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Passion and aliveness in outdoor leadership: Leadership competencies from recreation to therapy
... As a final point, an employee's passion and enthusiasm for the outdoors and the profession was valued by the majority of employers. This final point made by employers links well with Ringer's (1995) comments that outdoor education practitioners need to bring with them not only the prerequisite skills and competencies but a passion and aliveness that invigorates the work that they do. ...
This paper reports on a study conducted in 2006-07 exploring the perspectives that some Australian employers have of graduates from an outdoor education degree program. Similar studies have been conducted in the US and the UK; however no such study has been conducted in Australia. This study clarifies some of the tensions that exist in the Australian outdoor education field regarding how employers perceive prospective employees with academic degrees. The study assumed a threefold approach to building knowledge by exploring: 1) The characteristics outdoor education employers sought in prospective employees, 2) The qualities Australian employers in the outdoor profession expect in an OE graduate, and 3) The perceptions employers have of OE graduates currently working in the profession. Findings suggest that personal attributes and experience were the key characteristics that employers sought in outdoor education staff. A degree was considered to be beneficial when recruiting and selecting employees, but only in the context of a broader matrix of other skills. Some employers expressed concerns about inconsistencies between graduates, inaccurate perceptions of graduate's personal skill levels, and arrogance amongst some graduates.
This paper suggests an extension of the widely accepted competencies for leaders and facilitators of experiential learning groups. The philosophical underpinning of conventional models of facilitation is examined and suggestions are made as to the potential shortfalls. In particular, the current views on leadership are seen to overlook non-rational and unconscious aspects of human functioning. Six perspectives on group work leadership are presented, with suggestions on competencies that are derived primarily from combining ideas from the fields of systems thinking and psychodynamic psychology. In particular, it is suggested that leaders could benefit from developing the accuracy of their intuition and from developing their capacity to tap into unconscious processes in groups. "You can't measure the skills involved in facilitation, they are all 'soft' skills" is a common cry in fields such as adventure education or corporate development training. In these areas of practice most practitioners are skilled in educational processes, in conducting adventure activities or are skilled as deliverers of workplace development training. Most of the competencies that are required in the fields of development training or adventure education can be learned in ways that result in demonstrable skills. Learning can hence be assessed using rationally-derived and relatively empirical means such as those espoused by the national authorities such as the National Training Board in Australia.
The authors describe a model of psychological depth and present some general principles that will enable adventure practitioners to manage the psychological level in the groups for which they are responsible. These principles call for the leader to pay attention to their language and the language of group participants. In particular, attention should be paid to four main criteria.
The first of these criteria is an indication of the way in which the participant is involved in the topic under discussion. The second criterion is derived from paying attention to the nature of relationships that are embedded in the participant's conversation. The third criterion is the level of emotional arousal experienced by the participant; no involvement indicating shallow psychological levels and stronger emotional arousal indicating increasing depth. The fourth criterion for assessing psychological depth is a measure of the normal bounds of confidentiality and privacy with which the subject under discussion would normally be treated.
This paper describes the competencies in the domain of human interaction that are required of leaders in various outdoor adventure programs. These programs may be grouped on a continuum from recreational outdoor adventure to primary (adventure) therapy. In the middle of the continuum, educational, enrichment, and adjunctive (adventure) therapy experiences combine fun, learning, and psychotherapy in varying degrees. These programs exist in different environments; have different goals; make use of different processes and activities; are founded on different assumptions, theoretical frameworks, and epistemologies; and utilize different mixes of professional staff. Nonetheless, there are common elements in social construction of the range of what is desirable in outdoor leadership. Clusters of competencies are presented in the form of a role map for the following outdoor leadership roles: skilled outdoor practitioner, limit setter or safety supervisor, enthusiastic adventurer, instructor or coach, group facilitator, expert communicator, human behavior expert, and clinician or therapist. The competencies outlined do not correspond to the systems used by the British or Australian national standards but are intended to transcend the limitations of those systems by incorporating affective as well as cognitive and behavioral elements. An appendix discusses the relationships of adventure therapy to psychotherapy and experiential learning, and outlines difficulties in identifying competencies for adventure therapists. This paper contains 85 references. (SV)
In effective therapeutic adventure experiences that incorporate metaphoric transfer, the metaphor contains isomorphs that link the experience to client needs and therapeutic issues. Use of metaphoric transfer in a therapeutic experience for substance abusers is described. Seven steps for creating appropriate metaphoric experiences are outlined. Contains 21 references. (SV)
Examines client characteristics, referral and screening procedures, program characteristics, treatment goals, financial arrangements, and staff characteristics in 50 programs using adventure experiences with substance abuse populations. Notes needs for specific program evaluation research and for the development of prescriptive treatment modalities for specific client populations. Contains 17 references. (SV)
Outlines the development and growth of a therapeutic adventure program as a component of a private practice. After reviewing the relevant literature, consideration is given to program development. The topics of program design, staffing, patient selection, program sites, evaluation, funding and marketing are discussed. The Wilderness Therapy Program is then presented in terms of social work values. Wilderness Therapy incorporates a systemic view of the person in the environment and aims to enhance self-esteem. This program is compared to traditional, office-based private practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We present a treatment program (The Family Wheel) designed to integrate wilderness therapy interventions with family therapy for the treatment of troubled adolescents. The Family Wheel program was conducted in the high desert of southern Idaho. Participation in this four-day program required parents and their adolescent children to engage in an intensive experiential family therapy while camping and trekking in the wilderness. An evaluation of the program revealed positive outcomes for the programs' participants. The theory, research, and pragmatics of conducting such an innovative program are discussed.
Michael has a problem; he is over 15 feet off the ground. Although he is tied into a rope held by a belayer above him, Michael is scared. The rock that offered so many footholds at the beginning of the climb is becoming smoother and steeper. Michael has been ascending the rock by jamming his feet into cracks and footholds.
Information related to selecting, training, and certifying outdoor leaders for high adventure pursuits, is provided by selected experts from five English-speaking nations (Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States). Patterns of differences and similarities among these nations regarding outdoor leadership components and preparation strategies were identified, and these similarities and differences were explained on the basis of national characteristics specific to each country. Surveys were sent to 50 experts in each nation, to determine what is required to create a competent leader, how outdoor leaders are prepared in each of the countries, and why countries apply different techniques in their preparation of outdoor leaders. The experts ranked and rated 14 outdoor leadership components (motivational philosophy and interest, physical fitness, healthy self-concept and ego, awareness and empathy for others, personable traits and behavior, flexible leadership style, technical activity skills, safety skills, organizational skills, environmental skills, instructional skills, group management skills, problem solving/decision making skills, and sound judgment based on experience), and were asked if they would consider including these components in the selection, preparation and certification of outdoor leadership candidates. Results are compared and discussed and a suggested model of outdoor leadership preparation based on the opinions of the experts and called the PEOPL (Preparing Effective Outdoor Pursuit Leaders) Paradigm is presented. A six-page reference list concludes the monograph. (JMM)
Paradox and therapeutic double bind techniques are used to overcome resistance in students with a history of success avoidance. Predictions of failure, restraining comments, and the use of paradox in the midst of an activity are defended theoretically by presenting historical roots and a rationale of effectiveness. A skill-building approach focuses on examples, practitioner concerns, and common mistakes. Examples include a delinquent adolescent, a recovering alcoholic and a female with sex role confusion. While more traditional direct approaches will remain the standard for instructors, the integration of paradoxical techniques into adventure-based education to overcome anticipated or actual resistance can enhance effectiveness. Assumptions underlying paradoxical learning contradict the medical model with its deterministic nature of genes and biochemistry by suggesting that human growth and learning can determine behavior. Those who choose to use the paradoxical approach are doing more than adding techniques to their repertoire, they are embracing a new set of assumptions about the nature and scope of human learning. (SKW)
Suggests alternative methodologies for processing the adventure experience which do not require leaders to be as skilled as the traditional sharing circle: relaxation/centering/intraspection; special adaptations/extensions of introspection (special places, solos, guided fantasy, journaling); diads/triad (warm-up, structured, nonverbal); group exercises (group-building, structured feeling exchanges, nonverbal). (NEC)
The paper addresses two significant risk management considerations in conducting an adventure program in a therapeutic setting: the potential hazards of psychiatric medications and psychological emergencies. Focusing on the potential hazards of psychiatric medications, the first section discusses climatic conditions (heat, cold, and sun) and the limitations of propranolol, phenothiazines, tricyclics, or antiparkinsonian medications on program activities. The symptoms of orthostatic hypotension, dystonia, akathisia, pseudo-parkinsonism, and tardive dyskinesia are discussed. The second section discusses two types of psychological emergencies: primary (symptoms are produced by emotional illness) and secondary (the behavior is a manifestation of a medical problem). Basic guidelines for properly labeling and managing a problem as either medical or psychological are outlined. These basic guidelines cover three steps: (1) assessment procedures--a mental status examination to assess cognitive functioning, indicators of emotional distress, and a symptom assessment; (2) intervention--observation, evacuation, interviews with individual, and outcome; and (3) evaluation of intervention--evacuation of individual and use of incident as a learning experience. (NQA)
Effective communication is sending a message so that it is received the way it was meant. Barriers to effective communication, or "noise," may include mental blocks, technical jargon, social norms, or values. Feedback, paraphrasing, impression checking, and behavior description are ways to improve communication and facilitate learning during adventure education activities. (KS)
Based on techniques of experiential learning, outdoor education, and group counseling, adventure-based counseling aims to improve the self-concept of participants by enhancing trust in others and confidence in self. Groups move through a sequence of carefully orchestrated activities, including trust exercises, games, problem-solving exercises, ropes courses, community service and learning projects, and expeditions. This sequence combines practical physical activities with a responsible and responsive group process. Adventure-based counseling may serve learning-disabled students, physically disabled persons, at-risk students, psychiatric patients, court-referred youth, and healthy intact students. This book explores the theory and practice of adventure-based counseling. Section 1 outlines the origins of adventure-based counseling and explores how its key elements are supported by leading theorists and practitioners. Section 2 discusses objectives, training issues, intake procedures, considerations in group formation, curriculum development and planning for specific groups, briefing the group and establishing group and personal goals, leadership strategies, conflict resolution, and debriefing and terminating the group. Section 3 describes specific applications of adventure-based counseling in schools, hospitals and treatment facilities, and programs for court-referred youths. Appendices include results of program evaluations, charts for activities selection, and descriptions of Project Adventure services and publications. This book contains 59 references and resources and an index. (SV)
Asocial behaviors were significantly reduced among 36 adjudicated adolescents who participated in a 30-day therapeutic wilderness program focusing on interpersonal problem solving and peer group dynamics. Behavior change was related to instructor experience and expectations and to participant interpersonal problem-solving skills. Contains 19 references. (SV)
Outdoor leaders with sound judgment can gather many specific experiences, induce them into a collection of general concepts, store these as memory maps in the mind, later recall the general concepts as needed, and deduce a specific prediction from them. Proposes that evaluative reflection after a judgment is made is the component missing from most models of judgment. (KS)
Psychodrama possesses a passionate appeal. Well conducted psychodramas can inspire wonder and delight, mystery and awe; they can arouse our sense of pity, beauty, and pain. The narrative reveals affirmations of life and hints of transcendance by dramatizing our efforts to live with our own human paradoxes. "The Passionate Technique" addresses this capacity and calls it 'Psychodrama as Revelation'.
In contrast 'Psychodrama as Therapy' is used as a clinical modality, a spontaneity-bearer to troubled individuals and toxic systems. The author provides an overview of basic psychodrama and re-presents it in terms of systems theory and strategic therapy. He deals with transference, contracting, interviewing-in-role, family-of-origin practice, and the use of action methods as part of family therapy. Lively case examples and reports of full psychodramas carry the reader step by step towards a systems-sound structure in which spontaneity can flourish.
"The Passionate Technique" is designed for therapists who work actively with individuals, families, and groups. Antony Williams details some powerful techniques that give traditional psychodrama more leverage as a therapeutic medium, based on his experience as a clinical psychologist, psychodramatist, and family therapist. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
"Rewriting the Self" explores the process by which individuals reconstruct the meaning and significance of past experience. Drawing on the lives of such notable figures as St Augustine, Helen Keller and Philip Roth as well as on the combined insights of psychology, philosophy and literary theory, the book sheds light on the intricacies and dilemmas of self interpretation in particular and interpretive psychological enquiry more generally.
Mark Freeman draws upon selected, mainly autobiographical, literary texts in order to examine concretely the process of rewriting the self.
[This book] will be of interest to undergraduate and graduate students in psychology and related disciplines, as well as to readers, academic and otherwise, interested in the dynamics of self-understanding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This comprehensive text offers its readers a unique learning tool—a merger of counseling theories with the skills needed to practice them. Extensive typescripts illustrate the actual interview process and the specifics of each theory, and detailed exercises allow students to apply the concepts immediately in their counseling techniques. This new edition also presents valuable new information on family therapy, multi-cultural, and feminist concerns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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