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Advances in Research
15(5): 1-10, 2018; Article no.AIR.42352
ISSN: 2348-0394, NLM ID: 101666096
Dactylis glomerata L. (Cock’s Foot/Orchard Grass):
A Potential Temperate Forage Grass for Cultivation
in North Western Himalaya
Nazim Hamid Mir
1*
, Suheel Ahmad
1
and Sheeraz Saleem Bhat
1
1
ICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Regional Research Station,
Srinagar-190007 (J & K), India.
Authors’ contributions
All the authors contributed in the preparation of this review article. Author NHM conceived the idea,
reviewed the literature and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Authors SA and SSB also managed
the literature searches and made necessary corrections and modifications. All authors read and
approved the final manuscript.
Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/AIR/2018/42352
Editor(s):
(1) Dr. Paola Deligios, Department of Agriculture, University of Sassari, Italy.
Reviewers:
(1)
Peter Hric, Slovak University of Agriculture, Slovakia.
(2)
Oscar Blumetto, National Institute of Agricultural Research, Uruguay.
Complete Peer review History:
http://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history/25318
Received 21
st
April 2018
Accepted 26
th
June 2018
Published 29
th
June 2018
ABSTRACT
Animal husbandry is the primary occupation of people inhabiting Himalayan regions, but the forage
cultivation has remained almost neglected and restricted to the lower Hills. The majority of the
fodder (62%) is extracted from forests (tree, shrub, leaves and herbaceous ground flora) and
remaining (38%) is derived from agroforestry systems, low altitude grasslands, degraded lands, high
altitude grasslands and crop residues. The unabated exploitation of natural resources of the
Himalayas like reckless cutting of trees, indiscriminate use of grazing areas and absence of
rehabilitation programmes has led to denudation of hill slopes, which has resulted in critically low
biomass availability and adverse effects on livestock productivity. Exploration of alternatives such as
cultivation of hardy perennial temperate forage grasses like Dactylis glomerata on a range of
landforms like within tree-based systems to fallow and sloppy lands etc provide opportunities for
forage resource augmentation in the region. Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata L.) is one of the
most commonly used forage species and has become naturalized in nearly every continent. It has
Review Article
Mir et al.; AIR, 15(5): 1-10, 2018; Article no.AIR.42352
2
been recognized as an excellent hay, pasture, and silage crop. The present paper discusses the
potential and opportunities of Dactylis glomerata in Northwestern Himalayan region vis-à-vis fodder
resource augmentation.
Keywords: Dactylis glomerata; forage grass; Himalaya; fodder resource augmentation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Though livestock rearing is an important
occupation of farmers in North Western
Himalayan region, the forage cultivation has
remained almost neglected and restricted to the
lower Hills. Beyond a certain altitude, the
cultivation of fodder is not practical because of
adverse climatic and the land constraints. The
majority of the fodder (62%) is extracted from
forests (tree, shrub, leaves and herbaceous
ground flora) and remaining (38%) is derived
from agroforestry systems, low altitude
grasslands, degraded lands, high altitude
grasslands and crop residues [1]. Due to
extremes in climate, poor management and
constant grazing, all types of grasslands have
been degraded and these are found to be less
productive [2]. The unabated exploitation of
natural resources of the Himalayas like reckless
cutting of trees, indiscriminate use of grazing
areas and absence of rehabilitation programmes
has led to denudation of hill slopes, which has
resulted in critically low biomass availability and
adverse effects on livestock production.
Consequently, the livestock productivity is very
low and all the Himalayan states have to import
various livestock products from the plains.
Forage cultivation is restricted to only about one
per cent of the cultivated area in the entire
Himalayan region. This is basically because of
the preponderance of marginal and small land
holdings in the area, climate and land
topography. Besides grazing and fodder trees,
the major local forage resource is the crop
residue, which again is too inadequate to sustain
the livestock [3]. In the state like Himachal
Pradesh there exists a gap of about 35.0 and
57.0% from dry and green forages, respectively.
Every year on an average about 7450 t of wheat
straw is imported annually from the neighbouring
states [4]. Livestock production is more efficient
from cultivated fodder than from the degraded
grazing lands but unfortunately, the fodder
cultivation has remained static and less than 4%
arable land in J&K is under fodder production [5].
The state of Jammu and Kashmir produces
around 64 lakh MT of green fodder and 35 lakh
MT of dry fodder against a requirement of 139.13
lakh MT and 58.53 lakh MT of green and dry
fodder, respectively [6]. Therefore, increased
production of fodder is essential to meet the
nutritional requirements of the livestock. Further,
the agro-climatic condition of the major portion of
the region also warrants the need of cultivating
even additional fodder that can be dried to hay or
stored as silage for lean periods. But a host of
factors like growing urbanization and shrinkage
of agricultural land, the preponderance of small
and marginal farmers, climatic and geographical
constraints, social and economic aspects
indicate that the chances of expansion of area
particularly under annual fodder cultivation are
remote. The Northwestern Himalayan region,
especially the valley of Kashmir endowed with
multiple landforms has a rich diversity of
traditional agroforestry models which are in
existence since time immemorial [6]. Due to
increased population, poor productivity of
grassland resource and deficit in forage supply
and farmer’s inability to spare their cultivated
land for forage production, it is essential to utilize
the interspaces in these horticultural tree
plantations. Among the fruit tree based
agroforestry system, the hortipasture systems
have been recognized as sustainable land use
option because of its high productivity and
environmental benefits even under fragile agro-
ecosystem [7]. Fruit tree-based land use has
been acceptable as a viable alternate land use
system [8,9]. Intercropping of perennial forage
grasses and/or legumes with fruit crops is fruitful
for high forage and fruit production [10].
Rangelands form 55 % of the total area in the
Himalayan region and comprise of diverse
vegetation types. In J&K, 4.3% of the total
geographical area is under productive grasslands
whereas the area of other grazing lands including
scrub and other unpalatable swards is 9.8% of
the total [11]. These areas can be reseeded with
perennial grasses and legumes to restore their
productivity. Dactylis glomerata L. is one of the
most important forage grasses in the world owing
to its high productivity and disease resistance
under varying climatic conditions. It is used for
pasture, hay and silage. The main advantage of
cocksfoot is greater forage production during
summer compared to other forage grasses; it
stays green after most prairie grasses have dried
[12]. Because of its shade tolerance cocksfoot is
Mir et al.; AIR, 15(5): 1-10, 2018; Article no.AIR.42352
3
also used in Europe to establish vegetation cover
in vineyards or orchards [13]. Due to its overall
high forage quality, i.e. sugar and protein
contents, shade tolerance and persistence [14]
this hardy grass can be raised on a variety of
land forms like permanent and temporary fallows,
cultivable wastelands, field bunds and risers with
minimal inputs. It is drought tolerant, persistent
and the main growth period occurs in summer
[15]. This temperate grass offers a viable option
for cultivation in the North western Himalaya and
thus augmenting fodder production in the region.
Fig. 1. Pic of Dactylis glomerata L.
2. Dactylis glomerata L.- BOTANY AND
AGRONOMIC REQUIREMENTS
Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.) is a strongly
tufted, deep-rooted, long-lived perennial grass
reaching a height of 60-150 cm [16]. Culms are
erect and glabrous. Leaf blades are 30-60 cm
long and 5-10 mm broad. Inflorescences are
erect panicles, 8-20 cm long, bearing spikelets in
dense one-sided clusters. The leaves are 2-8
mm wide, and 20-30 cm long, v-shaped near the
base tapering to a narrow tip with a prominent
mid-nerve on the lower surface. The sheath is
closed, auricles absent and the ligule is
membranous and often split, merging with the
throat margins. The seed is elongate [17,18].
Orchard grass can be diploid (2n=2x=14),
tetraploid (2n=4x=28), or hexaploid (2n=6x=42)
and are separated into subspecies by
chromosome number. Most populations are
diploid [19]. It is used for pasture, hay and silage.
The main advantage of cocksfoot is greater
forage production during summer compared to
other forage grasses: it stays green after most
prairie grasses have dried [12]. It is found from
0° to 70° latitude but grows better in temperate
and sub-tropical regions.
Optimal growth conditions are annual day-
temperatures ranging from 4.3°C to 23.8°C,
annual rainfall from 480 mm to 750 mm, on
normally drained to dry soils, rich soils of heavy
types such as clays and loams, with a pH
ranging from 4.5 to 8.2 [20]. It is tolerant of
shade, high temperatures and drought but does
not appreciate excessive humidity [21]. It is one
of the earliest grasses to initiate growth in the
spring and provides forage during early spring
and summer [22]. It produces an extensive root
system with rooting depths up to 2 feet. It thrives
well under cool, humid, moist or irrigated
conditions.
3. FORAGE YIELD AND QUALITY
Cocksfoot is an important perennial grass widely
cultivated in temperate regions of the world [23].
Its economic value is based on its high
productivity and its disease resistance under
varying climatic conditions. Due to its high forage
quality, i.e. sugar and protein contents, shade
tolerance and persistence it is more suitable for
cultivation than many other cool-season
perennial grasses and thus the species D.
glomerata is used for hay or silage production
and grazing worldwide [14]. Cocksfoot produces
a continuous growth of young leaves and can
withstand heavy grazing [24]. It is the most
suitable grass under fruit plants in the orchards
as it is known to tolerate shade upto 80% without
any reduction in the yield. However, legume
component may be included with the grass in the
orchards. Because of its high shade tolerance,
cocksfoot is well- adapted to mixtures with
legumes. It is also more competitive with
legumes than are other cool-season grasses
such as Bromus inermis (smooth brome), Lolium
perenne (perennial rye), or Poa pratensis
(Kentucky bluegrass) [19]. Because of its shade
tolerance cocksfoot is also used in Europe to
establish vegetation cover in vineyards or
orchards [13]. Numerous cultivars of cocksfoot
have been developed for late maturing, higher
leafiness, higher productivity, better disease
resistance, wider adaptability and nutritive value
Mir et al.; AIR, 15(5): 1-10, 2018; Article no.AIR.42352
4
[25]. As a cool-season perennial, cocksfoot may
be harvested four times a year and remains
productive during 4 to 8 years. It was found
that N @240-360 kg/ha fertilized cocksfoot could
be harvested four times per vegetation
season [26]. Hay yields may be up to 13.5 t/ha
with adequate fertilizer and up to 5-6 t/ha with no
additional fertilizer. The fertilization with higher
nitrogen rate had a positive effect on cocksfoot
biomass yield of swards, which were harvested
for the first time at heading stage [27]. Cocksfoot
is tolerant of shade and is an ideal companion
grass for legumes in mixed permanent pastures
[28]. It is suitable for mixed sowing with alfalfa
(Medicago sativa L.) or red clover (Trifolium
pratense L.) for hay or white clover (Trifolium
repens L.) for grazing [13]. Moreover, it acts as a
good cover crop and prevents weed growth in
orchards leading to better floor management. In
the pastures, if controlled or rotational grazing is
followed, best production, persistence, and
fodder quality is obtained. Heavy grazing during
October can lead to depleted root reserves and
increased winter injury. This plant responds well
to rotational-deferred grazing systems.
Periodically the grass should be allowed to
mature and produce seed for the continuation of
the stand [22], if harvested in spring during boot
stage, the produce is of highest-quality forage
and high-yielding hay. Beyond this stage, there is
little increase in yield and the digestibility
decreases at the rate of about 0.5 percent per
day. Aftermath growth can be harvested at 4 to
6-week intervals. Production and cutting
frequency are greatly affected by soil moisture,
soil temperature, soil fertility, and disease
incidence [29] if cocksfoot is harvested late each
year, the stand will become thin and bunchy. The
forage should be cut 5-7 cm above the ground
for rapid regeneration of growth. Cocksfoot is
considered to have low palatability [15,30,31,
32,33]. This reduces animal production because
of reduced voluntary intake. However, it has
been shown that crude protein (CP) content of
the herbage on offer can influence grazing
preference [34]. Annual DM yields of cocksfoot,
in Canterbury, range from 7 to >28 t DM/ha [35],
[36]. The lower value represents a typical yield
under grazed dryland conditions and the upper
extreme was considered the environmental
maximum when neither water nor nitrogen limited
pasture growth. The green fodder yield of 22.32
t/ha and dry fodder yield of 7.39 t/ha in cocksfoot
was obtained in an apple based hortipastoral
system under temperate conditions of Kashmir
[37]. The average dry matter yield of both native
and exotic grasses varies considerably from 2.5
t/ha in Agrostis spp. to 10.0 t/ha in Dactylis
glomerata in Kashmir Himalaya [38]. The crude
protein content is also better than many oat
varieties and varies from 28.3% at pre-joint to
12.5 % at the late bloom stages [29]. Cocksfoot
responds very well to good fertility management.
It is one of the most responsive pasture grasses
to nitrogen applications [22]. One strategy to
even out the forage production is to fertilize the
stand after the first and second cutting or grazing
period to boost late spring and summer
production. However, good produce can be
obtained even with the low input like fertilizer and
organic manure usage. As a hay crop, it should
be cut at first bloom because older stems
become coarse and unpalatable afterwards.
Since cocksfoot is a high-quality grass, it can be
grazed by most classes of livestock [22].
Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) is the major
dryland pasture grass used in countries like New
Zealand. It is drought tolerant, persistent and the
main growth period occurs in summer [15]. In
Canterbury reported annual yields range from 7.5
t DM/ha to 28.6 t DM/ha. The lower yield
indicates an average year with no N and dryland
conditions [35] whereas the high yield [36] was
produced under non-limiting water and N
conditions. Cocksfoot can dominate white clover
in mixed swards [39] to the point where pasture
quality declines, as the vegetation becomes
protein deficient [31]. It has been shown that N
fertility status of pastures affects grazing
preference [34]. This is particularly important for
cocksfoot pastures which have been shown to be
N deficient throughout the year. Furthermore,
dryland cocksfoot pastures supplied with
adequate N produced 80% more yield annually
than pastures supplied with irrigation alone [36].
Cocksfoot is one of the richest temperate
grasses as measured by protein content. In
Western Europe, protein content is usually
between 15-20% DM, although 25% protein is
possible in young cocksfoot grass [39]. However,
values higher than 30% protein have been
observed in New Zealand [34]. The protein
content declines with maturity and can be lower
than 10% DM at the end of flowering. This high
protein content is counterbalanced by a fibre
content (crude fibre 25-30% DM) that is often
higher than that of other grasses (notably
ryegrass and fescue) at the same stage of
maturity stage [39]. Cocksfoot is very valuable for
pasture, silage and hay in humid temperate
climates. Re-growth is abundant in autumn,
which allows for a lengthier grazing period and
therefore for more-profitable milk and meat
production. Orchard grass has been reported as
Mir et al.; AIR, 15(5): 1-10, 2018; Article no.AIR.42352
5
one of the most tolerant grass species in
temperate agroforestry systems. Overall benefits
from the integration of forage species in
agroforestry systems include facilitation of mutual
growth of tree and hay crops, potential revenue
from dual crops, and increased carbon storage
from grass and legume species [40]. For
example balanced cocksfoot dairy rations can be
well utilized by lactating dairy cattle, resulting in
higher yields than alfalfa, provided that grass is
harvested at an appropriate stage resulting in
higher yield and quality [41]. Cocksfoot has to be
cut at flowering stage to ensure it is nutritious
(high protein content), and also to promote
growth of palatable tillers [42].
Cocksfoot is free of alkaloids and mycotoxins
[43]. The association of cocksfoot with alfalfa can
help to reduce the incidence of bloat. In steers,
for example, the presence of 25 to 50%
cocksfoot in an alfalfa pasture reduced frothy
bloat by 70 to 90% [44]). Cocksfoot is a lesser
magnesium accumulator than other grasses,
notably fescue and is therefore more prone to be
associated with grass tetany or
hypomagnesaemia [45,46].
Cocksfoot is often the grass of reference in
ruminant feeding trials in temperate countries
[16]. Cocksfoot is sometimes described as being
highly palatable [47]. For instance, in palatability
trials carried out in the USA in the 1950s, it was
the most relished grass when grazed by cows in
pastures sown with other grasses such as
fescue, Poa pratensis, timothy or brome grass
[48]. In more recent trials in New Zealand,
grazing calves preferred orchard grass
(cocksfoot) over timothy, fescue, ryegrass and
legumes [49], high-protein cocksfoot was found
to be as palatable as other grasses [34].
However, other observations are less positive
and cocksfoot has been found to be of low or
moderate palatability. These variations can be
explained by the protein content or by the variety
[50,51,52]. In grazing sheep, cocksfoot intake
rose with increasing levels of nitrogen fertilizer
[50,53]. Animals can adapt their intake to grazing
conditions: in Argentina, heifers grazing mature
cocksfoot re-growths used shorter grazing times
and shorter bite rates, resulting in larger intakes
[54].
Mills [52] in 2007
r
eported ME values of 10.2-
12.4 MJ/kg for cocksfoot pasture. The ME was
lower in late spring and summer compared to
autumn and winter. The digestibility of protein is
influenced positively by the level of additional
fertilizer [50]. In sacco N degradability in fresh
cocksfoot decreases with the age of the forage
from 69% at heading to 59% at flowering. It was
higher for silages (70-77%) and lower for hay
(53%) harvested at the same stage [55].
Table 1. Crude protein and DDM at different
stages [29]
Stage
Crude
protein (%)
Digestible
dry matter (%)
Pre joint 28.3 82
Early head 16.8 66
Early bloom 14.7 63
Late bloom 12.5 57
4. CULTIVATION OPPORTUNITIES IN
NORTH WESTERN HIMALAYAN ZONE
The North western Himalayan states of J&K, HP
and Uttarakhand have great diversity in the geo-
ecological conditions, which suit ideally to the
cultivation of almost all kinds of temperate and
most of the varieties of tropical and sub-tropical
fruits. The Valley of Kashmir being in higher
latitudes and altitudes generally grows numerous
varieties of apples, apricots, almonds, peaches,
cherries, plums, pears, walnuts, melons and
grapes. The farmers are increasingly
concentrating on fruit cultivation and more area is
being brought under orchards. According to the
J&K State Horticulture Department, the area
under horticultural crops in J&K was 3.57 lakh
hectares in 2015-16. Similarly in the state of
Himachal Pradesh, the area under horticulture
was 224352 Hectares in 2014-15 [56] and 171.6
thousand hectares in Uttarakhand [57]. This vast
area provides for ample opportunities for
incorporation of pasture component like orchard
grass in these plantations. The perennial forage
grasses like Cocksfoot have great scope for
cultivation under various landforms like
meadows, grasslands, deteriorating grazing
lands, cultivable wastelands, field bunds and
risers etc owing to its hardy nature. Cocksfoot is
a major pasture grass used in dry land pastoral
environments in New Zealand. It is
recommended for use in both flat dry land and
hill country systems because of its moderate
fertility requirement, persistence and drought
tolerance [15,58]. Further, reportedly animal
health problems associated with feeding of other
grasses like perennial ryegrass, low nutrition
crops and weeds are avoided because no
harmful alkaloids are produced. Although annual
fodder crops, grasses and weeds from cultivated
fields provide green nutritious fodder for a few
Mir et al.; AIR, 15(5): 1-10, 2018; Article no.AIR.42352
6
months of the year, perennial grasses like
cocksfoot can provide green nutritious fodder for
an extended period of time as two to three cuts
are possible in a year. Orchard grass is primarily
a pasture grass. However, it is very suitable for
silage and stall feeding hence may provide good
quality feed during the otherwise lean period in
the Himalayan region. Stevens and Hickey in
2000 reported peak production from a cocksfoot
pasture occurred four years after establishment
but measurements ceased after the fourth year
[59]. Seasonal production is generally lower than
ryegrass in spring but this is offset by increased
production in summer and autumn [58]. In
Canterbury, total annual DM production of dry
land cocksfoot was 7.6 t DM/ha compared with
4.9 t DM/ha from ryegrass pastures [35]. In
contrast, under non limiting conditions in
Canterbury, a 10 year old cocksfoot dominant
pasture was shown to produce a potential
maximum yield of 28.6 t DM/ha/y [36]. Sowing
period in cocksfoot is long and extended and can
be either done in fall (autumn) or spring. For
autumn, sowing can be done from 15
th
September to 15
th
December. During this period
most of other agricultural activities are
suspended in the hilly areas due to the onset of
cold winter. For spring, sowing should be done in
March. In case of non-availability of irrigation
facilities, it can be grown on residual moisture in
the soil at the time of sowing. Cocksfoot roots
form a dense fibrous mat in the top 0.25 m of the
profile [60,61]. Evans measured 16.0 m of
cocksfoot roots in the top 0.20 m of the soil
compared with 3.3 m in ryegrass or white clover
treatments [62]. The production of a more
extensive root system increases the surface area
for water and nutrient uptake. The North western
hilly zones are highly prone to various forms of
land degradation. About 32% area of J&K is
affected by various soil degradation problems.
Average soil loss in J&K is 20 tonnes/ha/year
which is higher than the national average loss of
16.37 tonnes/ha/year [63]. In HP state about
27% area has soil loss > 15 t ha
-1
and varies in
intensity from moderately severe (15-20 t ha
-1
) to
extremely severe (>80 t ha
-1
) [64]. Among
agronomic interventions planting of Dactylis
grass can be an important component of sloppy
agricultural land technology (SALT). Because of
its dense network of non-rhizomatous roots, it
provides good erosion control on sites where it is
adapted. It is recommended for erosion control
on forestland that has been burned or logged,
often showing early establishment and eventually
being replaced by native vegetation or other
seeded species [65]. It may also be used as a
ground cover, in order to control soil erosion and
for lawns or ornamental borders [20]. As a deep-
rooted perennial grass, cocksfoot is an excellent
ground cover and may be used in rehabilitation
programmes: for example soil erosion control on
cut-over forest land or on slopes, and
rehabilitation of sites disturbed by mining [66].
Once established it may be cultivated
without additional fertilizer and without
pesticides [27]. However, it is preferred by
livestock when grown with adequate plant
nutrients [48].
The climatic requirements of Cocksfoot are very
much in accordance with the North Western
Himalayan climate. In field-grown cocksfoot, leaf
photosynthesis was optimum between 19-23°C
[36]. This was comparable to the 20-22°C
optimum range reported in controlled
environments [67,68]. Every 1°C drop below
19
o
C caused the rate of photosynthesis to
decline by 6% from the maximum of 27.4 µmol
CO
2
/m
2
/s [36]. When temperatures exceeded
23°C, photosynthesis also declined but at a rate
of 8%/°C. The significance of orchard grass
cultivation on nutrient recycling and climate
change mitigation has been well advocated.
Cocksfoot can use high rates of Nitrogen (N)
when grown on deep soils with adequate water
supplies, making it valuable in nutrient recycling
systems. It can be used in manure and bio-solid
applications to recycle large amounts of N (in
excess of 300 pounds N/ac/yr) while
simultaneously producing high-quality forage
[65]. Genetic improvement efforts in forage crops
have been very limited except for the coarse
cereals and minor millets used both as forage
and fodder and the temperate crops of European
and Central Asian origin. The major yield gains in
most other crops have been achieved by
improving the agronomy and the cultural
practices. A great scope exists to increase forage
productivity by diversifying the crop base,
strengthening the genetic improvement activities,
including utilizing the wild relatives of cultivated
species. In this regard, efforts are needed for
collection, characterization, evaluation,
cultivation and conservation of new/wild forage
species. Natural populations of D. glomerata are
of major importance for forage crop breeding. In
natural and semi-natural grasslands, those
populations harbour high genetic diversity,
which provides advantages for future
breeding and conservation programs in particular
with respect to climatic changes and an
increasing demand for forage and food
production [69].
Mir et al.; AIR, 15(5): 1-10, 2018; Article no.AIR.42352
7
5. CONCLUSION
With the burgeoning population, growing
industrialization and urbanization there is an
increased demand for the livestock products
mainly meat and milk. The Himalayan region is
generally deficient in adequate quantities of
quality fodder, being one of the important factors
for low livestock productivity. With deteriorating
grazing lands and dwindling chances of area
expansion under annual fodder cultivation,
alternative crops which are hardy, can tolerate
fair amounts of shade, drought and cold stress
and can be grown in a variety of landforms with
minimal inputs and management and are
perennial (can provide green nutritious fodder for
extended period of time) besides being helpful in
soil conservation need to be identified and
cultivated. Cocksfoot is one such crop that
seems a promising option given its great
potential as a cool-season pasture grass.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing
interests exist.
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