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Consideration of Tacit Knowledge Sharing by Automation
for Reinforcement of Human Abilities
Paper:
Consideration of Tacit Knowledge Sharing by Automation
for Reinforcement of Human Abilities:
Empirical Comparison of Conservation Techniques
Between Japan and Denmark
Sadayo Hirata∗,†and Mika Yasuoka∗∗
∗Graduate School of Engineering Management, Shibaura Institute of Technology
3-9-14 Shibaura, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-5848, Japan
†Corresponding author, E-mail: hirata-s@shibaura-it.ac.jp
∗∗DTU Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
[Received December 22, 2017; accepted May 14, 2018]
It is vital for cultural properties to be passed down be-
tween generations. Therefore, this study focuses on
conservation techniques and discusses a system that
provides appropriate automation to prevent the de-
struction of the value of cultural properties and con-
servation techniques. Manufacturing companies have
improved productivity by rapidly replacing humans
with machines. Because of this, the techniques of
skilled persons who have gained experience with prod-
ucts over time by maintaining and repairing them are
not being inherited by their successors. This has re-
sulted in many manufacturers ceasing production or
going out of business. Cultural properties are strongly
associated with tradition and tacit knowledge. This
makes it more difficult to maintain and reproduce
them than common products. Thus, rather than a
simple replacement of people and machines, support
through applying automation that enhances human
abilities is required. This study investigates Japan and
a developed country, Denmark, in terms of conserva-
tion. On the basis of mutual understanding gained by
investigating the state of mutual conservation in the
two countries, we summarize the problems and efforts
related to tacit knowledge sharing. We used a qualita-
tive research method called ethnographical inquiry to
find tacit knowledge underlying the techniques and in-
fluences of culture in Japan and Denmark. This study
features empirical findings on the appropriate use of
both automation that replaces humans with machines
and automation that enhances human abilities.
Keywords: conservation, ethnographical inquiry, intelli-
gent system, management of technology, tacit knowledge
1. Introduction
Automation became common thanks to the Industrial
Revolution. It brought us shorter hours, standardization,
and reductions in cost, thereby making mass production
possible. It freed humans from long hours of labor and
dangerous work. Such automation has become popular in
large companies, as it allows them to replace humans with
machines. The definition of automation changes with the
times and is recognized now as machines and machine
groups working automatically.
However, the number of people with maintenance and
repair skills, who must have detailed knowledge of de-
velopments over time and complicated combinations of
conditions, has been reduced, causing companies to cease
production or go out of business altogether. In addition,
scarcity value is adversely appreciated now because mass
production supplies too many products.
To solve these problems and to obtain more benefits
from automation, the definition of automation should be
expanded from “machines and machine groups” to “a col-
laboration between human and machine.”
Therefore, we define two viewpoints of automation as
“substitution of machines and human beings” and “rein-
forcement of the human ability that it is difficult to be
replaced by machine,” as presented in Ta ble 1 .
The conservation of cultural properties is one domain
that should hasten the reinforcement of human abilities.
Moreover, cultural properties are strongly associated with
tradition and tacit knowledge, so they are more difficult to
maintain and reproduce than common products. Passing
cultural properties down through generations, unlike sim-
ple repairs, requires appropriate conservation based on an
understanding of long-term changes in manufacturing and
the environment, from the time they were manufactured
up to the present [1–3].
However, there is a problem: like those skilled in main-
tenance and repair, some techniques of cultural proper-
ties, which were scattered in the form of tacit knowledge
possessed by individual craftsmen, have already been lost
Int. J. of Automation TechnologyVol.12 No.4, 2018 553
Hirata, S. and Yasuoka, M.
Table 1. Two viewpoints of automation in this study.
No. Roles Expected Effects Target s
1
Substitution of
machines for
human beings
Reduction of cost,
Shortening of
hours,
Standardization
Mass
production
2
Reinforcement
of the human
ability that it is
hard to be
replaced by a
machine
Tacit knowledge
sharing,
Diversification,
Differentiation
Limited
production of
a wide variety
of products
owing to the replacement of humans with machines [1–
3]. To solve this problem, there is an urgent need to sup-
port rare craftsmen who possess the techniques of cultural
properties.
With the goal of passing precious cultural properties
down through generations in mind, this study intends to
find a system to pass on manufacturing and conservation
techniques, taking advantage of automation that enhances
human abilities. More specifically, this study intends to
visualize the tacit knowledge of the traditional techniques
and provide support in passing it on to successors without
spoiling its values.
To achieve this goal, this study first defines a frame-
work of conservation technique inheritance. Next, based
on this framework, we discuss the problems and efforts
related to the tacit knowledge of conservation techniques.
Then, we build a system that appropriately uses both
viewpoints about automation defined in Ta bl e 1 ,andeval-
uate the effects. Finally, using a comparison between
Japan and an advanced country (Denmark [3]) in terms
of conservation, we conclude with our results and a dis-
cussion of the inheritance of traditional techniques.
This study is characterized by the following two fea-
tures. One is that the roles of automation are split into two
types, as presented in Tabl e 1 , and thus the share of con-
servation techniques is complemented and supported by
automation that enhances human abilities but is also being
lost owing to automation that replaces humans with ma-
chines. The other is the use of ethnographical inquiry [4–
6], which is a research approach appropriate for under-
standing intangible and latent information. In this way,
tradition, culture, and other qualitative data are handled.
In this study, “cultural properties” refers to buildings
and industrial products. This study does not target paint-
ings and other types of artwork or their philosophical
ideas.
2. Issues
There are three main stakeholders involved in the in-
heritance of conservation techniques: craftsmen, who are
in charge of restoration; clients, who order the restora-
tion; and the country or society that maintains its tradition
through cultural properties. The three stakeholders have
the following issues.
2.1. Information Scattered Across Craftsmen
The manufacturing process and components of cultural
properties are broken down into a wide range of elements,
all of which are highly specialized. For this reason, man-
ufacturing technology exists in a scattered, latent manner
as the tacit knowledge of the craftsman who is in charge
of each step, and hence a complete picture is difficult to
obtain [7].
2.2. Ordering Parties Tend to Prioritize Economic
Efficiency
Behind the gradually disappearing traditional tech-
niques of cultural properties, ordering parties tend to give
priority to economic efficiency and make do with easy re-
pairs rather than conservation [8].
When it comes to conservation, there are two restora-
tion policies to choose from: reproduction of cultural
properties as they were manufactured, and preservation of
the status quo over time [1–3]. Deciding between the two
requires data on changes in the climate and environment
from the days the properties were manufactured up to the
present, the compatibility between the materials used in
those days and modern chemicals, and so on. However,
because conservation does not occur frequently, or even if
conservation does not occur at all, it does not cause any
risk to life or immediate inconvenience. The importance
of records for conservation tends to be underestimated [8].
2.3. Unrecognized Conservation Techniques
There are many countries that do not grant conservators
an official certification, and thus the craftsmen in charge
of conservation have low social status in general [3].
The earliest definition of the duty of conservation was
made in 1963 by the International Institute for Conserva-
tion of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC) in the USA. Fol-
lowing that, in 1985 the Canadian Association for Con-
servation of Cultural Property (CAC) and the Canadian
Association of Professional Conservators (CAPC) estab-
lished practical guidelines [8]. The main work regula-
tions are presented in Ta ble 2 , based on investigations
into work regulations for conservators in North America,
Europe, and Japan [3, 8].
In Europe, where conservation developed earlier than
in North America, Denmark adopted work regulations
in 1964 for conservators in cooperation with the In-
ternational Council of Museums-Committee for Con-
servation (ICOM-CC). As a complement, the Euro-
pean Confederation of Conservators-Restorers’ Organisa-
tions (ECCO) released guidelines in 1991 [3]. When put
together, these regulations and guidelines cover the stan-
dards more thoroughly than those of North America.
Japan has an institute that promotes the Western coun-
tries’ standards [3], but does not yet have work regulations
or an official certification.
554 Int. J. of Automation TechnologyVol.12 No.4, 2018
Consideration of Tacit Knowledge Sharing by Automation
for Reinforcement of Human Abilities
Table 2. Conservation technique inheritance based on work regulations.
Labels Framework of Conservation Technique
Inheritance
Reference of Work Regulations
North America Europe
AIC CAC&CAPC ICOM-CC ECCO
A Respect for restoration target and the like Y Y Y Y
B Respect for values such as truthfulness and
completeness Y Y Y
C Emphasis on preventive maintenance Y Y Y
D Practice of high quality work Y Y Y
E Use of appropriate materials and methods Y Y
F Creation and disclosure of investigation records Y Y
G Importance of cooperative work Y
H Need for scientific investigation Y
Note Y: Regulation is descripted.
AIC: International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works
CAC: Canadian Association for Conservation of Cultural Property
CAPC: Canadian Association of Professional Conservators
ICOM-CC: International Council of Museums-Committee for Conservation
ECCO: European Confederation of Conservators-Restorers’ Organisations
Work regulations are established in order to specify
roles and duties. At the same time, work regulations ex-
press the ability to require tacit knowledge. Therefore,
without work regulations, it is difficult to develop, evalu-
ate, and share the abilities.
3. Research Methods
As presented in Fig. 1, a conclusion was drawn based
on a comparison of case studies carried out in Japan and
Denmark.
3.1. Framework of Conservation Technique Inheri-
tance
In this study, a framework of conservation technique in-
heritance was defined as the eight points shown from A to
HinTa ble 2 , quoting the work regulations of the conser-
vation. This framework was used to compare Japan with
Denmark based on common viewpoints.
As presented in Fig. 1, we carried out discussions based
on a case study in Japan, a field survey in Denmark, and a
comparison of data from both of those countries.
3.2. Ethnographical Inquiry
To understand craftsmen’s tacit knowledge and related
practices, we utilized a few ethnographical inquiry ap-
proaches. An ethnographical inquiry can help us to “un-
derstand other people’s behavior in the context in which
it occurs and from the point of view of the people stud-
ied” [4, 9].
A wide range of ethnographical methods has been used
in various applied fields such as service [10, 11], product
ϸ
Ethnographical inquiry
- Participant observation
- In-depth interview
-Co-design
Case study
in Japan
Case study
in Denmark
Empirical comparison
Consideration of tacit knowledge sharing by
automation for enhancement of human abilities
Processes Methods
Definition of a framework
of conservation technique
inheritance
Fig. 1. Research processes and methods.
organization [7], and human resource development [12].
Previous studies indicate that these methods are applica-
ble to the automation technology domain as well as to
anthropology and sociology, as they preserve core val-
ues such as the natives’ points of view, holism, and the
natural settings of the targeted actions. Ultimately, ethno-
graphical inquiry, which is different from the ethnography
in anthropology, should aim at changing the design field
through understanding that “what we design is not just
artifacts but by intervention a changed or reformed prac-
tice” [13].
Seeing ethnographical inquiry from such a design per-
spective, our case also aims to change practices through
design interventions.
i. Participant Observation
In ethnographical inquiry, participant observation is
one of the most distinctive investigation methods. Partici-
Int. J. of Automation TechnologyVol.12 No.4, 2018 555
Hirata, S. and Yasuoka, M.
pant observation makes it possible to visualize and exter-
nalize the tacit knowledge of an observer who participates
in ongoing activities and records observations.
In our case, the observers participated in craftsman-
ship practices throughout the observation periods. We
will elaborate on our participation in more detail in Sec-
tions 4.3 and 4.4.
ii. In-Depth Interview
In-depth interviews are also a prominent method for un-
derstanding practices in the field. The core concept be-
hind in-depth interviews is clearly visible in contrast to
the conventional scientific approach to interviews. Tra-
ditionally, interviews have been utilized to depict facts
that already exist somewhere. However, in in-depth inter-
views, opinions are constructed through interactions be-
tween the interviewee and interviewer. Thus, in-depth in-
terviews are called “conversation(s) with purpose” [5] and
are a form of co-creation with interviewees. Our in-depth
interviews also applied this conversation perspective.
iii. Co-Design
Co-design is an established design approach used to de-
sign things, services, and processes. It attempts to ac-
tively involve stakeholders in the design process to en-
sure the equality and empowerment of end users [6], us-
ability, creativity, and innovation [14, 15]. It has its roots
in the participatory design practiced in Scandinavia since
the 1970s [16] and practiced in North America since
the 1980s [17]. Co-design deals with a challenge by in-
volving end users in the design processes of information
systems [18] and varied methods such as the design of
games [13, 19, 20], the Kawakita Jiro method [21], brain-
storming [22], and theater and scenarios [23,24].
In our study, we conducted co-design with Japanese
craftsmen in designing a preliminary automation system
for inheriting conservation techniques. We applied co-
design methods to explore the possibilities for a practical
support system for craftsmanship and to have meaningful
interactions with and design improvements with and for
craftsmen as end users. Details will be provided in Sec-
tion 5.
In our analysis of the collected data, we applied
grounded theory [25, 26]. Grounded theory is a quali-
tative analysis method used to describe the mechanism
of a social phenomenon. The actual research proce-
dure of grounded theory includes creating a document
for recording participant observations, interviews, and the
like; breaking up the document into fragments and cod-
ing them with numbers or labels; deriving a causal rela-
tionship between codes and a structure; and presenting a
new hypothesis or theory on the basis of the causal rela-
tionship and structure. Grounded theory is different from
other qualitative analysis methods in that it presents fac-
tual data as a base and provides an objective analysis.
3.3. Case Study in Japan
This case study targeted a small company(Company A)
in Japan that has approximately 20 employees and is a
Table 3. Data collection in Japan.
Methods Infor
mants
Ethnogr
aphers
Total
Time
(hours)
Places and
Profiles
Participatory
observation
and field
observation
15
6
9
Foundry,
Office,
Rest room,
Warehouse
In-depth
interview 6 9
Management,
Chief,
Craftsmen
Ϲ
Ϻ
In-depth interview data
- Recorded voice
Participant observation data
-Pictures
- Recorded movies
Co-design with the informants
based on the features and the structures of the codes
Data coding by fragmentation
Structuralization of the features by labeling
Grasp of features of the codes
Analysis result
Fig. 2. Analysis processes in case study in Japan.
contract manufacturer of components for buildings. It
specializes in casting, which is where molten metal is
poured into a sand mold. Casting makes possible sophis-
ticated curves and textures that could never be realized
through metallic molding and cutting. Taking advantage
of this traditional technique, Company A also restores cul-
tural properties.
As shown in Tabl e 3 , this case study was carried out
at Company A. We collected factual data from June to
December 2015 through participatory observation, a field
observation, and an in-depth interview. An investigation
of the actual condition was conducted by six ethnogra-
phers, including students from a class on ethnographical
inquiry. A total of approximately 18 h of movies and au-
dio and approximately 600 photos were collected.
We then transcribed the recorded voices, photographs,
and videos and coded them in sentence units [7] accord-
ing to the analysis processes shown in Fig. 2.Atfirst,we
extracted characteristic tacit knowledge of the conserva-
tion from all codes about behavior and recognition of the
craftsmen engaged in the conservation to understand the
actual situation. We then used eight types of tacit knowl-
edge from A to H, defined as a framework of conservation
technique inheritance in Tabl e 2, and attached the labels
for some codes that expressed the above-mentioned char-
acteristic. We structured the tacit knowledge that was un-
556 Int. J. of Automation TechnologyVol.12 No.4, 2018
Consideration of Tacit Knowledge Sharing by Automation
for Reinforcement of Human Abilities
Table 4. Data collection in Denmark.
Methods Infor
mants
Ethnogr
aphers
Total
Time
(hours)
Places and
Profiles
Participatory
observation
and field
observation
69Conservation
sites, factory
In-depth
interview 33 16.5
Craft
experts,
Teacher
derlying in Company A in this way.
Referring to these results, a co-design was carried out
together with craftsmen, information and communication
technology (ICT) engineers, and students. We repeated
suggestions for an iterative concept, then discussed, re-
fined, and finally proposed a Tacit Knowledge Sharing
System that could provide the automation to reinforce the
ability of the craftsmen having superior traditional tech-
niques [7].
3.4. Case Study in Denmark
To understand the actual conditions of the inheritance
of conservation techniques in Denmark, we collected data
in July and September 2017, as presented in Ta ble 4 .
First, we visited a school of conservator education for
approximately 3 h. Next, in a castle where the interior
was under restoration, a house, and a restoration studio,
we observed the work of six conservators using a partici-
patory observation method for a total of 6 h.
In addition, we carried out participatory observations
and interviews targeting 33 persons: front-line conserva-
tors who had graduated from a conservator school and
were working for a public or private institute or work-
ing independently, teachers, and craftsmen who were ex-
perts in craft work. We recorded as much audio and video
as possible, and had 30-min interviews with each person.
The recorded voices were transcribed and coded as in the
Japanese case study.
4. Results
4.1. Results of Case Study in Japan
4.1.1. Grasp of Features of Codes
The four characteristics in behavior and recognition of
the craftsmen engaged in conservation were extracted ac-
cording to the analysis processes of Fig. 2 as follows.
Furthermore, an applicable label among H from A of the
framework of conservation technique inheritance is indi-
cated in a bracket at the end of a sentence, when the code
expressing the characteristic is related to the tacit knowl-
edge.
i. Abilities Difficult to Explain with Words
Overall, contract manufacturing is my main job. Thus,
there are few jobs where I utilize my specialty technique.
The restoration of cultural properties is very challeng-
ing (A); I worked on it without any thought of profit (A).
For example, I repeated the procedure many times with
varying blends of metal until the dark shining color be-
came the true color (B).
I add some elaborations, such as the prevention of abra-
sion to the design, even if not required at the time of
the order (C). However, as I do not have any direct con-
tact with the end user, I cannot explain or confirm its ef-
fect (C).
I am confident in my technique, but it is difficult to ver-
bally express this (H). If my technique remains as a cul-
tural property, it will work as a substitute explanation for
families or clients, and I am proud of it as well (A).
ii. Partial Scattering in Each Craftsman
The casting process includes phases such as mold cre-
ation, casting, and polishing, each of which is done by
a specialized craftsman. Small-scale factories cannot af-
ford to employ a specialized craftsman for each phase (E).
They finish their work with mutual help from neighboring
small factories (E). There were some craftsmen employed
from other factories with decreasing orders (G).
iii. Cover-Up for Isolation and Respect
A polishing craftsman created fine curves even at his
own expense by producing jigs (D). However, he did not
want to teach his know-how to others because he did not
want them to take his own work (F). The craftsmen had
a habit of drawing the line at disclosing their know-how,
and refrained from invading others’ territory out of respect
for each other, even though they offered cooperation (G).
iv. Divided Work Style
A closed work style based on isolation and respect was
often seen not only in conservation but also in daily work.
They shared hand-over items at the morning and evening
meetings (E), but the storage locations of the molds and
tools, the progress of the work, and so on were only
known to the persons in charge (G). The work was in-
terrupted many times to search for molds and tools, check
for allocation and progress, and the like (D).
4.1.2. Structuralization of Features by Labeling
The results that structured the tacit knowledge by la-
beling are listed in Ta ble 5. According to Ta ble 5 ,itwas
found that both tacit knowledge and tacit knowledge inhi-
bition were in Company A. In addition, Company A was
good at D: practice of high-quality work and E: use of
appropriate materials and methods. On the other hand, it
was lacking in F: creation and disclosure of investigation
records and H: need for scientific investigation.
Accordingly, we determined that the items that most
required improvement were label F in Ta ble 5 , “I do not
want to decrease my own work because I have to teach
Int. J. of Automation TechnologyVol.12 No.4, 2018 557
Hirata, S. and Yasuoka, M.
Table 5. Codes related to tacit knowledge extracted from case study in Japan.
Labels Framework of Conservation
Technique Inheritance
Codes on Tacit Knowledge to be
Shared
Codes on Behaviors to Block the
Tacit Knowledge Sharing
ARespect for restoration target and the
like.
Have a strong feeling of challenge for
restoration work. —
BRespect for values such as truthful-
ness and completeness.
Repeat many times until it becomes
close to the real thing. —
CEmphasis on preventive maintenance. Design a mechanism that prevents
abrasion, added even if not requested.
Impossible to directly confirm the ef-
fect of prevention.
DPractice of high quality work. Stick to the outcome even by creating
jigs of their own expense. Frequently interrupt the work.
E
Use of appropriate materials and
methods.
Mutually help neighboring small fac-
tories.
Share hand-over items in meetings.
Can not afford to employ person in
charge of each process of casting.
Where to store the molds and tools,
progress of the work, and the like
were only known to each person in
charge.
FCreation and disclosure of investiga-
tion record. —
“I do not want to decrease my own
work because I teach know-how to
others.”
GImportance of cooperative work. Employ craftsmen from factories with
decreasing orders.
Have a custom of refrain from invad-
ing each other’s territory.
HNeed for scientific investigation. —“I am confident in my technique, but
it is difficult to verbally express.”
know-how to others,” and label H, “I am confident in
my technique, but it is difficult to verbally express this.”
Hence, we discussed a method to support the improve-
ment of these two items.
4.1.3. Co-Design with Informants
Based on the characteristics and structures analyzed by
the codes described in Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2, co-design
was carried out with the informants. As a result, in order
to support sharing and explaining traditional techniques,
we planned to create a system to support the sharing of in-
dividual tacit knowledge through automation to reinforce
the human ability that it is difficult to be replaced by a
machine.
i. Extraction of Specific Tacit Knowledge
We extracted 13 behaviors of tacit knowledge to be
shared among the manufacturing and conservation tech-
niques from the codes describing the work of the crafts-
men. The results are listed in Tabl e 6.
The process of casting is divided into phases that are
each handled by a specialized craftsman. Thus, it is dif-
ficult for an individual craftsman to understand what ad-
vantages are brought to the other phases. For this reason,
we read codes on the work of all craftsmen, gathered the
tacit knowledge for each work, and sorted them.
ii. Sharing Methods of Tacit Knowledge
Next, appropriate sharing methods for each item of
tacit knowledge were classified into the following three
types (see Tabl e 6 ): optimal for sharing (best), appropri-
ate (good), and inappropriate (NG or no good). We con-
firmed that formalization and replacement were possible
even for know-how for which there were comments such
as, “I do not want to teach” and “It is difficult to verbally
express this.”
However, even if there is the possibility of substitution
by automation to replace humans with machines, some
forms are not appropriate for the small-lot production of
various products, such as conservation from the point of
view of work efficiency and cost effectiveness [27–30].
Their feasibility is discussed in detail in other studies, and
hence is omitted from this study.
iii. System that Visualizes Tacit Knowledge and Sharing
Methods
Among the sharing methods listed in Tab l e 6,wetar-
geted the tacit knowledge for which any documents, pho-
tos, or videos were determined as “Best” or “Good.” With
the craftsmen, we discussed the sharing of their abilities
that are difficult to be replaced by machine via automa-
tion.
Based on this, we designed a Tacit Knowledge Sharing
System to support the inheritance of valuable human abili-
ties. More specifically, based on codes through participant
observation and in-depth interviews with the craftsmen,
we discussed, understood and registered tacit knowledge
to be shared into a database of the Tacit Knowledge Shar-
ing System. Molds and tools related to the registered data
were tagged with radio frequency identification (RFID)
tags. Thus, reading an RFID tag with a reader allowed
techniques to be extracted from the database using appro-
priate methods.
558 Int. J. of Automation TechnologyVol.12 No.4, 2018
Consideration of Tacit Knowledge Sharing by Automation
for Reinforcement of Human Abilities
Table 6. Comparison of sharing methods of tacit knowledge inheritance.
Tacit Knowledge to be Shared
Choice of Tacit Knowledge Sharing Method by Co-Design
Possibility of Application
of Automation to Replace
Humans with Machines
Documents Photo Vide o OJT
(1) Capable of determining the dimensions of patterns and
anticipating shrinkage allowance and warpage of finished
model.
- Computer-aided
design (CAD) /
Computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM) [27]
- Three-dimensional (3D)
data [27]
-Sensor[28]
- Vibration
controller [29]
- Power assist [29]
- Traceability through
business model
management [30]
NG NG NG Best
(2) Capable of increasing the purity of metal to be casted by
adding a groove and inflection to the mold for precipitation
and flotation of impurities.
Best Good NG Good
(3) Capable of adding a projection that enables product to
be taken out without breaking the mold upon dismantling. Good Best NG Good
(4) Capable of adjusting the model after a defect is found. Good NG NG Best
(5) Capable of tactually judging moisture of sand mold to
prevent air bubbles in casting (7% to 10%). Best NG NG Good
(6) Capable of uniformly producing multiple sand molds. NG NG NG Best
(7) Capable of estimating the amount of impurities gener-
ated based on blending ratio of materials. Best NG NG Good
(8) Capable of pouring in a way that controls air bubbles. NG NG Good Best
(9) Capable of skimming off foam by the appropriate num-
ber of times. NG NG Good Good
(10) Capable of breaking the mold without breaking the
contents by the appropriate strength and direction of force. NG NG NG Good
(11) Capable of choosing easy-to-cut tools in accordance
with the characteristics of the metal. Best NG NG Good
(12) Capable of creating jigs for creating curves that ma-
chines cannot do through cutting and polishing. NG Good NG NG
(13) Capable of controlling quality standards for each client. Best NG NG Good
Legends for judgment standard: Best: optimal as an option, Good: can be an option, NG: inappropriate for an option
This system can provide automation functions of col-
lection and preservation of information such as tacit
knowledge. Furthermore, it can provide roles to inherit
tacit knowledge by understanding the information through
the system. In other words, the Tacit Knowledge Shar-
ing System utilized the two viewpoints of automation pre-
sented in Ta ble 1 .
iv. Evaluation and New Issues
We observed the craftsmen as they used the Tacit
Knowledge Sharing System.
The videos drew their attention first. A new under-
standing and realization was promoted by videos of tech-
niques that included a significant amount of tacit knowl-
edge. The craftsmen were strongly interested in videos of
themselves. It was an opportunity for them to see them-
selves objectively. They naturally requested more photos
and videos, and wanted to record the entire process and
use it for self-study, see everyone’s techniques, and so on.
In addition, a technical limit was that the RFID reader
did not respond if metal was nearby; moreover, the RFID
tags hindered manual work.
This experiment indicated the following:
- Once broken up, even techniques involving much
tacit knowledge can be explained and shared via
documents, photos, videos, and on the job train-
ing (OJT).
- Even for tacit knowledge that tends to be hidden ow-
ing to isolation and respect, resistance against shar-
ing it was reduced, stimulated by automation that en-
hanced human abilities.
- Unlike the investigation results of existing white pa-
pers, which uniformly point out the low literacy re-
lated to automation, automation that enhances hu-
man abilities can be accepted by craftsmen.
4.2. Results of Case Study in Denmark
4.2.1. Data by In-Depth Interview
In Denmark, most conservation work from the 19th
to early 20th centuries was carried out in workshops at
major museums, and training was conducted as a part
of apprentice-master relations in each individual work-
shop [1, 2]. The Ministry of Culture in Denmark estab-
lished the School of Conservation in 1973. The school
has since become a part of the Royal Danish Academy
of Fine Arts, and takes 40 undergraduates students ev-
ery third year in five departments. In addition, the school
provides Master’s and Ph.D. programs and promotes aca-
demic research on conservation [1, 2].
Int. J. of Automation TechnologyVol.12 No.4, 2018 559
Hirata, S. and Yasuoka, M.
Table 7. Codes related to valuable abilities extracted from case study in Denmark.
Labels Framework of Conservation Technique
Inheritance Codes on Tacit Knowledge to be Shared
ARespect for restoration target and the like Have strong pride and a feeling of challenge for conservation techniques.
BRespect for values such as truthfulness and
completeness Make judgment by using both knowledge and sense.
CEmphasis on preventive maintenance Consider difficulty in abrasion and the like even if not required.
DPractice of high quality work Can receive five-year professional education.
EUse of appropriate materials and methods Choose from abundant materials and methods that have been acquired.
FCreation and disclosure of investigation
record Writing papers is encouraged. Disclosed by universities and others.
GImportance of cooperative work Mutually understand professional territory and work on it as a team.
HNeed for scientific investigation Acquire also an ability of logically and scientifically communicating with
the client.
At present, the Danish government is fostering an opti-
mal number of persons in necessary fields, one of which
is conservation. Most of the fostered conservators belong
to municipalities and are engaged in the restoration of cul-
tural properties that are owned by the national government
or local municipalities, belong to the private sectors, or
have become independent and have undertaken conserva-
tion.
Conservator fostering education is made up of both the
systematic study of necessary knowledge for conservation
and hands-on learning of tacit knowledge. In addition,
academic research has been emphasized in recent years.
Conservators often restore conservation techniques on the
basis of past materials and scientific analyses [1].
4.2.2. Grasp of Features of Codes
The four characteristics in the behavior and recognition
of the conservators were extracted according to the analy-
sis processes of Fig. 2 as follows. Furthermore, an appli-
cable label among H from A of the framework of conser-
vation technique inheritance is indicated in a bracket of
the end of a sentence, when the code expressing the char-
acteristic is related to the tacit knowledge.
i. Basis and Confidence Backed by Higher Education
The Royal Danish Academy fosters conservators. Stu-
dents choose one of five specialized fields and spend five
years mastering it. The students develop not just expertise
but also a logical, scientific ability to verbally communi-
cate with their clients (D, H). Discussions among them in-
dicated their pride and confidence, backed up by the five
years of education.
At a restoration site, they undertook a careful investi-
gation and chose the optimal restoration method and ma-
terials (E). On the other hand, there were many cases of
sensory judgment (B). For example, “The glue that was
always used and still remains slightly on the wall is a lit-
tle greasy and has a unique, animal-like smell. So, I guess
it is not varnish but shellac [both are used for gloss and
waterproofing]” (H).
ii. Emphasis on Expertise and Cooperation
A team is formed for large-scale restorations such as
the interiors of castles and houses. We observed the
restoration of a private residence that was handled by four
people. There was a good cycle where the more the crafts-
man deepened his practice and expertise, the more likely
hewastobeinvitedtoanewteam(G).
iii. Contributions of Individuals to the Group
Conservation techniques were made open by the Royal
Danish Academy in 1973 (F). Now, the writing of papers
on newly found knowledge is encouraged. In addition,
they are also proactive about acquiring overseas technolo-
gies through workshops and academic societies (H).
iv. Self-Independence and Coexistence
Even though the students graduate from a school for
conservators, a stable job is not guaranteed. However,
most of the conservators we interviewed mentioned the
importance of deepening their expertise after gradua-
tion (A).
For self-independence, sociality is also important. It is
difficult for conservators who have just graduated to find
a job. They use personal connections with conservators to
find jobs.
4.2.3. Structuralization of Features by Labeling
The results that described the characteristics in Sec-
tion 4.2.2 and structured the tacit knowledge by label-
ing are listed in Ta ble 7 . According to Ta ble 7 ,itwas
confirmed that the eight items of tacit knowledge were
shared through behavior and recognition of the conserva-
tors without being inhibited.
5. Discussion
Based on the comparison of case studies in Japan and
Denmark described in Section 4, we will explain four
main aspects of the differences in the inheritance of con-
servation techniques in both countries.
560 Int. J. of Automation TechnologyVol.12 No.4, 2018
Consideration of Tacit Knowledge Sharing by Automation
for Reinforcement of Human Abilities
5.1. Making Tacit Knowledge Open
In Japan, conservation is carried out in addition to one’s
regular job. The conservators have confidence in conser-
vation, but also have a relatively closed tendency within
their personal tacit knowledge. On the other hand, con-
servators in Denmark carry on their conservation work
even though it is unstable and they must keep expand-
ing their expertise. They have an open tendency toward
coexistence through recording and disclosing their tech-
niques. This is an outcome of familiarization with au-
tomation that gradually enhances conservation techniques
for craftsmen, as presented in Fig. 2, which was part of the
efforts made by the Royal Danish Academy and others.
5.2. Thoughts and Cooperation to Maintain Tacit
Knowledge
In Japan, the Tokyo University of Arts provides educa-
tion in the techniques and history of Japanese-style paint-
ings and other traditional arts, and Hakataori Develop-
ment College provides practical education in traditional
techniques.
In Denmark, the Royal College teaches conservation
techniques, history, the systematic knowledge of materi-
als, standardized methods, and hands-onpractice, through
which its students become certified as conservators.
Superficial differences such as the certification of con-
servators and the education system are important. How-
ever, what is more important is that higher education in
Denmark emphasizes the acquisition of common terms
and jargon [15]. A common understanding of intangible
information such as know-how and background is facil-
itated by the systematic reintegration of its process, de-
composed elements, restrictions, and the like, and this
makes it possible for human thoughts and cooperation to
predict the unknown.
5.3. System of Work that Shares Tacit Knowledge
In Japan, the practice of conservation does not require
certification and typically depends on the experiences of
contractors. Craftsmen in charge of restoration practice
their craft by repeatedly prototyping based on their own
know-how. However, there is a problem in that they are
not given the responsibility to produce a faithful repro-
duction based on documents and data on the environment
of the time, meaning, techniques, etc. [3].
In Japan, the manufacturing industry has a “multiple
subcontracting structure.” Because contract companies do
not get directly involved with end-users and the market,
their overall goals and responsibilities tend to easily be-
come unclear.
In Denmark, most certified conservators are engaged in
conservation work. Using a common language of conser-
vation fostered by higher education, they strengthen the
network of conservators, refer jobs to each other, improve
the quality of the work via their multilateral points of view
and cooperation, and pursue independent studies and pub-
lications.
In Denmark, the “Law of Jante” (Janteloven) has been
followed for many years. It advocates respect for indi-
viduals, but warns against self-righteousness based on the
belief that priority should be given to the overalloptimiza-
tion of groups in order to bring benefits to individuals.
The self-independent, cooperative work style of con-
servators has likely been influenced by this discipline.
5.4. Chemistry Between Technology and Tradition
The automation of traditional craftsmanship arouses
particularly strong resistance and skepticism against
changes to familiar procedures.
However, when application of the Tacit Knowledge
Sharing System co-designed in Japan (presented in Sec-
tion 4.1) was suggested, the craftsmen did not show much
resistance or skepticism, and they even gave independent
requests and suggestions. This indicates the possible ben-
efit of automation based on the two viewpoints, such as
“the substitution of machines for humans” and “the re-
inforcement of the human ability that it is difficult to be
replaced by machine,” for traditional craftsmanship.
The survey in Denmark presented in Section 4.2 indi-
cates pride in the acquisition of systematic knowledge and
techniques related to conservation, and an emphasis on
manual work and on-site experience. These facts do not
imply that craftsmen are completely free of resistance to
the introduction of automation.
However, as presented in Section 2.3, Denmark ac-
knowledges the need for scientific investigation – more
than any other country – and also recognizes the impor-
tance of cooperative work. Thus, it has predicted that the
introduction of automation that enhances human abilities
will be relatively easy. Denmark applied automation that
enhances human abilities before any other country for the
purpose of cultural heritage. For instance, the Jorn Mu-
seum introduced an interactive work system that provides
an experience of the famous block print technique, thus
enabling the sharing and inheritance of techniques accom-
panied by tacit knowledge.
6. Conclusions
This study presents the following conclusions:
i. Definition of Framework of Conservation Technique
Inheritance
As a result of a comparison of European and American
work regulations on conservation, it was found that these
work regulations included the tacit knowledge to be in-
herited in the techniques of conservation. Based on prior
work regulations, a framework of conservation technique
inheritance comprised of eight items of tacit knowledge
wasdefinedasshowninTabl e 2.
ii. Visualization of Human Abilities at Worksites
Using the framework of conservation technique inher-
itance, the tacit knowledge of conservation techniques
Int. J. of Automation TechnologyVol.12 No.4, 2018 561
Hirata, S. and Yasuoka, M.
Open
Data
accumulation
Aggregation and
systematization
Investigation and
restoration
Personal tacit
knowledge
Fig. 3. Steps for opening conservation techniques in Denmark.
were extracted and visualized based on codes recorded
through ethnographical inquiry in Japan and Denmark.
We noted that under the influence of a multiple subcon-
tracting structure, conservation techniques in Japan are
scattered as tacit knowledge and tend to be closed and
restricted. We also confirmed that under the influence of
the “Law of Jante” (Janteloven), conservation techniques
in Denmark are followed through a traditional education
system and inherited through cooperative work by certi-
fied conservators, and tend to be more open than those of
Japan.
iii. “Tacit Knowledge Sharing System” Built by Co-
Design
In the case study of Japan, we built a Tacit Knowl-
edge Sharing System together with the craftsmen. As a
result, it was indicated that the valuable tacit knowledge
for which comments such as “I do not want to teach” and
“It is impossible to verbally express this” apply can be
shared through documents, photos, videos, and OJT. In-
spired by videos of each other’s work, the craftsmen in-
tended to utilize the system and share tacit knowledge in
human resources to foster work cooperation. We success-
fully verified that automation that enhances human abili-
ties can make craftsmanship more open.
iv. Automation for Inheritance of Valuable Human Abil-
ities Based on Comparison Between Japan and Den-
mark
The method for opening up conservation techniques in
Denmark (see Fig. 3), the common language [15], the
work regulations (see Ta bl e 2 ), and the way of work-
ing (see Tabl e 7 ) were useful references in designing
the conservation technique inheritance methods in Japan,
which was restricted by unsociable customs. It will be
difficult to introduce work regulations and a certification
system into Japan immediately. However, mutual under-
standing and cooperation between craftsmen, their col-
leagues, and their clients will be promoted by the con-
sciousness of the framework of conservation technique
inheritance defined in this study. This framework will
help with the inheritance of the craftsmanship and cultural
properties.
In addition, it was found that the experiment on the
Tacit Knowledge Sharing System in Japan could be a ref-
erence point for an automation system for the conserva-
tion technique inheritance in Denmark, which follows a
traditional education system.
Because the history, system, and work environment
are quite different between Japan and Denmark, an equal
comparison is difficult. However, this study successfully
grasped a variety of behavior and recognition and indi-
cated an important awareness of automation. If automa-
tion to reinforce a human ability that it is difficult to re-
place by a machine is supplemented by traditional educa-
tion, more human abilities will be passed down to future
generations in a more exact manner.
We are glad that this study will be of some help in pass-
ing on conservation techniques, promoting the appropri-
ate use of automation, and ensuring the inheritance of cul-
tural properties.
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Name:
Sadayo Hirata
Affiliation:
Associate Professor, Shibaura Institute of Tech-
nology
Address:
3-9-14 Shibaura, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-5848, Japan
Brief Biographical History:
1987- Joined Fujitsu Limited
2010 Ph.D. from Tokyo Institute of Technology
2011- Visiting Associate Professor, Hosei University
2013- Associate Professor, Shibaura Institute of Technology
Main Works:
•“Quality management model realizing the co-evolution between the
technology development and the market,” J. of The Japanese Society for
Quality Control, Vol.36, No.4, pp. 490-501, 2006.
•“Analysis of the communication in requirement management of
information system,” J. of The Japan Association for Management
Systems, Vol.26, No.2, pp. 91-97, 2010.
Membership in Academic Societies:
•Science Council of Japan (SCJ), Member
•Society for Serviceology (SfS)
•Japan Society for Research Policy and Innovation Management
Name:
Mika Yasuoka
Affiliation:
Research Associate, DTU Management Engi-
neering, Technical University of Denmark
Address:
Centrifugevej, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
Brief Biographical History:
2003- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The
University of Tokyo
2006 Ph.D. from IT University of Copenhagen
2009- IT University of Copenhagen
2015- Technical University of Denmark
Main Works:
•“Collaboration across professional boundaries – the emergence of
interpretation drift and the collective creation of project jargon,” J. of
Computer Supported Cooperative Work, Vol.24, No.4, pp. 253-276, 2015.
•“Impact of Constraints and Rules of User Involvement Methods for IS
Concept Creation and Specification,” H. Oinas-Kukkonen, N. Iivari, K.
Kuutti, A. ¨
O¨orni, and M. Rajanen (Eds.): The 6th Scandinavian Conf. on
Information Systems 2015, LNBIP 223, pp. 220-236, Springer,
Heidelberg, 2015.
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