,!
while!the!second!section!discuss!the!sexual!harassment!on!campus!and!in!public!transport.!The!
third! section! disclosed! family! support! and! opposition! to! female’s! higher! education! and! the!
section!four!is!addressing!the!socio-economic!and!cultural!impediment!in!the!way!of!female’s!
higher!education,!and!the!final!section!is!conclusion!of!the!study.!!
!
RESEARCH)METHODOLOGY)
The!study!is!supported!by!primary!data!which!was!gathered!through!a!survey!questionnaire.!A!
structured!questionnaire!was!prepared!by!the!author,!which!was!randomly!distributed!among!
male! and! female! students! through! social! media! channels,! such! as! Facebook,! WhatsApp,! and!
WeChat,! as! well! as! through! email! contacts.! Altogether,! 1,600! individuals! were! approached,!
however!only!601!individuals! returned! the! questionnaire! with!their!valuable!feedback,!which!
explained!in!this!study.!
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Demographic)Details)of)Survey)Participants)
Respondents)Nature))
N)
%)
Resident!Province!
Islamabad!
25!
4.2!
!
Punjab!
427!
71!
!
Sindh!
36!
6!
!
Khyber!Pakhtunkhwa!(KPK)!
67!
11.1!
!
Baluchistan!
9!
1.5!
!
Azad!Jammu!&!Kashmir!(AJ&K)!
18!
3!
!
Gilgit!Baltistan!(GB)!
14!
2.3!
!
FATA!
5!
0.8!
Gender!
Male!
601!
52!
!
Female!
289!
48!
Age!!
Under!18!Years!
5!
0.8!
!
18-25!Years!
318!
52.9!
!
25-30!Years!
158!
26.3!
!
30-40!Years!
114!
19!
!
40+!Years!
6!
1!
Marital!Status!
Single!
445!
74!
!
Married!
144!
24!
!
Divorced!or!Separated!
7!
1.2!
!
Engaged/in!a!Relationship!
5!
0.8!
Education!
12!Years!
8!
1.3!
!
14!Years!
22!
3.7!
!
16!Years!
308!
51.2!
!
18!Years!
105!
17.5!
!
22!Years!
158!
26.3!
Residential!Area!
City!
328!
54.8!
!
Village!
271!
45.2!
)
TRAVEL)FREEDOM)
It!has!observed!in!previous!studies!that!long!distance!of!educational!institutions!hampered!the!
higher! study! of! females! due! to! weak! transportation! system,! travel! cost,! accompany! costs,!
opportunity!cost,!physical!costs!and!the!cultural!restrictions!on!the!mobility!of!adolescent!girls!
(Lina!Song,!2006).!In!country!like!Pakistan!with!Islamic!values!and!conservative!traditions,!the!
female’s!transportation! to! schools! and! universities!become! worse! due! to! long! distances,! and!
risk! of! sexual! harassment.! Even! though! the! higher! educational! institutions! have! setup! their!
own! transportation! system! for! students! but! it! is! still! unable! to! accommodate! overcrowding!
students.!Moreover,!the!university! transport! system! only!travel!in!urban! centers! and! females!
from!rural!areas!are!traveling!in!public!transport!which!is!risky!and!more!expensive.!
)
Fig-1)Travel)Freedom))
!
The!authors! put! a! question! in! front! of! survey! participants! about! travel!freedom! during! their!
higher!education!period.! The! fig!1,!explain! that! 11.4! percent!females!were! free! to!move!from!
home!to!their!higher!education!institutions,!whereas!38.4!percent!individuals!experience!usual!
11.4
38.4
35.3
14.9
Always Usually Only!few!times Never

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freedom!for!travel.!However,!35.3!percent!participants!enjoyed!travel!freedom!only!few!times!
and! another! 14.9! percent! females! never! went! to! higher! educational! institutions! without! a!
companion.! Thus,! the! results! exposed! that! females! who! are! availing! college! and! university!
transport!are!travelling!alone,!whereas!females!traveling!in!public!transport!accompanied!by!a!
family!member,!friend!or!a!classmate.!!
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Table-1.1)Cross)Tab)Analysis)of)Travel)Freedom)with)Gender)Variable)
Gender!
Always!
Usually!
Only!few!times!
Never!
Total!
Female!studied/studying!in!Pakistan!
29!
97!
93!
40!
259!
Female!studied/studying!Abroad!
4!
14!
9!
3!
30!
Total!
33!
111!
102!
43!
289!
!
The!cross!tab!is!a!technique!to!quantify!the!opinions!and!views!of!different!actors!involved!in!a!
working!relationship!and!their!impacts!on!that!particular!work.!We!too!employ!this!technique!
to!judge!the!experience!of!travel!freedom!of!females!during!studying!in!Pakistan!and!in!foreign!
countries.!Although,!the!survey!participants!studying!in!foreign!countries!are!much!lower!than!
studying! in! Pakistan,! but! results! exposed! favorable! opinions.! ! The! table-1.1! found! that! 289!
females!participated!in!the!survey!and!only!33!females!were!identified!who!always!enjoyed!the!
freedom! for! travel,! whereas! 111! females! reported! that! they! usually! travel! without! any!
companion.!However,!102!individuals!stated!that!they!experienced!few!times!freedom!of!travel!
for!attending!university/college,!but!43!females!admitted!that!they! never! enjoyed! freedom! to!
travel!alone!and!always!hangout!with!a!companion.!!
!
SEXUAL)HARASSMENT)
Educational!institutions!are! no! longer!the! ivory! tower!of! the! past,!however!they! have! turned!
into!arenas!for!sexual!victimization.!Since!the!early!1980s!sexual!harassment!became!common!
in!schools,!colleges!and! universities! and! the!frequency!of! complaints! have! increased!over!the!
years.!However,!it!is!ignored!by!policy!makers,!law!enforcement!officers,!and!where!it!has!been!
addressed,! the! focus! has! been! on! case! based! complaints! (Leach,! 2013).! MacKinnon! defined!
sexual! harassment! “the! unwanted! imposition! of! sexual! requirements! in! the! context! of! a!
relationship! of! unequal! power.! Central! to! the! concept! is! the! use! of! power! derived! from! one!
social!sphere!to!lever!benefits!or!impose!deprivations!in!another”!(Joseph,!2015).!The!working!
women! United! Institute! has! also! defined! the! sexual! harassment! in! following! words! “verbal!
sexual!suggestions!or!jokes,!constant!leering!or!ogling,!accidentally!brushing!against!your!body,!
a! friendly! pat,! squeeze,! pinch! or! arm! around! you,! catching! you! alone! for! a! quick! kiss,! the!
explicit! proposition! backed! by! the! threat! of! losing! your! job,! and! forced! sexual! relations”!
(WWUI,!1978).!!
!
Since!the!past!few!years!sexual!harassment! has! been! observed! in! both!the!private!and!public!
sector! universities! in! Pakistan.! Reports! revealed! that! senior! teachers! and! heads! of! various!
departments!of!University!of!Peshawar!have!harassed!female!students!(Ali!M.!,!2011).!Another!
incident! reported! from! International! Islamic! University! Islamabad! where! faculty! and!
administration! was! accused! for! sexual! harassment! of! female! students! and! junior! female!
employees!(Dempsey,!2012).!A!professor!from!Quaid-e-Azam!University!Islamabad!harassed!a!
female!student!when! she! visited! his!office!for! rectifying! a!mistake!he! had! made! in!her!marks!
sheet! (Junaidi,! 2014).! Julie! (2013)! reported! that! sexual! harassment! has! a! significant!
psychological!effects!on!the!academic!performance! of! female! students!and!it!negatively!affect!
victim’s! health.! It! has! been! reported! by! female! students! that! sexual! harassment! is! major!
impediment!to!higher!education!in!Pakistan!(Ejaz!Ashraf,!2015).!They!feel!physical!insecurity!
while!traveling!and!studying!with!their!male!counterparts.!Sometimes!they!experience!sexual!

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harassment! from! male! students! in! educational! institutions! and! during! travel! on! public!
transport.!!
!
Table-2)Statement)about)Sexual)Harassment)
Statement!
Strongly!
Agree!
Agree!
Disagree!
Strongly!
Disagree!
Sexual!harassment!is!major!threat!to!female's!higher!
education!
21%!
41.10
%!
27.80%!
10.10%!
Female's!face!sexual!harassment!in!public!transport!while!
traveling!alone!
26.80%!
41.60
%!
22.60%!
9%!
!
The!table-2! discover! the! perceptions! of! females! about! sexual! harassment! in! public!transport!
and! on! campus.! It! is! reported! that! 62.2%! female! individuals! experienced! sexual! harassment!
during!their! higher! education! period.! They!stated! that!sexual! harassment! restrained! them! to!
go!for!higher!education!and!most!females!decided!to!abandon!higher!education.!Therefore,!the!
major! proportion! of! female! participants! were! agreed! with! the! threat! of! sexual! harassment,!
which!endorsed!the! results!of!earlier!studies.!Similarly,!the!second!question! was! about!sexual!
harassment! in! public! transport.! ! The! 68.4! percent! results! unveiled! that! females! are! sexually!
harassed! in! public! transport! which! is! major! transport! source! for! rising! middle! class! in! the!
country!and!it!is!not!safe!for!women’s!especially!for!female!students.!!
!
Fig-3)Actors)in)Sexual)Harassment)
!
Females!are!harassed!by!a!number!of!actors!in! the! society.! The! identification! of! those!evils!is!
demanding! attention! from! the! researchers! and! policy! makers.! Therefore,! the! present! study!
assumed!the! task!to! identify! them! and! placed! a! question! in! front! of! survey!participants.! The!
42.6!results! in! ‘fig-3!found! that! females!are! equally! harassed!by! the! male!students,! transport!
staff! and! male! travelers! in! public! transport.! Whereas,! the! private! coachers/tutors! are! also!
reported! with! 22.1! percent! results.! Similarly,! on! campus! sexual! harassment! by! the! faculty!
members!and!administrative!staff!has! also! been! identified!with!17.6!and!15.2! percent! results!
respectively.!Thus,!the!above!mentioned!results! are! indicating! alarming! situation!for!female’s!
higher!education!both!in!society!and!on!campus.!Females!somehow!are!secure!in!universities!
and! colleges! as! compared! in! the! public! transport! but! the! evil! of! sexual! harassment! has! not!
been!eradicated! completely.! If!it! will!not! be! addressed!with! an!effective! strategy,! it!will! limit!
the!enrollment!of!females!in!higher!education!institutions.!!
!
FAMILY)SUPPORT)AND)OPPOSITION)TO)FEMALES)HIGHER)EDUCATION)
Primarily!support!and!opposition!to!females!higher!education!comes!from!family.!Cultural!and!
political!factors! are! secondary!forces.! After! seventy! years! of!journey! as!an! independent! state!
and! integration! with! emerging! globalization,! Pakistan! gradually! changed! its! identity! from!
highly! religious! and! conservative! country! to! liberal! and! moderate! country! for! female’s!
education.!But,!the!conservative!norms!are!still!prevailing!in!remote!areas!of!the!country.!
! !
42.6%
17.6%
15.2%
22.1%
42.6%
Male!students
Faculty!members

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Fig-4)Family)Support)
)
!
It! is! observed! by! earlier! studies,! that! educated! parents! prefer! their! daughters! to! equip! with!
higher!education!skills,!whereas!the!illiterate!and!less!educated!parents!impose!restrictions!on!
females!education.! The! present! study! is! based! on!data! which! was! obtained! from! college! and!
university! graduates,! and! is! a! sign! that! their! parents! are! definitely! educated! and! care! much!
about! their! children’s! education.! The! ‘fig-4! explains! that! educated! father,! mother,! and! elder!
brother/sisters! are! advocating! females! higher! education! with! 57.9,! 23.5! and! 13.6! percent!
results! respectively.! However,! minimum! support! is! reported! from! relatives! and! other! family!
members!such!as!uncles/aunties,!grandparents!and!husbands.!
)
Fig-5)Family)Opposition)
Similarly,! the! family! opposition! is! reported! in! Fig-5.! The! 59.9! percent! results! disclosed! no!
opposition!from!family!for!female’s!higher!education.!However,!only!13!percent!parents!dislike!
their!daughter’s! enrollment!in!higher!education.!Similarly,!22.9! percent!dissent!is!reported!by!
the! relatives,! grandparents! and! husbands.! Thus! it! is! confirmed! that! opposition! forces! to!
females!higher!education!not!comes!from!the!family!but!they!belong!to!other!than!the!family.!!
!
SOCIO-CULTURAL)CHALLENGES)
A!limited!faction! of! privileged! class!with!enrollment! of! less!than!half!a! million! have!access!to!
quality! higher! education! at! university! level.! Whereas,! the! lower! and! middle! class! repeatedly!
neglected!to!attain!higher!education!due!to!various!daunting!challenges.!Among!them,!females!
are!further!deprived!to!get!higher!education!and!literacy!rate!in!females!is!39.2!percent,!which!
is!lowest!as! compared! to!males.!Low!enrollment!in!higher!education!is!an! outcome! of!various!
factors;! such! as! the! high! dropout! rates! at! primary! and! secondary! level,! (Shah,! 2005)!
conservative! local! culture! and! customs,! poverty,! sexual! harassment,! preference! of! boy’s!
education!over!girls,!lack!of! higher! education! institutions! at!local!levels,!and!poor!governance!
in!universities!etc.!
57.9
23.5
13.6
1.5 .5 .7 2.3
Father
Mother
Elder!
brother/sister
9.5
3.2
4.5
.8
3.5
18.6
59.9
Father Mother Elder!brothers Husband Grand!Parents Relatives None

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!The! world! has! gone! under! a! tremendous! scientific! and! technological! revolution! for! the! last!
half!of!the!20th!century.!Particularly,!invention!of!internet!and!adoption!of!personal!computers!
during! the! last! two! decades! have! had! a! profound! effect! on! the! economic,! social! and! even!
cultural!development!in!modern!society.!Nations!with!logical!thinking,!reasoning!and!equipped!
with!scientific!skills!can!only!survive!in!the!21st!century.!The!young!netizens!can!acquire!these!
skills!through!admission!in!a!college!or!university.!Unfortunately!higher!education!in!Pakistan!
has!been!most!ignored!sector!since!its!independence!in!1947!and!is!among!the!weakest!in!the!
modern! nations! (Leaping! Forward,! A! Report! on! Higher! Education! in! Pakistan,! 2006).! At!
present,!less!than!3%!of!Pakistanis!in!the!age!group!17-24!are!enrolled!in!a!college/university!
as!compared!to!50-75%!in!developed!nations.!Similarly,!at!present!99%!Pakistani!youth!does!
not! have! access! to! higher! education! of! international! standards.! Among! them! females! higher!
education!is! most!deprived!sector!in!the!country! due!to!various!socio-cultural!challenges,!and!
it!failed!to!receive!sympathy!and!attention!from!government!and!civil!society!to!fix!problems.!!!
!
Economic! factors! always! have! considerable! influence! in! education! sector.! Poor! economic!
condition! of! countries! and! families! restrain! them! to! spend! money! on! education! which! is! a!
serious! cause! of! low! literacy! rate.! Pakistan! is! spending! two! percent! of! its! GDP! on! education!
which!is!lowest! in! the!region.! The! economy!of! the! country!is! an! agrarian!and! majority! of!the!
population!is!affiliated!to!agriculture!to!earn!their!livelihood.!But,!this!industry!is!controlled!by!
those! landlords! who!have! power! both! financial! and! political.! They! have! restricted! wealth! in!
their!own!hands!and!pay!inadequate!wages!to!the!poor!workforce.!This!control!leads!towards!
the!income!inequality!in!vast!majority!of!peoples!settled!in!rural!areas!of!the!county.!Therefore,!
the!low!income!and!scarcity!of!financial!resources!stem!poor!population!to!enroll!their!younger!
folks!for!proper!education!(Muhammad!Zia!Ullah!Khan,!2015).!!
!
Feudalism)
Since!1947,! the!country!is!hijacked!by!feudal!lords!and!powerful!elites,!who!have!firm!control!
over! economic! and! political! system.! Feudalism! is! one! important! factor! which! is! affecting!
education!in!Pakistan.!It!remain!serious!threat!to!promotion!of!education!in!the!far!off!areas!of!
the!country,!where!majority!of!the!rural!masses!are!settled.!There!exist!many!instances!where!
activists! for! education! have! been! murdered! on! behest! of! the! feudal! lords! of! the! area!
(Muhammad!Zia!Ullah!Khan,!2015).!!
!
Fig-6)Impacts)of)Feudalism)
As!literature!specified!that!feudalism!and!its!sub-forms!such!as!Jagirdari!and!zamindari!system!
constrained!peasants!to!send!their!kids!for!education.!It!was!utmost!desire!of!the!study!to!find!
out!link!between! feudalism! and!poor! performance! of! females!in! higher! education.!The!‘Fig-6’!
gives!an!interesting!information!that!69.8!percent!individuals!view!feudalism!a!major!threat!to!
female’s!higher! education.! However!remaining! participants!of! the! study!hold! opposite! views.!
Hence! the! study! confirmed! that! feudalism! is! an! ulcer! of! the! society! and! it! needs! to! prevent!
exploitation!of!peasants!and!their!siblings.!!
! !
28.5
41.3
22.0 8.3
Strongly!Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly!Disagree

!"#$%%&'( )*'( +#%,-'( .*'(/( 012234,'( !*( 56789:*(;"$3<"2( 04-#"=( >&1?3@4%,( 4,( A3B42@3,C( D,( D,3<E242( %F( )%?4%G>?%,%$4?( 3,&( +1<@1=3<( +#3<<",-"2*(
!"#$%&'()*%)+,&*$-)+&*'%&'().'('$/&0)1,2/%$-3)H456(IJKGIKJ*(
!
!
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386!
URL:)http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.56.4658.)
!
Table-6.1)Cross)Tab)Analysis)of)Impacts)of)Feudalism)with)Gender)Variable)
Gender!
Strongly!Agree!
Agree!
Disagree!
Strongly!
Disagree!
Total!
Male!
89!
120!
74!
29!
312!
Female!studied/studying!
in!Pakistan!
74!
115!
53!
17!
259!
Female!studied/studying!
Abroad!
8!
13!
5!
4!
30!
Total!
171!
248!
132!
50!
601!
!!
The!Table!6.1!is!explaining!the!perceptions!of!survey!participants!about!feudalism!and!female’s!
higher! education.! The! 89! male! respondents! were! strongly! agree! that! feudalism! restrain! the!
way! of! female’s! higher! education,! as! compared! to! 82! female! individuals.! Similarly,! 120! male!
and! 128! female! individuals! were! agreed! with! negative! consequences! of! feudalism! on! higher!
education.! However,! 74! male! participants! were! of! view! that! feudalism! have! no! negative!
impacts!on!females!higher!education!as!compared!to!58!female’s!participants.!In!sum,!210!out!
of!289!female!individuals!and! 209! male! participants!reported!feudalism!as!an! impediment! to!
empower!females! through!higher!education.!The!participants!of!the!survey!suggested!authors!
that!female’s!enrollment! can! improve!after!countering! negative! impacts! of!feudalism.!So,! it! is!
duty!of!government!and!other!concerned!bodies!to!introduce!and!implement!effective!policies!
to!delimit!influence!of!feudalism!in!the!country.!!
!
Religious)Misconception)
Universities! in! Pakistan! are! controlled! by! religious! vigilantes! whose! job! is! to! guard! public!
morality-!the! Islami! Jamiat-e-Talba!and! other! Islamic!groups! are!the! wings! of!those! religious!
bodies!who!are!active!in!colleges!and!universities.!They!may!not!engage!in!debates!or!political!
discussions!that!may!strain!the!patience!of!the!guardians.!They!ban!male-female!gathering!and!
assigned! separate! sections! for! male! and! female! students! in! class! rooms.! Females! are! not!
allowed!to!take!part!in!musical!programs!such!as;!drama,!theater,!poetry,!and!music!concerts.!!
!
Orthodox! Islamic! groups! in! the! country! have! considerable! influence! over! general! masses.!
Generally,!Islamic!clerks!in!the!mosques!and!madrassas!teach!kids!Quran!and!basic!knowledge!
of! Islam,! and! during! the! training! cycle! they! develop! close! association! with! the! parents.! The!
poor!and!illiterate!parents!tend!to!enroll!their!children!in!Islamic!madrassas!where!they!only!
attain! Quranic! education! and! deprived! from! modern! and! scientific! education.! Mullahs! in! the!
mosque! and! madrassas! misinformed! parents! that! Islamic! principles! prohibit! females! to! go!
outside! for! education,! and! they! are! supposed! to! perform! household! activities.! As! a! result! of!
their!teachings,!parents!with!poor!educational!background!forbidden!their!daughters!to!enroll!
in!educational! institutions,! which!has! increased! the!gender!gap! and! give!way! for! income!and!
gender!inequality!(Hoodbhoy,!2006).!!
)
Fig-7)Role)of)Religious)Misconception)
19.6
35.3
25.8
19.3
Strongly!Agree Agree Disagree Strongly!Disagree

Advances!in!Social!Sciences!Research!Journal!(ASSRJ)!
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As! discussed! above! religion! is! playing! fundamental! role! in! the! society! and! state.! Pakistan!
gained!independence!in!the! name! of! Islam!and!the! founding! fathers! declared!Islam!as!a! state!
religion.! Therefore,! since! then! Islamic! clerics! occupied! center! stage! in! the! society! and!
whenever! needed! mold! public! behavior! against! the! state.! The! Fig-7! uncovered! the! religious!
misconceptions! in! the! way! of! female’s! higher! education.! The! 54.9! percent! results! found! that!
religious! misconceptions! restrict! female’s! enrollment! in! higher! education.! They! argue! that!
teachings! of! orthodox! Islamic! scholars! are! increasing! opposition! in! family! and! society! for!
female’s! higher! education! as! the! large! masses! view! coeducation! a! threat! to! their! honor! and!
religion.!!
!
Table-7.1)Cross)Tab)Analysis)of)Religious)Misconception)with)Gender)Variable)
Gender!
Strongly!Agree!
Agree!
Disagree!
Strongly!
Disagree!
Total!
Male!
54!
108!
81!
69!
312!
Female!studied/studying!
in!Pakistan!
53!
97!
66!
43!
259!
Female!studied/studying!
Abroad!
11!
7!
8!
4!
30!
Total!
118!
212!
155!
116!
601!
!
While! performing! comparison! analysis! of! male/female! perceptions! about! religious!
misconception,!it!has!examined!in!table!7.1!that!162!out!of!312!male!individuals!argue!that!low!
enrollment!of!females!in!higher!education!is!an!outcome!of!religious!misconceptions.!Whereas,!
167! out! of! 289! female! respondents! were! of! view! that! poor! information! about! religion! and!
influence!of!orthodox!clerics!constrained!females!to!get!higher!education.!The!results!exposed!
that!around! 55!percent! survey!participants! withhold!religion! as! factor! for! low! enrollment! of!
females! in! higher! education.! ! Therefore,! it! is! need! of! hour! to! introduce! new! doctrine! to!
minimize!legacy!of! madrassa!clerics!through!comprehensive!state!policy,!and! the!government!
and!other!concerned!agencies!introduce!strategic! and!effective!programs!for!teaching!religion!
with!translation! in!local! languages!which! not!only! increase!the! understanding!about! religion!
but!will! also!remove!the!misconception.!At!the!same!time,!it!is!necessary!to!increase!numbers!
of!training!centers!for!illiterate!parents!and!adults!to!counter!exceeding!illiteracy!in!elders.!!
!
Non-Protective)Environment,)Lack)of)HEI’s)and)Conservative)Norms))
After!examination!of!impact!of!feudalism! and!religion!on!female’s!higher!education!we!moved!
on!to!investigate!other!social!and!cultural!challenges!to!females!and!asked!following!questions!
to!our!survey!participants.!!!
!
Table-8)Socio-Cultural)Challenges)
Statement!
Strongly!
Agree!
Agr
ee!
Disagr
ee!
Strongly!
Disagree!
Parent's!fear!of!non-protective!environment!restrain!female's!to!
get!higher!education!
41.6!
46.4!
9.3!
2.7!
Lack!of!local!educational!institutions!pose!major!hurdle!to!female's!
higher!education!
33.8!
44.6!
18.1!
3.5!
Conservative!cultural!customs!restrict!women!to!attain!higher!
education!
30.8!
48.1!
16.3!
4.8!
!!
Females! in! Pakistan! are! facing! multilayer! cultural! and! social! challenges! at! different! levels!
which! seriously! damage! their! personality,! creativity,! and! productivity.! The! table-8! reported!
that!88!percent!parents!are!reluctant!to!send!their!daughters!for!higher!education!due!to!non-
protective! environment! outside! home.! They! are! anxious! for! prevailing! safety! and! violence!
against!females!in!the!society!and!prefer!their! daughters!stay!at!home.!Secondly,!78.4! percent!

!"#$%%&'( )*'( +#%,-'( .*'(/( 012234,'( !*( 56789:*(;"$3<"2( 04-#"=( >&1?3@4%,( 4,( A3B42@3,C( D,( D,3<E242( %F( )%?4%G>?%,%$4?( 3,&( +1<@1=3<( +#3<<",-"2*(
!"#$%&'()*%)+,&*$-)+&*'%&'().'('$/&0)1,2/%$-3)H456(IJKGIKJ*(
!
!
!
388!
URL:)http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.56.4658.)
!
respondent’s!claim!that!colleges! and! universities! are!located!in! urban! vicinities! which!are!far!
away! from! rural! localities.! Thus,! the! lack! of! higher! educational! institutions! at! the! door! step!
obstruct! females! to! enroll! for! higher! education.! It! is! primary! requirement! of! the! time! that!
government!should!establish!new!universities!and!colleges!in!towns!and!surrounding!areas!of!
rural!vicinities!where!55!percent!population!is!residing.!
!
Similarly,! conservative! cultural! norms! and! values! are! marginalizing! females! to! get! higher!
education.! Females! are! subordinated! by! male! opponents! in! decision! making! regarding!
marriage,! job! and! education.! They! are! discouraged! to! work! and! harassed! at! work! places.!
Parents!prefer! boy’s! education!over!girls! and! direct!them! to! learn!domestic! chorus.! The!78.9!
percent!results!exposed!severe!impacts!of!local!norms!and!values!on!female’s!higher!education.!
These! outdated! cultural! norms! and! customs! occupied! center! stage! in! the! society! especially!
regarding! female’s! higher! education.! Remote! areas! like! Baluchistan! province! and! FATA! are!
administered! by! the! local! land! lords! and! Jirga’s,! who! have! greater! influence! over! local!
population,!and!despite!hundred!years!of!journey!they!continue!to!subjugate!females.!!!
)
Fig-9)Major)Social)Problems)to)Females)Higher)Education)
The!state!of!higher!education!in!female!students!is!not!satisfactory!in!Pakistan! due! to! several!
reasons.! Some! earlier! studies! indicated! that! cultural! norms! keep! the! girls! away! from! school.!
Likewise,! others! attributed! the! low! school! enrollment! in! rural! Punjab! to! the! cultural! and!
religious! norms! of! the! society! (Naimatullah! Hashmi,! 2008).! By! keeping! in! mind! we! placed! a!
similar! question! to! the! survey! participants! about! obstacles! to! female’s! higher! education!
attainment.! The! results! revealed! interesting! facts! about! challenges! to! female’s! higher!
education.! The! Fig-9! specified! that! cultural! conservative! customs! secured! first! position! with!
45.4!percent!results!to!keep!the!girls!out!from!higher!educational!institutions.!The!second!most!
influential! factor! is! gender! discrimination! with! 18! percent! results! which! seriously! damage!
girl’s! higher! education.! ! Similarly! perception! of! threat! to! family! honor! in! parents! in! case! of!
girl’s! entrance! in! college! or! university! added! resentment! for! higher! education! with! 12.3!
percent!results.!The!above!results!disclosed!that!Pakistani!society!still!adhere!to!conservative!
customs! with! regard! to! female’s! empowerment,! but! if! we! want! to! grow! society! with! equal!
rights!and! obligations! then!we! should! cope! the! influence!of! conservative! customs!on! society.!
Secondly,!it!is!duty!of!parents! to!give!equal!rights!to!their!daughters!for!study!as!compared!to!
their! sons.! After! getting! higher! education! and! honorable! job,! girls! can! become! productive!
members! of! the! family! and! can! extend! helping! hand! to! fight! against! poverty! and! economic!
deprivation.!!!
!
GENDER)DISCRIMINATION)
Females’!suffer!gender!discrimination!as!a!consequence!of!the!prevailing!socio-cultural!climate!
in! Pakistan.! Their! status! is! significantly! divided! across! classes,! regions,! and! the! rural/urban!
divide!due!to!uneven!socio-economic!development!and!the!influence!of!tribal,!feudal,!religious!
9.0 5.5
9.8
45.4
18.0
12.3
Feudalism/Jagirdari!system
Political!system
Religious!misconception
Cultural!conservative!
customs

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and!social! formations!on!women’s!lives.!The! country!has!generally!a!male! dominating!society,!
and! commonly! hold! a! hostile! attitude! towards! women! (Sen,! 2001).! It! is! noted,! that! gender!
discrimination!is!causing!low!enrollment!rate!of!girls!at!primary!level!of!education.!The!ratio!of!
male!and!female!participation!is!projected!at! the! primary! school! in! the!shape!of!ratio!of!boys!
and!girls!as!10:4!respectively.!Only!22!percent!girls,!as!compared!to!47!percent!boys,!complete!
primary!schooling.!!
!
Additionally,!female!schooling!is!worse!in!Baluchistan!with!32!percent!compared!to!high!urban!
male!literacy!rates!(and!80!percent!among!the!urban!male!in!Sindh)!(Mukhtar,!2012).!Besides!
primary! level! schooling,! gender! discrimination! is! also! abundant! at! higher! education! level.!
Females!are!regulated! by! family!members,!relatives! and! society!to!enroll! in! higher!education!
due!to!insecure!environment!and!coeducation!system!in!universities.!The!universities!are!also!
causing! low! enrollment! of! female! students! by! allocating! more! seats! to! male! students! than!
females.!Gender!inequality!in!Pakistani!higher!education!system!is!a!consequence!of!persistent!
discrimination!at!early!stage!education.!Boys!are!far!ahead!in!the!provision!of!education!and!in!
the!access! to! the!schooling! available.! However,!girls! are! tasked!to! learn! domestic!chorus! and!
how!to!become!good!mothers!and!wives.!
)
Fig-)10)Gender)Discrimination)
The!Fig!10!reported!that!62.2! percent!individuals!were!agreed!that!gender!discrimination!is!a!
key! factor! behind! female’s! low! enrollment! in! higher! educational! institutions.! While,! 37.8!
percent!individuals!were!disagreed!with!the!view.!However,!the!overall!results!are!satisfactory!
to! claim! that! low! enrollment! of! females! in! higher! education! have! connection! with! gender!
discrimination.! But,! if! the! gender! discrimination! effectively! controlled! there! are! bright!
prospects!for!higher!enrollment!of!females!in!higher!education.!!
!
Table-10.1)Comparative)Analysis)of)Gender)Discrimination)with)Gender)Variable)
Gender!
Strongly!Agree!
Agree!
Disagree!
Strongly!
Disagree!
Total!
Male!
66!
113!
101!
32!
312!
Female!studied/studying!
in!Pakistan!
62!
112!
64!
21!
259!
Female!studied/studying!
Abroad!
9!
12!
5!
4!
30!
Total!
137!
237!
170!
57!
601!
!!
It! has! examined! in! table-10.1! that! 179! out! 312! male! individuals! have! positive! opinions! for!
gender! discrimination! in! higher! educational! institutions.! Similarly,! 195! out! of! 289! female!
participants! view! that! gender! discrimination! is! major! factor! behind! low! literacy! rates! in!
22.8
39.4
28.3
9.5
Strongly!Agree Agree Disagree Strongly!Disagree

!"#$%%&'( )*'( +#%,-'( .*'(/( 012234,'( !*( 56789:*(;"$3<"2( 04-#"=( >&1?3@4%,( 4,( A3B42@3,C( D,( D,3<E242( %F( )%?4%G>?%,%$4?( 3,&( +1<@1=3<( +#3<<",-"2*(
!"#$%&'()*%)+,&*$-)+&*'%&'().'('$/&0)1,2/%$-3)H456(IJKGIKJ*(
!
!
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390!
URL:)http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.56.4658.)
!
females.!Thus,!the!results!prove!that!gender!discrimination!hinder!the!way!of!female’s!higher!
education!and!it!need!to!fix!in!first!instance.!!
!
GIRLS)EARLY)SCHOOL)DROP)OUTS)AND)PREFERENCE)OF)BOY’S)EDUCATION)
Pakistan! is! a! signatory! of! international! accord! for! ‘Universal! Primary! Education! for! All’! by!
2015,!and!in!this!regard!Islamabad!has!been!assigned!a!target!to!achieve!100!percent!primary!
school! enrollment.! However,! at! present! the! school! enrollment! stands! at! 70! percent,! out! of!
which!50!percent!school!going!children!aged!between!5-9!years!leave!school!prior!to!complete!
grade-V! (NCHD,! 2010).! An! overall! dropout! rate! for! both! boys! and! girls! is! 50! percent! in! the!
country.!Whereas,!the!dropout!rate!for!girls!is! 56!percent!as!compared!to!44!percent!for!boys!
(AEPAM,!2006-07).!The!situation!of!dropout! rates! for! girls! is! more!alarming!in!rural!areas!as!
compared!to!urban! regions.!It!is!alarming!indicator!that! seven!million!out!of!13!million!out! of!
school!children!are!girls!(SPARC,!2004).!
!
The!first!and!foremost!factor!is!that!parents!show!little!or!no!interest!in!girl’s!education.!Other!
factors! are! including;! cultural! constraints,! high! fees! and! poor! economic! conditions.! Equally,!
parents! illiteracy! also! play! chief! role! in! girl’s! higher! dropouts.! Illiterate! parents! are! not!
interested! to! invest! in! girl’s! education! as! they! view! that! investment! in! girl’s! education! is! a!
waste! of! money! and! resources! as! there! is! common! view! that! boys! will! earn! and! therefore!
support!the!family!financially!after!getting!employment!whereas!parents!do!not!see!their!girls!
working!or!bringing!home!any!income!once!they!leave!home!(Gulbaz!Ali!Khan,!2011).!
!
Parents! in! Pakistan! usually! pay! more! attention! to! male! children! rather! than! female.! They!
heavily! invest! on! male! providing! them! good! education! as! compared! to! female! children.! The!
situation! is! even! nastiest! in! rural! areas! of! the! country,! where! Islamic! identity! and! social!
structure!have!greater!impacts!on!gender!inequality!as!we!are!living!in!male!dominated!society!
and!females!are! not! free!to!follow!their!wishes.!Females!need!family! support! to!get!education!
while!bearing! the! expenses!of! tuition! fees,! transportation! facility!etc.! They! are!dependent! on!
male! members! of! the! family! for! financial! support! and! sometimes! for! physical! safety!
(Muhammad!Irfan!Chani,!2011).!
!
It!is!quite!apparent!that!poverty!is!the!dominant!factor!behind!girls!drop!outs!from!school.!The!
poor! economic! conditions! of! the! parents! often! force! them! to! remove! girls! from! school! and!
engage!them!in!either!domestic!activities!or!make!them!work.!Another!reason!behind!girl’s!low!
enrollment!in!schooling!is!physical!security!and!threat!of! sexual! harassment,! which! increased!
anxiety! in! parents! for! girl’s! safety.! ! Similarly,! lack! of! availability! of! schools! in! local! area,!
inadequate! infrastructure,! cultural! and! religious! beliefs,! social! exclusion,! low! social!
positioning,!low!parental!perception!are!obstructing!girl’s!education!(Ali!R.!E.,!2005).!
!
Girls!in!many!developing!and!under-developed!countries!often!have!little!choice!about! whom!
or!when!they!marry.!According! to! UNICEF! assessment!of!2005,!among!women!ages! 15! to! 24,!
48! percent! were! married! before! the! age! of! 18! in! South! Asia,! 42! percent! in! Africa,! and! 29!
percent!in!Latin!America.!Early!marriage!curtails!girl’s!freedom,!isolates!them!from!peers,!and!
ends! their! education! prematurely.! More! often! they! face! sexual! violence! from! their! older!
partners,!and!are!restricted!to!move!freely!(Greene,!2011).!In!Pakistan!after!marriage,!girls!are!
responsible! to! do! domestic! chorus,! look! after! their! in-laws,! children! and! husband.! Their!
marriage! is! considered! as! primary! responsibility! as! compared! to! education.! Therefore,! early!
marriage!practice!in!Pakistan!seriously!curtail!girl’s!education!and!it!needs!to!stop!immediately!
with!systematic!approach!from!government!and!society!(Fauzia!Maqsood,!2012).!!
! !

Advances!in!Social!Sciences!Research!Journal!(ASSRJ)!
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Fig-11)Impacts)of)Early)Marriage)on)Girls)Education)
In!Fig-11,!it!is!recorded!that!early!marriage!have!negative!impacts!on!female’s!higher!education!
in!Pakistan.!The!study!found!that!74.9!percent!individuals!were!fully!agree!that!early!marriage!
of!girls! stop! them!to! get! higher!education,! which! is!primary! reason! behind!low! literacy! rates!
and!gender!inequality.!If,!state!and!society!introduce!new!laws!about!female’s!age!for!marriage,!
there!are!bright!chances!to!increase!enrollment!of!females!in!higher!educational!institutions.!
)
Fig-12)Reasons)behind)Girls)Early)Dropout)from)School)
A!similar!question!was!put!forward!in!front!of!survey! participants! to! examine! their! views!for!
reasons!behind!girl’s!early!dropouts!from!school.!The!results!in!‘Fig-12’!disclosed!that!poverty!
and! lack! of! financial! resources! are! primary! reasons! behind! girl’s! early! dropouts! from! school!
with!37.1!percent!results.!Whereas,!early!marriage!is!secondary!factor!with!29!percent!results.!
However,!sexual! harassment! is!reported! with! 9!percent! results! and!domestic! responsibilities!
and!chorus!with!25!percent!results.!
!
Table-12.1)Cross)Tab)Analysis)of)factors)behind)Girls)early)school)dropout)with)gender)variable)
Gender!
Financial!
Limitations!
Early!
Marriages!
Sexual!
Harassment!
Domestic!
Responsibilities!
Total!
Male!
104!
91!
34!
83!
312!
Female!
studied/studying!in!
Pakistan!
111!
72!
18!
58!
259!
Female!
studied/studying!
Abroad!
8!
11!
2!
9!
30!
Total!
223!
174!
54!
150!
601!
!
The! table-12.1! found! that! 104! out! of! 312! male! respondents! were! of! view! that! poverty! and!
scarcity!of!financial!resources! obstruct! the!female’s!education!and! force! them! to!leave!school!
before! completion! of! education.! Similarly,! 119! females! have! similar! views! about! early!
dropouts.!As!far!as,!early!marriage!is!concerned,!91!male!and!83!females!pointed!out!that!early!
marriage!of!girls!hamper!their!higher!education!aspirations.!Moreover,!34!male!and!20!female!
individuals! view! that! sexual! harassment! also! have! negative! impacts! on! girl’s! dropouts! from!
school.! It! is! investigated! with! the! views! of! 83! male! and! 67! female! individuals! that! domestic!
29.3
45.6
20.0
5.2
Strongly!Agree Agree Disagree Strongly!Disagree
37.1
29.0
9.0
25.0
Financial!Limitations
Early!Marriages
Sexual!Harassment
Domestic!Responsibilities

!"#$%%&'( )*'( +#%,-'( .*'(/( 012234,'( !*( 56789:*(;"$3<"2( 04-#"=( >&1?3@4%,( 4,( A3B42@3,C( D,( D,3<E242( %F( )%?4%G>?%,%$4?( 3,&( +1<@1=3<( +#3<<",-"2*(
!"#$%&'()*%)+,&*$-)+&*'%&'().'('$/&0)1,2/%$-3)H456(IJKGIKJ*(
!
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URL:)http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.56.4658.)
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responsibilities! are! also! among! the! factors.! Through! the! comparative! analysis! of! male! and!
female!perceptions!it!is!concluded! that! poverty! and! limited! economic!resources!force!parents!
to!abandon!their! daughter’s! education.!Therefore,! based! on! the!facts,! this! study!recommends!
that! state! and! society! should! introduce! some! programs! for! financial! support! to! deprived!
families,!which!will!encourage!them!to!enroll!girls!in!school.!!
!
Fig-13)Reasons)behind)Boy’s)Preference)over)Girl’s)Education)
It! was! highly! plausible! to! investigate! that! why! parents! prefer! boy’s! education! over! their!
daughters.!Thus!the!authors! made! an!attempt!to! investigate! key! reasons,!and!Fig! 13! exposed!
that! 42.6! percent! results! fount! that! boy’s! productivity! after! getting! higher! education! is! chief!
reason.!!
!
COEDUCATION)AND)FEMALE’S)HIGHER)EDUCATION)
Fauzia&Maqsood&et.& al.! argued! that! parents! of! female! students! perceive! coeducation! a! major!
threat!to!family!honor.!As!members!of!conservative!society,!families!have! mostly! unfavorable!
attitude!towards! coeducation.! They!think! that!coeducation! could! have!been! bad!influence! on!
their!daughter’s!socialization.!Parents!think!after!studying! in! coeducation! system,! no!one!will!
marry!with!their!daughters!which!strongly!influence!to!their!opposition!of!education!with!boys!
(Fauzia! Maqsood,! 2012).! It! has! been! observed! in! literature! that! coeducation! system! limits!
enrollment!of!females!in!higher!education,!because!most!of!the!higher!educational!institutions!
have!this!system.!
!
Table-14)Coeducation)
Statement
Strongly Disagree
Agree
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Coeducation limits female's enrollment in higher education
17.3
42.6
33.4
6.7
Girls feel uncomfortableness in coeducation system
13.8
31.3
45.4
9.5
Coeducation is threat to family honor
19.3
48.3
26.6
5.8
!
The!present!study!is!dedicated!to!purify!existing!literature!by!asking!three!distinct!questions!to!
the!survey!participants.!The!first!question!was!asked!about!impacts!of!coeducation!on!female’s!
enrollment.! It! has! discovered! in! table-14! that! 59.9! percent! individuals! identify! that!
coeducation! limit! enrollment! of! females! in! higher! education.! Whereas,! second! question! was!
about! uncomfortableness! of! female! students! in! coeducation! and! the! results! pointed! out! that!
45.1!percent!individuals!see!that!females!are!not!fitting!in!coeducation!and!face!uncomfortable!
atmosphere.!However!54.9!percent!individuals!were!disagreed!with!the!claim!and!argued!that!
females!have!no!feeling!of!uncomfortableness!in!coeducation!and!they!adjust!themselves!in!the!
system.!!
!
The! third! question! was! put! forward! by! the! researchers! to! monitor! perceptions! of! threat! to!
family! honor! while! studying! in! coeducation.! In! response! to! question,! 67.6! percent! survey!
42.6
2.2
7.3
10.1
37.8
Boys!need!to!financially!support!
family
Girl's!marriage!need!expensive!
dowry
Parents!want!girls!to!learn!
domestic!responsibilities
Do!not!agree!with!the!statement
Don't!know/no!opinion

Advances!in!Social!Sciences!Research!Journal!(ASSRJ)!
Vol.5,!Issue!6!June-2018!
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participants! were! agreed! that! their! parents! observe! coeducation! a! major! threat! to! family!
honor.!Thus!they!oppose!female’s!education!in!coeducation!institution.!It!is!examined!here!that!
question! one! and! three! have! higher! negative! impacts! on! girl’s! higher! education! rather! than!
question!two!which!is!dealing!with!their!comfortableness!in!coeducation!system.!The!results!of!
question!two!revealed! that! girls!have!ability! and! willpower! to!adjust!in! a! system!where!boys!
are!studying.!Whereas,!another!two!questions!are!primarily!addressing!connections!of!parents!
and!their!daughters!where!girls!have!minimum!autonomy!to!take!independent!decisions.!!
!
Table)-15.1)Cross)Tab)Analysis)with)Gender)Variable)
Coeducation)limits)female's)enrollment)in)higher)education)
Gender!
Strongly!Agree!
Agree!
Disagree!
Strongly!Disagree!
Total!
Male!!
55!
136!
98!
23!
312!
Female!
49!
120!
103!
17!
289!
Total!
104!
256!
201!
40!
601!
Girls)feel)uncomfortableness)in)coeducation)system)
Gender!
Strongly!Agree!
Agree!
Disagree!
Strongly!Disagree!
Total!
Male!!
40!
93!
147!
32!
312!
Female!
43!
95!
126!
25!
289!
Total!
83!
188!
273!
57!
601!
Coeducation)is)threat)to)family)honor)
Gender!
Strongly!Agree!
Agree!
Disagree!
Strongly!Disagree!
Total!
Male!!
70!
152!
71!
19!
312!
Female!
46!
138!
89!
16!
289!
Total!
116!
290!
160!
35!
601!
!
It! is! quite! interesting! to! explain! views! of! male! and! female! individuals! about! impacts! of!
coeducation! on! female’s! higher! education.! The! table-15.1! noted! that! 191! male! participants!
hold!views!that!coeducation!is!limiting!enrollment!of!females!in!higher!education,!as!compared!
to!169!female!participants.!Similarly,!133!out!of!312!male!individuals!pointed!out!that!females!
face! difficulty! to! adjust! in! coeducation! system! as! compared! to! 138! female! participants.!
Whereas,!the! 222! out! of! 312! male! individuals!argued! that! female’s! education! in! coeducation!
system!is!a!threat!to!family!honor.!The!higher!ratio!of!male!individuals!is!alarming!that!despite!
attaining!higher!education,!males!still!hold!conservative!attitude!regarding!female’s!education!
in!coeducation!system.!However,!it!is!also!interesting!to!demonstrate!here!that!184!out!of!289!
females! hold! similar! views! about! link! between! family! honor! and! coeducation.! Therefore,! in!
total! 406! individuals! from! both! segments! of! the! society! reported! that! coeducation! is! posing!
threat! to! family! honor! and! urge! state! and! society! to! take! appropriate! measures.! This! study!
suggest!that!threat! regarding!the!coeducation!could!be!mitigate!through!awareness! of!masses!
in!society! and!this!target!could!be!achieved! through!providing!equal!rights!and! justice!to!girls!
in!family!and!society.!!
!
In!the!above!paragraphs!we!have!discussed!coeducation!system!and! enrollment! of! females! in!
higher! education,! however! below! we! have! asked! a! question! to! judge! family! support! for!
female’s!higher!education.!
! !

!"#$%%&'( )*'( +#%,-'( .*'(/( 012234,'( !*( 56789:*(;"$3<"2( 04-#"=( >&1?3@4%,( 4,( A3B42@3,C( D,( D,3<E242( %F( )%?4%G>?%,%$4?( 3,&( +1<@1=3<( +#3<<",-"2*(
!"#$%&'()*%)+,&*$-)+&*'%&'().'('$/&0)1,2/%$-3)H456(IJKGIKJ*(
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Fig-16)Family)Support)for)Coeducation)System)
In!Fig-16!it!is!examined!that!parents!of!65.6!percent!individuals!support!female’s!enrollment!in!
coeducation!system,!while!a!tiny!proportion!of!12.1!is!pointing!out!support!from!elder!brothers!
for! coeducation.! Moreover,! other! segments! of! society! are! also! encouraging! females! to! get!
higher!education!in!coeducation!atmosphere.!!Thus,!the!above!results!found!that!if!parents!are!
agree! to! enroll! their! daughters! in! coeducation! system,! other! members! of! the! society! fail! to!
lodge!resistance!against!female’s!education!in!coeducation.!!
!
Fig-17)Family)Opposition)for)Coeducation)System)
The! Fig-17! examined! that! opposition! for! female’s! education! in! coeducation! comes! from! the!
relatives! as! compared! to! parents.! Pakistan! is! a! country! where! joint! family! system! is! still!
existing!where! uncles! and! aunties! are! living! together.! The! 21.3!percent! results!of! the!survey!
pointed!out!that! uncles! and!aunties!are! assuming! that!interference!in! the! matters! of!female’s!
education!is!their!appropriate!right!and!they!often!use!it.!However,!it!is!observed!that!only!14.1!
percent! parents! are! oppose! to! female’s! education! in! coeducation! system! as! compared! to! 6.8!
and! 1! percent! opposition! faced! by! elder! brothers! and! husbands! respectively.! Moreover! it! is!
interesting!to!quote!here!resentment!of!mullahs!and!religious!scholars!with!9.7!percent!results,!
however! they! are! most! influential! in! rural! vicinities! where! majority! of! the! illiterates! are!
residing.!However,!it!is!exciting!to!note! here! that! 47.1! percent! individuals! identified!that!they!
did!not!experience!opposition!from!any!member!of!the!family!and!society.!This!is!encouraging!
trend!that!family!and!society!expressed!their!willingness!to!send!daughters!to!attain!education!
in! coeducation! system! but! still! it! needs! more! resources! and! strength! to! spread! awareness!
about!girl’s!education.!!
!
IMPACTS)OF)FINANCIAL)LIMITATIONS)
Scarcity! of! financial! resources! posed! grave! consequences! on! higher! education! in! Pakistan.! A!
large!majority!with!a!monthly!average!income!of!Rs.!6,000!per!family!of!six!members,!cannot!
afford!even!tuition!fees!of!public!sector!colleges/universities!without!financial!assistance!given!
by!the!government!or!other!donor!agencies!(Leaping!Forward,!A!Report!on!Higher!Education!
in!Pakistan,!2006).!Parents!are!not!ready!to!bear!cost!of!education!incurred!by!their!daughters!
because!there!are!not!lot!of!opportunities! of! jobs! for! the!female.!The!share!of!female!labor! in!
65.6
12.1
1.5
.5
1.7
18.6
Parents Elder!brother Husband Grand!parents Uncle/Aunt Others
14.1
6.8
21.3
1.09.7
47.1
Parents Elder!brothers Relatives Husband Religious!Scholars None

Advances!in!Social!Sciences!Research!Journal!(ASSRJ)!
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Pakistan! is! 1/3rd! of! world! average,! whereas! worldwide! percentage! of! female!labors! is! 50-55!
percent!of! world!and! in! Pakistan,! it! is! only! 20-21! percent.! Earning! opportunities!are! less! for!
females.! It! is! believed,! despite! being! educated,! females! are! unlikely! to! get! respectable! job! in!
Pakistan!and!just!stay!at!home!being!housewives.!
!
Menon!identified!connection!between!poverty!and!low!enrollment!of! school! going! children! in!
Pakistan! (Memon,! 2007).! According! to! the! 1998! provincial! census! reports,! the! school! age!
population!of!the!age!group!5-9! years! is! more!than!20!million!out! of! which! 11! million!(57%)!
are! out! of! school.! Data! reflected! that! 42! percent! of! the! population! living! under! the! illiterate!
household!heads!are!poor,!compared!to!21!percent!of!those!living!under!the!literate!household!
heads.!!
!
The!previous!studies!reported!that!dearth!of!financial!resources!leads!gender!discrimination!in!
Pakistan.! The! household! resources! are! allocated! in! the! favor! of! sons! due! to! their! productive!
role.! Male! members! of! the! family! are! given! better! education! and! are! equipped! with! skills! to!
compete!for!resources!in! public! arena,! while! female! members! are!imparted!domestic!skills!to!
be! good! mothers! and! wives.! The! gender! discrimination! leads! to! low! literacy! rates! in! female!
members!of!the!society.!
!
Table-18)Impacts)of)Financial)Limitations)
Statement!
Strongly!
Agree!
Agre
e!
Disagr
ee!
Strongly!
Disagree!
High!costs!of!higher!education!restrict!women's!to!enroll!in!
higher!education!
40.6!
45.1!
11.3!
3!
Due!to!financial!limitations!parents!prefer!boy's!education!over!
girls!
38.8!
39.9!
16.8!
4.5!
Parents!worry!to!arrange!girl's!dowry!rather!than!their!
education!!
30.3!
41.1!
22!
6.7!
!!
The!results!of!present!study!are!alarming!about!financial!resources!dearth.!It!revealed!in!table-
18! that! 85.7! percent! individuals! hold! views! that! higher! tuition! and! lodging! expenses! in! the!
universities! and! colleges! restrict! enrollment! of! girls! from! poor! and! deprived! families.! World!
Bank!reported!that!“there!has!been!considerable!increase!in!gender!inequality!in!education!in!
low!income!countries!over!the!last!three!decades”!(World!bank!Policy!Research!Report,!2001).!!
Likewise,!the!present!study!reported!the!gender!inequality!with!78.7!percent!results.!It!reflect!
that! parents! with! low! income! prefer! education! of! male! members! of! the! family! than! female!
members!which!further!restrict!their!entry!into!higher!educational!institutions.!Another!factor!
which!pointed! out!by!the!study!is!expensive! dowry!of!the!daughters.!The! 71.4!percent!results!
disclosed! that! parents! are! worry! to! arrange! dowry! for! their! daughters! rather! than! their!
education.! In! the! contemporary! era,! arranging! dowry! is! hardest! ever! responsibility! of! poor!
parents!due!to!rising!costs.!The!parents!prefer!to!save!money!for!dowry!rather!than!spending!it!
on!girl’s!education!because!without!dowry!majority!of!the!girls!passed!marriage!life!and!failed!
to!get!marry!which!is!threatening!the!social!cohesion!of!the!society.!!
!
CONCLUSION)
Females! in! Pakistan! are! most! deprived! segment! of! the! society.! Even! though,! in! recent! years!
government! has! introduced! various! policies! to! empower! them! but! all! went! fruitless.! Gender!
inequality!has!persisted!in!higher!education!sector!due!to!various!socio-cultural!and!economic!
issues.! In! the! above! discussion,! it! has! reported! that! parents! are! more! sensible! for! their!
daughter’s!physical!security!and!threat!of!sexual!harassment!stop!them!to!send!their!daughters!
in! universities! and! colleges.! Similarly! lack! of! higher! educational! institutions! on! appropriate!
distance! also! obstruct! female’s! entry! into! higher! education.! The! long! distances! hamper!

!"#$%%&'( )*'( +#%,-'( .*'(/( 012234,'( !*( 56789:*(;"$3<"2( 04-#"=( >&1?3@4%,( 4,( A3B42@3,C( D,( D,3<E242( %F( )%?4%G>?%,%$4?( 3,&( +1<@1=3<( +#3<<",-"2*(
!"#$%&'()*%)+,&*$-)+&*'%&'().'('$/&0)1,2/%$-3)H456(IJKGIKJ*(
!
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!
female’s! higher! education! which! has! increased! cost! of! physical! and! economic! expenses.!
Conservative! and! outdated! local! cultural! norms! and! values! are! also! hindering! the! way! of!
female’s!higher!education.!Feudalism!and!its!sub!forms!Jagirdaari!and!zamindari!system!create!
challenges!for!female’s!higher!education.!The!feudal!are!exploiting!peasants!and!paying!lowest!
wages! which! even! is! not! sufficient! for! survival.! Thus! poverty! and! deprivation! is! prevailing!
which!leads!to!low! enrollment! of! females!in!higher!education.! Moreover,! gender!inequality!is!
also!reported!in!the!study.!!
!
Pakistani! society! is! still! conservative! and! follow! orthodox! Islam! which! view! coeducation! a!
biggest! threat! to! society.! Parents! think! that! coeducation! cause! physical! damage! to! their!
daughters.!They!also!have!concerns!about!their!future!and!think!after!studying!in!coeducation!
system! no! one! will! get! marry! with! their! daughters! which! left! no! choice! for! girls! but! to! stop!
higher!education.!Early!marriage!is!another!cause!for!low!rates!of!females!in!higher!education.!
Parents! prefer! to! marry! their! daughters! as! compared! to! educate! them.! They! are! worry! to!
arrange!their!dowry!which!is! most! expensive! now!a!days.!Thus,! the! present! study!found!that!
socio-cultural! and! economic! factors! have! significant! impacts! on! female’s! higher! education! in!
Pakistan!and!it!is!dire!need!of!the!time!to!address!these!challenges!in!a!systematic!way.!
!
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