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Integrating Content Expertise and Methodological Expertise in Team-Based Settings to Address Complex Societal Issues-A Systems Perspective on Challenges: Integrating content expertise and methodological expertise in teams
Abstract
Systems‐based approaches to societal problem‐solving entail a capacity to synthesise our knowledge and skills such that we can resolve shared problems. However, the increasing range of knowledge specialisms, scientific and engineering methods, and skill profiles at the population‐level challenges solidarity. It is also difficult to identify unifying goals and establish sustainable educational infrastructures that support transdisciplinary teamwork. Drawing upon the collective intelligence of a multidisciplinary group, this paper highlights challenges to integrating content expertise and methodological expertise in team‐based efforts to address complex social issues. Challenges identified include the following: stakeholder participation, heterogeneity and conflict, supporting effective group dynamics, defining goals, planning and resourcing, resistance and fears amongst group members, and the absence of effective teamwork methodologies. A systems model developed by the group helped to clarify interdependencies between challenges. We conclude by highlighting the need to develop societal infrastructures supporting our capacity for teamwork into the future. © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... In the context of multidisciplinary research, one methodological approach that has garnered support as a framework for extrapolating consensus from groups is Collective Intelligence (CI). 34 CI refers to knowledge that emerges from a group's combined capability and efforts to understand and address a shared problem, through the facilitated implementation of a specific range of methodologies. 35 The CI approach helps to support high-quality interdisciplinary work as it carefully delineates content and process roles, assigning to content experts (i.e. ...
Objectives
eHealth refers to health services and health information delivered or enhanced through the internet and related technologies. The number of eHealth interventions for chronic pain self-management is increasing. However, little evidence has been found for the overall efficacy of these interventions for older adults. The aim of the current study was to use a Collective Intelligence approach to identify the barriers and specific user needs of middle-aged and older adults using eHealth for chronic pain self-management.
Methods
A Collective Intelligence workshop was conducted with middle-aged and older adults to generate, clarify, select, and structure ideas in relation to barriers to eHealth use and specific design requirements for the purposes of chronic pain self-management. Prior to attending the workshop, participants received a trigger question requesting the identification of five barriers to eHealth use for chronic pain self-management. These barriers were categorised and presented to the group along with barrier-related scenarios and user need prompts, resulting in the generation of a set of ranked barriers and a set of user needs.
Results
A total of 78 barriers were identified, from which six categories emerged: Content, Support, Technological, Personal, Computer Literacy and Accessibility. Additional idea-writing and group reflection in response to these barriers revealed 97 user needs.
Conclusion
This is the first study to use Collective Intelligence methods to investigate barriers to eHealth technology use and the specific user needs of middle-aged and older adults in the context of chronic pain self-management. The results of the current study provide a platform for the design and development of enhanced eHealth interventions for this population.
... Although science and technology have expanded the diversity of knowledge, technical artefacts and solutions available to Homo sapiens, the societal foundation stone for the adaptive management of complex systems lags behind. In particular, there is little or no pedagogical focus on CI and applied systems science education (Broome and Hogan 2020;Hogan et al. 2017Hogan et al. , 2018. ...
The design of systems to support sustainable wellbeing is contingent upon lifespan education of Homo sapiens and ongoing efforts to cultivate individual and collective intelligence. The Postdigital Applied Systems Science Education (PASSE) framework presented in this paper highlights the need for greater investment in educational infrastructures that support the development of collective intelligence, teamwork, and system design skills. We propose that the implementation of PASSE involves group- and project-based work focused on developing (1) an understanding of systems, (2) an understanding of group dynamics relevant to the management and design of systems, and (3) skill in the application of applied systems science methods that can be used by groups in the management and redesign of systems. To showcase curricular and pedagogical challenges and opportunities, we describe key features of our current delivery of PASSE along with future plans and prospects. Aligned with postdigital perspectives and innovations at the nexus of biology, information, and society, we highlight the potential for ongoing redesign of educational infrastructures and technologies that enhance societal teamwork and system design capabilities that allow us to address increasingly complex societal challenges.
... For example, while industrialised culture has emphasised a mastery-oriented approach to working and living (Kofodimos, 1993), a broader understanding of human systems recognises the importance of cognitive-emotional integration, whereby mastery and intimacy needs are integrated. Coupled with a culture of individualism (Storr, 2018), a masteryoriented approach to work-life activities may inhibit solidarity, shared empowerment, and the collaborative capabilities of groups (Hogan, Broome, et al. 2018;Hogan & Broome, 2020a). A mastery-oriented approach may also inhibit paratelic (playful, process-focused) actions, which in turn may inhibit life satisfaction (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). ...
This paper introduces readers to collaborative positive psychology, a natural complement to transdisciplinary systems science. Consistent with second wave positive psychology models (PP2.0), collaborative positive psychology highlights how negative emotions (e.g. sadness, guilt, shame, anger, anxiety) can act as key drivers of positive transformation in collaborative groups, providing a catalyst for critical systems thinking and collective responses to shared problems. Collaborative positive psychology emphasises pathways from the recognition of collective problems to problem-focused and method-driven responding supporting sustainable wellbeing. Key principles of collaborative PP include solidarity, empowerment, and teamwork, with a specific focus on the application of collective intelligence (CI) methods to address shared complex problems. An overview of the work of the Collective Intelligence Network Support Unit (CINSU) is used to highlight the power and potential of collaborative groups. Collaborative positive psychology highlights the need for the development of collaborative infrastructures that reinforce solidarity, collective empowerment, and collective intelligence.
... In spite of its popularity, teamwork is a complex and dynamic undertaking (Vasileiadou, 2012), and the quality of teamwork needed to understand, manage, and design complex systems is difficult to achieve (Hogan et al., 2018). To be effective, teams require an experienced facilitator who can help them (a) define the issues, goals, and overall context in which they are working; (b) generate and structure ideas relevant to the context and the particular issues they are addressing; and (c) manage the flow of activities, including the implementation of appropriate methodologies and the interpersonal and team dynamics that are central to team success (Broome, 2002;Broome & Fulbright, 1995). ...
Importance:
Wicked problems are those that are messy and complex and have no obvious solution. Occupational therapists and their clients encounter wicked problems in all areas of practice, and therefore it is essential that they know how to address them.
Objective:
To identify the key constructs involved in addressing wicked problems, discover considerations for occupational therapists, and develop a conceptual model that supports how to address these problems.
Design:
This study had a critical review design and focused on literature from sectors such as health care, social services, policy, business, management, and leadership. It followed a traditional critical review process and extracted records from Scopus, CINAHL and Ovid databases.
Results:
A total of 36 articles were included in the review. The results indicated that, to address wicked problems, one must first identify the problem as wicked. The key constructs identified in the literature include collaboration, leadership, perspectives, and innovation, with collaboration and leadership as the most prominent constructs. Subthemes include interdisciplinary teams and diverse perspectives, visualizing interdependencies, team communication, leadership style, leadership communication, and shared vision.
Conclusions and relevance:
The key constructs identified in this review are interconnected and imperative when addressing wicked problems as depicted in the new Addressing Wicked Problems conceptual model. Occupational therapists are well suited to extend between the traditional role and be key stakeholders in addressing wicked problems by using their leadership and collaboration skills and attitudes. What This Article Adds: Collaboration, leadership, perspective, and innovation are the key constructs for addressing wicked problems. The Addressing Wicked Problems conceptual model highlights the interconnectedness of these constructs.
Background:
The combined effects of multiple environmental toxicants and social stressor exposures are widely recognized as important public health problems, likely contributing to health inequities. However, US policy makers at state and federal levels typically focus on one stressor exposure at a time and have failed to develop comprehensive strategies to reduce multiple co-occurring exposures, mitigate cumulative risks and prevent harm. This research aimed to move from considering disparate environmental stressors in isolation to mapping the links between environmental, economic, social and health outcomes as a dynamic complex system using children's exposure to neurodevelopmental toxicants as an illustrative example. Such a model can be used to support a broad range of child developmental and environmental health policy stakeholders in improving their understanding of cumulative effects of multiple chemical, physical, biological and social environmental stressors as a complex system through a collaborative learning process.
Methods:
We used system dynamics (SD) group model building to develop a qualitative causal theory linking multiple interacting streams of social stressors and environmental neurotoxicants impacting children's neurodevelopment. A 2 1/2-day interactive system dynamics workshop involving experts across multiple disciplines was convened to develop the model followed by qualitative survey on system insights.
Results:
The SD causal map covered seven interconnected themes: environmental exposures, social environment, health status, education, employment, housing and advocacy. Potential high leverage intervention points for reducing disparities in children's cumulative neurotoxicant exposures and effects were identified. Workshop participants developed deeper level of understanding about the complexity of cumulative environmental health risks, increased their agreement about underlying causes, and enhanced their capabilities for integrating diverse forms of knowledge about the complex multi-level problem of cumulative chemical and non-chemical exposures.
Conclusion:
Group model building using SD can lead to important insights to into the sociological, policy, and institutional mechanisms through which disparities in cumulative impacts are transmitted, resisted, and understood.
This paper reports on an action research study to explore the underpinnings of outwardly unsupportive behaviour among health professionals in New Zealand after a critical event and to develop and evaluate a resource to help them recover through mutual care and support. It explores the dynamic nature of the support system, the feedback loops, nonlinearity, underpinning “rules,” and associated behaviour. The tenets of complexity theory are applied to identify characteristics of the system, which, in turn, provide insight into ways of achieving change. The study demonstrates that these health professionals were behaving in ways which they thought were expected, rather than being “nice” to each other: behaviour that was driven by the inherent interrelatedness within an organization or system. This finding not only has significant outcomes for practice but also contributes to a deeper understanding of the emergent nature of complexity theory.
This article differentiates between descriptive and explanatory factors to develop a typology and a theory of stakeholder and public engagement. The typology describes different types of public and stakeholder engagement, and the theory comprises four factors that explain much of the variation in outcomes (for the natural environment and/or for participants) between different types of engagement. First, we use a narrative literature search to develop a new typology of stakeholder and public engagement based on agency (who initiates and leads engagement) and mode of engagement (from communication to coproduction). We then propose a theory to explain the variation in outcomes from different types of engagement: (1) a number of socioeconomic, cultural, and institutional contextual factors influence the outcomes of engagement; (2) there are a number of process design factors that can increase the likelihood that engagement leads to desired outcomes, across a wide range of sociocultural, political, economic, and biophysical contexts; (3) the effectiveness of engagement is significantly influenced by power dynamics, the values of participants, and their epistemologies, that is, the way they construct knowledge and which types of knowledge they consider valid; and (4) engagement processes work differently and can lead to different outcomes when they operate over different spatial and temporal scales. We use the theoretical framework to provide practical guidance for those designing engagement processes, arguing that a theoretically informed approach to stakeholder and public engagement has the potential to markedly improve the outcomes of environmental decision-making processes.
Purpose of review:
We review 50 articles from 2015 and 2016 that focus upon public and stakeholder engagement as it pertains to the built environment. Our purpose is to understand the current state of the literature and approaches being used to better enable public and stakeholder engagement. As part of this review, we consider whether recent digital and mobile technologies have enabled advances for stakeholder and public participation.
Recent findings:
The literature suggests some positive and some challenging developments. Researchers clearly suggest that most policy-makers and planners understand, and to some extent, aspire toward enabling more inclusive participatory planning processes. That said, there is far less consensus as to how to make meaningful inclusive participatory processes possible even with digital, as well as more traditional, tools. This lack of consensus is true across all academic disciplines reviewed. We discuss these issues as well as current solutions offered by many scholars. We find that no single solution can be applied to different situations, as contextual factors create different problems in different situations, and that the participation process itself can create biases that can-intentionally or unintentionally-benefit some participants over others. We conclude with a series of questions for practitioners and researchers to consider when evaluating inclusive engagement.
This article explores inter- and transdisciplinarity, given the need for more complex, relevant, and transformative knowledge to shift society towards more sustainable futures. It connects practical questions about economic, societal, and ecological limits to questions about the limitations
of academic knowledge. Transdisciplinarity involves co-constructing socially relevant, transformative knowledge with actors outside academia. In practice, transdisciplinary work requires clarity about intentions, along with inclusive and well-facilitated collaborative processes that accommodate
dissenting and transgressive perspectives. Higher education has begun to experiment with inter- and transdisciplinarity via sustainability-focused projects. However, it insufficiently addresses broader demands for transformation and cannot address these adequately without integral leadership.
Internationally, there is increasing interest in, and analysis of, human wellbeing and the economic, social, environmental, and psychological factors that contribute to it. Current thinking suggests that to measure social progress and national wellbeing we need more than GDP. Experts across a range of disciplines have increasingly highlighted a number of key values and domains of measurement that are influencing the way governments in different countries are thinking about wellbeing measures and policies. Most agree that it is important to involve citizen consultation in the design of wellbeing measures and policies. There is no real consensus on how to best do so. There are, however, the warnings of recent case studies that underscore the dangers of failing to consult with citizens adequately. The current paper examines the value of citizen consultations and considers how best to optimize deliberation and co-design by experts, citizens, and politicians using systems science tools that facilitate collective intelligence and collective action. The paper opens with an overview of the international wellbeing movement and highlights key issues in the design and application of wellbeing measures in policy practice. Next, an applied system science methodology, Interactive Management (IM), is described and affordances of IM considered in relation to the challenge of facilitating citizen consultations in relation to wellbeing measurement and policy design. The method can be used to provide insight into the values, goals, and preferences of citizens; engaging all stakeholders in a democratic, consensus building process that facilitates buy-in and enhances the legitimacy of decision-making groups; facilitating transparent understanding of the reasoning that informs the systems thinking of groups. A recent application of our applied system science methodology to the design of a notional national wellbeing index for Ireland is outlined. The paper closes by highlighting the importance of adopting a wider social science toolkit to the challenge of facilitating social progress.
Transdisciplinarity originated in a critique of the standard configuration of knowledge in disciplines in the curriculum, including moral and ethical concerns. Pronouncements about it were first voiced between the climax of government-supported science and higher education and the long retrenchment that began in the 1970s. Early work focused on questions of epistemology and the planning of future universities and educational programs. After a lull, transdisciplinarity re-emerged in the 1990s as an urgent issue relating to the solution of new, highly complex, global concerns, beginning with climate change and sustainability and extending into many areas concerning science, technology, social problems and policy, education, and the arts. Transdisciplinarity today is characterized by its focus on “wicked problems” that need creative solutions, its reliance on stakeholder involvement, and engaged, socially responsible science. In simultaneously studying multiple levels of, and angles on, reality, transdisciplinary work provides an intriguing potential to invigorate scholarly and scientific inquiry both in and outside the academy.
This chapter describes a systems science education strategy that aims to address three independent human limitations which impede our ability to resolve complex social problems: poor critical thinking skills, no clear methodology to facilitate group coherence, consensus design and collective action, and limited computational capacities. Building on Warfield’s vision for applied systems sciences, we outline how a new systems science tool can be integrated into a new systems science curriculum. We describe a process that combines three thought structuring methodologies: Interactive Management for system design, Argument Mapping for critical thinking, and Structural Equation and System Dynamics Modelling for mathematical modelling. The curriculum seeks to enhance systems thinking skills and cooperative enquiry skills, while also facilitating collective action in the context of an action research and service learning agenda. We introduce a framework based on three key components needed for teaching and learning systems science: Tools, Talents, and Teams.
Internationally, there is increasing interest in, and analysis of, human wellbeing and the economic, social, environmental, and psychological factors that contribute to it. Current thinking suggests that to measure social progress and national wellbeing we need more than GDP. Experts across a range of disciplines have increasingly highlighted a number of key values and domains of measurement that are influencing the way govern-ments in different countries are thinking about wellbeing measures and policies. Most agree that it is important to involve citizen consultation in the design of wellbeing mea-sures and policies. There is no real consensus on how to best do so. There are, however, the warnings of recent case studies that underscore the dangers of failing to consult with citizens adequately. The current paper examines the value of citizen consultations and considers how best to optimize deliberation and co-design by experts, citizens, and poli-ticians using systems science tools that facilitate collective intelligence and collective action. The paper opens with an overview of the international wellbeing movement and highlights key issues in the design and application of wellbeing measures in policy practice. Next, an applied system science methodology, Interactive Management (IM), is described and affordances of IM considered in relation to the challenge of facilitating citizen consultations in relation to wellbeing measurement and policy design. The method can be used to provide insight into the values, goals, and preferences of citizens; engaging all stakeholders in a democratic, consensus building process that facilitates buy-in and enhances the legitimacy of decision-making groups; facilitating transparent understanding of the reasoning that informs the systems thinking of groups. A recent application of our applied system science methodology to the design of a notional national wellbeing index for Ireland is outlined. The paper closes by highlighting the importance of adopting a wider social science toolkit to the challenge of facilitating social progress.
This paper presents a model of team learning and tests it in a multimethod field study. It introduces the construct of team psychological safety—a shared belief held by members of a team that the team is safe for interpersonal risk taking—and models the effects of team psychological safety and team efficacy together on learning and performance in organizational work teams. Results of a study of 51 work teams in a manufacturing company, measuring antecedent, process, and outcome variables, show that team psychological safety is associated with learning behavior, but team efficacy is not, when controlling for team psychological safety. As predicted, learning behavior mediates between team psychological safety and team performance. The results support an integrative perspective in which both team structures, such as context support and team leader coaching, and shared beliefs shape team outcomes.
Humans are a striking anomaly in the natural world. While we are similar to other mammals in many ways, our behavior sets us apart. Our unparalleled ability to adapt has allowed us to occupy virtually every habitat on earth using an incredible variety of tools and subsistence techniques. Our societies are larger, more complex, and more cooperative than any other mammal's. In this stunning exploration of human adaptation, Peter J. Richerson and Robert Boyd argue that only a Darwinian theory of cultural evolution can explain these unique characteristics. Not by Genes Alone offers a radical interpretation of human evolution, arguing that our ecological dominance and our singular social systems stem from a psychology uniquely adapted to create complex culture. Richerson and Boyd illustrate here that culture is neither superorganic nor the handmaiden of the genes. Rather, it is essential to human adaptation, as much a part of human biology as bipedal locomotion. Drawing on work in the fields of anthropology, political science, sociology, and economicsâand building their case with such fascinating examples as kayaks, corporations, clever knots, and yams that require twelve men to carry themâRicherson and Boyd convincingly demonstrate that culture and biology are inextricably linked, and they show us how to think about their interaction in a way that yields a richer understanding of human nature. In abandoning the nature-versus-nurture debate as fundamentally misconceived, Not by Genes Alone is a truly original and groundbreaking theory of the role of culture in evolution and a book to be reckoned with for generations to come. âI continue to be surprised by the number of educated people (many of them biologists) who think that offering explanations for human behavior in terms of culture somehow disproves the suggestion that human behavior can be explained in Darwinian evolutionary terms. Fortunately, we now have a book to which they may be directed for enlightenment . . . . It is a book full of good sense and the kinds of intellectual rigor and clarity of writing that we have come to expect from the Boyd/Richerson stable.ââRobin Dunbar, Nature âNot by Genes Alone is a valuable and very readable synthesis of a still embryonic but very important subject straddling the sciences and humanities.ââE. O. Wilson, Harvard University
Cooperation is needed for evolution to construct new levels of organization. Genomes, cells, multicellular organisms, social insects, and human society are all based on cooperation. Cooperation means that selfish replicators forgo some of their reproductive potential to help one another. But natural selection implies competition and therefore opposes cooperation unless a specific mechanism is at work. Here I discuss five mechanisms for the evolution of cooperation: kin selection, direct reciprocity, indirect reciprocity, network reciprocity, and group selection. For each mechanism, a simple rule is derived that specifies whether natural selection can lead to cooperation.
An overview of the theory and practice of collective intelligence
Systems thinking dominated the 2015 World Social Marketing conference with the premise that a more holistic approach takes into account all the issues at play for effective change. Augmenting the broadening social marketing literature, we contend that systems-thinking social marketing enhances the field’s conventional behavioural change with concepts of scale, causation, and iterative co-creating change processes for complex health and environmental problems. The results of our empirical Sea for Society study, a sustainable European marine ecosystem examination of what the barriers to change are and how they are interrelated, find systems-thinking social marketing offers the potential to strategically and critically reinforce, not replace, behavioural change campaigns. With systems-thinking social marketing, a coherent theory of change becomes a possibility. Orchestrating social change may become a reality.
This is the first book that renders a thorough discussion of systems science. It draws on material from an extensive collection of external sources, including several other books and a special library collection complete with videotape empirical evidence of applicability of the theory to a wide variety of circumstances. This is essential because systems science must be responsive to diverse human situations of the widest difficulty, and it must fill the void that the specific sciences cannot fill, because these sciences are insensitive to the necessities of reconciling disparate views of multiple observers, and incorporating local conditions in hypotheses that precede inductive explorations. © 2006 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved.
Part I: Teams Chapter 1: The Challenge Part II: Enabling Conditions Chapter 2: A Real Team Chapter 3: Compelling Direction Chapter 4: Enabling Structure Chapter 5: Supportive Context Chapter 6: Expert Coaching Part III: Opportunities Chapter 7: Imperatives for Leaders Chapter 8: Thinking Differently About Teams
This unique book ranges across the physical, biological and social
sciences in the development of its primary theme, that there are nine
major "integrative levels" that can be recognized. The term integrative
levels was first used by Joseph Needham in 1937, and has two key
features. The first is that members of a given integrative level are
unified entities and the second is that a member of one level is
commonly composed of parts that are members of the next lower level.
Thus fundamental particles form Level 1 while Level 9 is that of
sovereign states. This theme has been developed by Max Pettersson in a
book that explores the many links among the physical, biological and
social sciences, reaching wide-ranging and sometimes unexpected
conclusions.
Although writers frequently suggestfuture directionsfor small group research, it is not clear to what extent these suggestions arise from participant concerns rather than researcher interests. Not always do the concerns of scholars coincide with the needs of the user. This article presents a participant-generated agendafor small group research that is constructed from a structural analysis of influence maps developed by seven groups overa 6-yearperiod. Each of these groups was engaged in the generation, structuring, and interpretation of difficulties related to group work. A multistage influence model of barriers to group problem solving is developedfrom the group products, and suggestions are made forfuture research directions based on this modeL Thefollowing agenda is proposed: (a) we must examine more carefully the role of contextual influences in group work (b) we need to provide stronger guidance on methodologies for group work, (c) we must find ways to fully integrate discussions of culture with group process, (d) we should view climate and communication as primary conduits of group interaction, (e) we need to conduct more research on how attitudes are influenced by group factors, and (f) we need to broaden our view of the role of process experts.
The Americans for Indian Opportunity (AIO), a national Indian organization concerned primarily with tribal governance issues, has sponsored numerous projects during the 1980s which suggest that better models of communication and consensus-building are desperately needed within Indian tribal communities. Due in part to the use of forms of problem-solving that are incongruent with tribal values and cultural patterns, many Indian communities have been paralyzed in their efforts to develop consensus on strategic plans. While many tribes have experimented with various forms of conflict management techniques, careful consideration must be given to the appropriateness of the approach employed Because the cultural traditions of Indian communities are rooted in a consensual approach to problem-solving, dispute resolution approaches imposed by non-Indian law and bureaucracies often conflict with tribal values. This paper reports the attempt of one tribe, the Winnebago in Nebraska, to introduce a system of planning and problem-solving adequate for dealing with the needs of the tribal community in a culturally appropriate manner.
The governance of natural resources used by many individuals in common is an issue of increasing concern to policy analysts. Both state control and privatization of resources have been advocated, but neither the state nor the market have been uniformly successful in solving common pool resource problems. After critiquing the foundations of policy analysis as applied to natural resources, Elinor Ostrom here provides a unique body of empirical data to explore conditions under which common pool resource problems have been satisfactorily or unsatisfactorily solved. Dr Ostrom uses institutional analysis to explore different ways - both successful and unsuccessful - of governing the commons. In contrast to the proposition of the 'tragedy of the commons' argument, common pool problems sometimes are solved by voluntary organizations rather than by a coercive state. Among the cases considered are communal tenure in meadows and forests, irrigation communities and other water rights, and fisheries.
There are a number of obstacles to stronger tribal governments, including the prevailing cultural attitude toward Indian groups and the historical lack of support for efforts of Native Americans to build their own governmental systems. However, there is a growing realization among Indian tribes of the need to take firm control of many governmental functions. In working to resolve this situation, careful consideration must be given to the appropriateness of the approach utilized. The cultural traditions of the Indian community, based on consensus, often collide with the dispute resolution approaches imposed by non-Indian law and tradition. Utilizing a culturally sensitive approach to complex problem-solving, twelve tribal leaders participated in a problem-solving session designed to focus on the tribal governance problematique. (The term "problematique" is used here to connote that the tribes are faced with a system of interlocking issues.) The participants identified the significant tribal governace issues for the next decade, organized these issues for appropriate action, and developed a preliminary field representation of options/initiatives for leaders in the Indian community to consider for action. Participants' structuring of tribal governance issues resulted in a strongly coupled problematique, with a complexity metric significantly larger than problematic situations faced by most large organizations.
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