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Design of Sponge City: lessons learnt from an ancient drainage system in Ganzhou, China
Abstract
This paper presents a case study on an ancient drainage system in the Hetao old urban center, Ganzhou, China, which is playing a key role in the prevention of urban flooding. The system includes ancient city walls, a Fushou ditch, and ponds. The ancient city walls were constructed to defend the river water intrusion. The Fushou ditch and ponds primarily served for the drainage and storage of the rainwater, respectively. The process of rainwater management in the Ganzhou ancient drainage system, including the guidance, storage, infiltration, purification and utilization, and drainage of rainwater, confirms the feasibility of the design concept of modern sponge city. Based on the lessons learnt from this ancient drainage system, the guideline for the rainwater management and design of sponge city is proposed. It is suggested that the sponge city should be planned before the new urban development. During the construction of sponge city, the dispersed ponds and the ditches made of durable and permeable materials in Ganzhou ancient drainage system are recommended to increase the amount of infiltration, storage and utilization of rainwater.
... This kind of migration tends to lead to unsustainable urban expansion resulting in flash floods from precipitation that are further accentuated by climate change and other influencing factors. Flooding is caused by a synergic effect of rainfall, drainage capacities and urbanization because urbanization not only increases runoff due to increased imperviousness, but also lowers infiltration through seepage to groundwater tables [6]. ...
... Xu, Shen [6] found out that when drainage systems were built before the city itself, it performed better as in the case of Ganzhou and, therefore, they recommended sponge cities to be designed and planned prior to the construction of new urban areas. Since current pilot cities were planned to incorporate sponge city elements in existing urban structure, this works as an impediment and weakens rainwater management, which may be one of the reasons why two-thirds of the pilot sponge cities still experienced flooding as of 2016. ...
... Xu, Shen [6] studied the old urban center of Hetao in the city of Ganzhou. which is seldom flooded despite being covered by water on three sides and being located in a city receiving 1435 mm of rainfall annually, which is on the higher scale with respect to China. ...
India and China are among the two most populous countries in the world that concomi-tantly incur substantial flood-related losses, and both countries are also experiencing rapid urbanization. This study was conducted to trace the major urban flooding cases in these countries between 2014 and 2020 and probe into their existing flood mitigation policies with special focus on China's Sponge City Program (SCP). A systematic review using preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA) was conducted. Results showed that both these countries experienced comparable challenges in terms of the need for localized low impact development (LID) planning given their extensive geographically induced diversities. Improved inter-governmental and inter-agential coordination, new avenues of funding involving public and private enterprises with accommodations to source local products and services to boost local economies, improved practical and technical understanding for working professionals and improved community acceptance and participation are also recommended. It is concluded that India should try to focus on holistic urban water resilience as China does with its Sponge City Program and that China should take a cue from India's contractual and tender-based private service sourcing methods to tide over its financial setbacks in order to achieve its ambitious targets for 2030.
... The application of the sponge city concept in China's urban construction projects includes various Low Impact Development (LID) techniques, primarily used in features such as permeable pavement, green roofs, submerged green spaces, bioretention facilities, infiltration ponds, seepage wells, wet ponds, rain gardens, rain reservoirs, rainwater tanks, regulating ponds, vegetation swales, permeability tubes/channels, vegetation buffer zones, and wetlands (Chan et al. 2018;Wang et al. 2018;Nguyen et al. 2019;Song 2022). The main goal of the sponge city (SC) concept is to enhance a city's resilience to urban expansion and climate change by establishing a healthy urban water cycle system where "urban precipitation can accumulate, infiltrate, and be cleansed naturally" (Wang et al. 2018;Xu et al. 2018). The sponge city concept consists of three key components. ...
... Second, it focuses on restoring the ecosystem service functions of degraded systems using ecological techniques and integrating traditional urban areas back into nature (Li et al. 2017;Vojinovic 2020). Lastly, it is a stormwater management concept that aims to reduce runoff and control stormwater pollution through a series of small-scale, source control facilities such as highly permeable and breathable roads, squares, communities, grassy swales, rain gardens, and green roofs (Li et al. 2017;Xu et al. 2018). ...
Recently, floods have affected many areas due to the deterioration of the precipitation regime and improper land use. To mitigate these impacts, it is essential to implement sustainable urban drainage systems, such as Sponge City strategies, particularly in vulnerable regions. The study aims to minimize the possible effects of flood disasters by developing Sponge City proposals in high flood susceptibility areas in the center of Hatay, where the loss of life and a major structural disaster occurred after the February 6, 2023, Kahramanmaraş earthquake. Firstly the study flood susceptibility analysis was carried out at the Hatay center. The SWAT + module was used while performing the flood susceptibility analysis. The SWAT + module was employed to ascertain the locations of areas exhibiting high, moderate, and low flood susceptibility within the Hatay center. Analysis has showed that %89.24 of agricultural area and % 6.47 of built-up areas in the center of Hatay are under serious threat. The study is unique in that it proposes SC recommendations in flood susceptibility areas using geographic information systems. The impact of flood-related damages can be mitigated through the implementation of Sponge City applications in areas with high flood risk. Many such applications have been proposed for the region, and these suggestions are crucial for integrating them into new master plans. By adopting Sponge City principles, we can enhance the resilience of vulnerable areas and effectively manage water resources to reduce flood risk and protect both agricultural and built-up zones.
... We established the classification contents and indexes of the underlying surfaces of sponge cities from the perspective of national geographic conditions. (7) The related indexes of sponge cities were mainly classified according to seven categories of factors (namely, water body, vegetation, architecture, geology, landform, special facilities, and climate conditions) that significantly affect water balance and hydrological processes. ...
... Bu şehirlerde geçirimsiz yüzeylerin kullanımı azaltılıp onun yerine geçirimli yüzeylerin arttırılması, yağmur bahçeleri, su tutma hendekleri, yeşil teraslar, göletler, havuzlar gibi yapılarla yağmur suyunun doğal sistemlere yönlendirilmesi amaçlanır. Başarılı çözüm ve uygulamalar ile sünger kentlerde meydana gelen taşkınların sıklığında ve şiddetinde azalmalar meydana gelir, suyun kalitesinde iyileşme sağlanır, yer altındaki ve yüzeydeki su rezervleri beslenip iyileştirilir [16]. Sünger kentlerin tasarımlarının temelinde yüzeyde meydana gelen toplam akışın kontrolünü sağlamak, yağmurlar ile birlikte toplanan suyun depolanması ve çevrede meydana gelen kirliliğin kontrol altına alınmasını sağlamaktır [17]. ...
... Urbanization has significantly impacted urban hydrological conditions, leading to an escalating severity of urban waterlogging and flooding disasters [1]. ...
Cities worldwide are undergoing sustainable transformations driven by environmental, societal, and economic concerns. This includes improving living standards and addressing global challenges such as climate change and pollution. Urban planning strategies are being re-evaluated, emphasizing the expansion of green spaces. Pécs, Hungary, exemplify this trend through projects like the “Green Gate,” focusing on new pedestrian walkways and increased green areas. To optimize the project's impact, emphasis is placed on integrated water management and considering elements inspired by the “sponge city” concept for flood mitigation. The goal is to assess potential outcomes and feasibility in a real-world setting.
... In particular, issues such as the inability to properly manage water flow on campuses (McHugh, 2011;Helling & Bölsche, 2021;Li et al., 2022) and water accumulation in low-lying areas indicate that current drainage systems are inadequate in coping with heavy rainfall. Blockages in rainwater drainage systems and the inability to control the direction of water flow (Jack & Kelly, 2012;Teston et al., 2018;Niu et al., 2023) have led to disruptions in campus transportation and damage to infrastructure (Tuna, 2006;Markovi et al., 2014;Xu et al., 2018;Bayramoğlu & Büyükkurt, 2020). Therefore, it is crucial to develop and implement water management models in relevant units to solve any water-related issues accurately. ...
In this study, rain harvesting and water management issues were examined in the RTEU Fener campus.
... 14,15 Catastrophic floods in Beijing (2012) and Zhengzhou (2021) underscored the need for adaptive traffic management, improved levees, enlarged reservoirs and advanced early-warning systems. [16][17][18][19] In the United States, floods also pose a great threat to lives and property, and impose a substantial financial burden on the National Flood Insurance Program, which has accrued more than US$ 20 billion in debt since 2005. 20,21 Climate change, implicated in escalating precipitation levels, contributes to growing flood-induced damages. ...
Objective
To assess global, regional and national trends in the impact of floods from 1990 to 2022 and determine factors influencing flood-related deaths.
Methods
We used data on flood disasters from the International Disaster Database for 1990–2022 from 168 countries. We calculated the annual percentage change to estimate trends in the rates of people affected and killed by floods by study period, World Health Organization (WHO) region, country income level and flood type. We used multivariable logistic regression analysis to assess the factors associated with death from floods.
Findings
From 1990 to 2022, 4713 floods were recorded in 168 countries, which affected > 3.2 billion people, caused 218 353 deaths and were responsible for more than 1.3 trillion United States dollars of economic losses. The WHO Western Pacific Region had the most people affected by floods (> 2.0 billion), accounting for 63.19% (2 024 599 380/3 203 944 965) of all affected populations. The South-East Asia Region had the most deaths (71 713, 32.84%). The African and Eastern Mediterranean Regions had the highest number of people affected and killed by floods per 100 000 population in 2022. The odds of floods causing more than 50 deaths were significantly higher in low-income countries (adjusted odds ratio: 14.34; 95% confidence interval: 7.46 to 30.04) compared with high-income countries. Numbers of people affected and mortality due to floods declined over time.
Conclusion
Despite the decreases in populations affected and deaths, floods still have a serious impact on people and economies globally, particularly in lower-income countries. Action is needed to improve disaster risk management and flood mitigation.
... With the rapid development of economic construction, the ground space is becoming increasingly tight, and the underground space has become the development space of public transportation and basic engineering. Most of the construction of these underground spaces adopt deep foundation pit excavation (Lu 2015;Wu et al. 2015;Tan and Lu 2017;Lyu et al. 2018;Xu et al. 2018). With the large-scale construction of urban underground rail transit and major transportation hubs, deep foundation pit engineering has become more and more complex. ...
A large amount of pumping in the deep foundation pit will reduce the groundwater level and lead to surface cracking, building settlement, ground collapse and spring water cut-off. And the groundwater recharge is a good control measure. An integrated system of dewatering and recharge for the deep foundation pit is developed, and it is mainly composed of a pumping system, an assembled water tank, a variable frequency pressure system, a cleaning and filtering system, a recharge pressure tank, a recharge well system and a central control system. This system can realize intelligent automatic control according to the monitoring data. It does not require staff to operate on site and can be remotely adjusted by computer or mobile phone. Taking a subway station under construction in Jinan as the background, the single well recharge test and the multiple wells recharge test were carried out. It can be found that with the increase of recharge pressure, the recharge volume gradually increases, but the increasing trend is smaller and smaller. The relationship between the groundwater level and the recharge volume is a logarithmic function. Blindly increasing recharge wells may not improve the overall reinjection volume, and the relationship between the number of recharge wells, the diameter of reinjection pipes and the maximum recharge capacity of the variable frequency pressure system needs to be comprehensively considered.
... The removal rates of TSS by green roof are 93% [60], the average removal rate of Cu by infiltration trench was 34% [61], and the removal rate of TN and TP by vegetative swale was more than 60% [62]. LID measures have been used in China [63,64] and many western developed countries [37,65] for the control and management of urban rainfall and runoff and achieved excellent results, which has become a means to achieve ecological urbanization. ...
... In addition to the research on low-cost rainwater harvesting in traditional settlements, the research on traditional settlements' response to floods also has implications for urban stormwater management under today' s climate change situation. [31,32] Some other studies take the perspective of the functionality of the architecture itself, the water resources management as the main research topic [33], and combine the quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis to research the sustainability and cross-regional application potential of traditional water management [34,35], which can explain the mechanism of traditional ecological knowledge [36], but it does not directly prove the effectiveness of its mechanism and the details of its dynamic changes [37][38][39]. ...
Based on the landscape architecture of traditional settlements in southern China, this study takes water as a vital element through field investigation and model analysis to explore the water management strategies of two traditional villages in Xiangjiang River Basin, Hunan Province. We have found that traditional settlements are located between rivers and mountains. The community of the settlement has a strong interaction with the water environment. The water management system consists of two parts: the rainwater collection and storage system of a single building and the settlement' s water collection and drainage system. Through calculation, we found that the amounts of water collected (per year) between the two villages are different: ZhangGuYing (Z village) = 5.73 million L, ShangGanTang (S village) =1.784 million L, in spite of the fact that water management strategies of the two settlements are similar. Further analysis shows that the difference is related to the adaption of the precipitation and topography of the surrounding areas. The above-mentioned systematic management strategy of water resources has been used until currently, with adaptability, low cost, and sustainability. It has outstanding significance for the current demand for sustainable development from both resource management and cultural aspects.
... It was reported that a flood disaster in Beijing in July 2012 severely disrupted the normal lives of citizens, resulting in 79 deaths, varying degrees of waterlogging on the streets and an estimated economic loss of CNY 11.64 billion [28]. In China, hundreds of densely populated cities experienced street flooding in recent decades, exposing millions of people in urban areas to severe disasters, especially during the monsoon season [29][30][31]. Although urban managers have attempted to predict and mitigate flooding, it is not practical to eliminate the risk due to various hydrological and hydraulic processes (i.e., heterogenous rainfall, complex topography and flow exchange between drainage networks) and the difficulty of accessing timely and high-resolution flood information [32,33]. ...
Rapid urbanization has altered the regional hydrological processes, posing a great challenge to the sustainable development of cities. The TVGM-USWM model, a new urban hydrological model considering the nonlinear rainfall-runoff relationship and the flow routing in an urban drainage system, was developed in this study. We employed this model in the Huangtaiqiao drainage basin of Jinan City, China, and examined the impact of land cover changes due to urbanization on rainfall-runoff processes. Two urbanization scenarios were set up in the TVGM-USWM model during the design rainfall events with different return periods. Results showed that (1) the TVGM-USWM model demonstrated good applicability in the study area, and the RNS values of the flood events are all greater than 0.75 in both calibration and validation periods; (2) the proportion of impervious areas increased from 44.65% in 1990 to 71.00% in 2020, and urbanization played a leading role in the process of land cover change and manifested itself as a circular extensional expansion; and (3) urbanization showed a significant amplifying effect on the design flood processes, particularly for relatively big floods with small frequency, and the impact of urbanization on the time-to-peak of the design flood gradually decreased as the frequency of the design rainfall decreased. The results of this study can provide technical support for flood mitigation and the construction of a sponge city in Jinan City.
... The increasing trend and severity of worldwide urban floods have been challenging global urban sustainability. To effectively mitigate urban flood disasters and enhance urban flood risk management, a lot of efforts have been made by researchers and governments in developing advanced urban flood models, sponge cities, and resilient cities [6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. However, the increased destructive urban flooding events in mega-cities indicate that the safety of individuals exposed to urban floods is still one of the major concerns in urban stormwater design and floodplain management. ...
Risk assessment of individuals in urban flooding events requires quantitative criteria of human instabilities and hazard identifications. The existing guidelines might not be representative of some inundation situations in urban settings without considering the risks associated with human behaviors. Current guidelines may be under or over-estimated to be applied during a natural urban flooding disaster. This work proposes a hybrid model by coupling an efficient hydrodynamic model with a physics-based model to quantify individuals’ instabilities in urban flood events, both children and adults, based on the flow regimes and human physical characteristics. The model accounts for human behavior and the failure mechanism caused by physical instabilities of toppling, sliding, and drowning. The hazard degree is identified in terms of flow velocity and water depth in floodwaters. The hydrodynamic model is calibrated in a densely urbanized area in the city of the UK and the instabilities threshold curves for adults and children are validated using existing measurements in the literature. Applications of extreme precipitation events that occurred in Wuhan city of China showed that adults are relatively safe in most of the study sites with a low hazard except in the areas where the flood water depth exceeds the low limit of hazard criteria. However, the distribution of flood hazard degrees for children is significantly increased compared to that for adults. Furthermore, hazardous zones were observed in the vicinity of critical facilities such as the government house, supermarket, hospital, metro station, and primary school, consistent with the deep flood depth distribution. Overall, this work develops a hybrid model for risk assessment of individuals exposed to urban floods and the hazard criteria that could be implemented in urban flood risk management for sustainable cities.
... The existence of Bengawan Solo River and Pepe River became the main water resources for the life of society. This phenomenon occurs in many ancient or royal cities in the past time (de Kleijn, 2001;Xu et al, 2018;Scarborough, V. L. et al., 2012). Furthermore, the existence of port, was located around Bengawan Solo River, became the interaction space between indigenous people and foreign traders, and also the water transportation took place through that river. ...
Paths, including roads and rivers, are the main elements determining urban form. The understanding of the urban paths’ typologies could explain the urban form transformations. Surakarta as case study, is a Javanese city has experienced the urban function change from royal city into modern city. This research aims to understand the paths typologies influence towards the urban form transformations relating to the urban function change. The data gathered from study documents including cartographies, photographs and historical documents, and also field observations utilizing google streets views. The data is composed through the periodization from 19th Century to recent era. It relates to the government authorities in Indonesia including kingdom era, colonial era, and Indonesian government era. The data sources are explored by the descriptive qualitative method and the spatial analysis method. The research revealed that the transformations of urban paths forms have been occurred, and these transformations are in conjunction with the urban function change. The essential factors influencing those transformations are transportation system modernization, flood risk reduction, and urban expansion. This research enhanced the comprehension of the urban function change being correlated to urban form transformation occurring in Indonesian cities.
... The design of 'sponge cities' is based on an innovative way of imitating and supporting the natural circulation of water in the urban environment, consisting of rainwater retention and purification thanks to the techniques used to install blue-green infrastructure which allow for rational water management in extreme conditions, i.e., drought and flooding. Under standard conditions, this system stabilizes the natural environment of the city and its biodiversity [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. The innovative idea of the so-called 'sponge city' was presented for the first time at the 2012 Shenzhen International Forum on Low-Carbon Urban Development and Technology. ...
The article presented methods of urban development in terms of the application of the ‘sponge city’ concept, as well as the possibility of introducing different hydro-engineering solutions into the urban fabric that allow infiltration and retention at various scales of spatial planning. The aim of the paper was to indicate which specific solutions can be used in the city in multi-dimensional and multi-functional systems. As a result of the research, the concept of a ‘5-scales’ diffusion of blue–
green infrastructure elements was presented. Elements of this system are based on multi-scale blue–green infrastructure, creating a patchwork of ‘blue connections’ that fit into the city ‘green’ natural system and have a connection with urban rainwater drainage. These five elements together allow for the infiltration and retention of rainwater, and can be used in the design of ecologically
sustainable water-oriented cities in the future.
... Ganjiang is the largest river in Jiangxi, which flows from south to north through 52 counties under the jurisdiction of five districts: Cangzhou, Ji'an, Xinyu, Pingxiang and Nanchang [39]. The whole territory of Ganzhou is located along the upper stream of the Ganjiang River Basin [40]. Additionally, Ganzhou is a resource-based city. ...
Using the contingent valuation method and the Heckman two-stage model, we explore residents' willingness to accept (WTA) compensation and their WTA level for ecological conservation compensation in the upstream of the Ganjiang River Basin in China. The findings reveal that 86.26% of the respondents are willing to accept compensation, and the average compensation level is ¥789.60/household per year. The residents' gender, annual disposable income, residential location, decision on whether or not the watershed environment is important, and their satisfaction with water quality and quantity are significantly related to their WTA. The influencing factors that significantly affect compensation level are residents' occupation, educational background, annual disposable income, family size, residential location, decision on whether or not the watershed environment is important, and their satisfaction with water quality and quantity. The results of this empirical research have important policy implications: the government should strengthen advocacy and education of watershed ecological environment protection, intensify farming and other agricultural activities, establish a differentiated and diversified compensation strategy, so as to protect and improve the ecological environment of the Ganjiang River Basin.
... Specifically, the ecohydrodynamic behavior of vegetation in rivers depends on its morphometrical and ecological traits [4][5][6][7][8]. In the last decade, the potential of drones in monitoring both natural and urban areas has improved considerably, thanks to their remote sensing capabilities, especially when dealing with vegetated water systems almost worldwide [9][10][11][12]. ...
The prediction of the ecohydraulic and ecohydrological structures of vegetated flows is extremely important; particularly because of the well-known Climate Change and Global Warming implications. This study aims at monitoring the real-scale Ecohydrodynamics of vegetated ditches hardly covered by riparian stands, through the analysis of their reflectance signature. A monitoring system composed of a cruising drone and a thermographic camera was employed in the present experimental study. Once the main average and turbulence traits were measured directly in the field, the correlation between the riparian plant’s Leaf Area Index (LAI) and their thermal properties was studied to assess the impact of drone-based thermometry methods and techniques on the predictions of the main real-scale flow trends of vegetated waterways.
... Currently, rainwater resource utilization has become one of the priorities of energy-saving management in large public buildings [12] . Promoting a healthy water cycle and strengthening the construction of ecological sponge watersheds is the demand for water management, while rainwater resource utilization is also an important measure to strengthen the natural water cycle and social water cycle [13,14] . In this study, the rainfall amount and the rainfall duration of WNS are monitored in real-time to study the water quality characteristics of stormwater runoff from different underlying surfaces and the correlation between each pollutant, and the amount of recyclable rainwater is analyzed using the InfoWorks ICM model, to provide a reference for rainwater harvesting and utilization in large public buildings of mountainous cities. ...
In response to the water shortage in Wanzhou North Station (WNS), the authors investigated the stormwater quality characteristics with different underlying surfaces of WNS and carried out stormwater reuse analysis in conjunction with the InfoWorks ICM model. The results show that during heavy, torrential, and moderate rainfall, the road stormwater runoff has the highest concentrations of pollutants, with an average EMC (event mean concentration) value of 206 mg/L for COD. For the square runoff, the average EMC values of COD, SS, TN, and TP are 108 mg/L, 395 mg/L, 2.113 mg/L, and 0.128 mg/L, in comparison, the average EMC values of the corresponding indexes for the roof runoff are 65 mg/L, 212 mg/L, 1.449 mg/L, and 0.086 mg/L, respectively, demonstrating their potential for reuse. The R2 (coefficient of determination) of SS and COD in both roof and square runoff are greater than 0.85, with a good correlation, indicating that SS removal is the key to stormwater purification. InfoWorks ICM analysis shows that the recyclable volume of rainwater from WNS in 2018 is 29,410 m3 , accounting for 61.8% of the total annual rainfall. This study is expected to provide an ideal reference for the stormwater management of public buildings in mountainous areas.
... Aiming to cope with these problems, a number of countries have developed and implemented urban water management strategies, such as best management practices (BMPs) ), low-impact development (LID) in the USA (Eckart et al. 2017), sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) in the UK (Ellis and Lundy 2016), water-sensitive urban design (WSUD) in Australia (Coutts et al. 2013), the active-beautiful-clean waters program (ABC) in Singapore (Lim and Lu 2016), and a sponge city program (SCP) in China (Xia et al. 2017). As a result, assessing the effectiveness of different urban water management strategies in handling urban water problems has attracted significant attention, and even more so in recent years with the intensive implementation of SCP (Jiang et al. 2018;Xu et al. 2018;Chan et al. 2018;Jia et al. 2017). ...
... The impacts of climate change on urban stormwater management and rapid urbanization on park services have been pronounced in China. Hundreds of China's cities have been impacted by flooding disasters annually since 2008 [34]. Studies have shown that the likelihood and intensity of flooding have increased in urban areas with a constant decrease in permeable surfaces (which allows stormwater runoff to percolate through the soil, filter out pollutants, and run into the nearest water body) and exacerbated by increased intensity of precipitation due to climate change [35]. ...
Due to climate change and rapid urbanization, contemporary cities face the dual challenges of providing sufficient stormwater management and adequate park services, which potentially conflict over limited space and resources. To solve these problems, cities are increasingly combining stormwater infrastructure with park space in ways that create new efficiencies. To date, most research has focused on the stormwater management performance aspect of these combinations and not the techniques employed to achieve the combined goals. To fill this gap, 23 sponge city parks in Shanghai were investigated to examine the combination of stormwater and park services. Our findings show that stormwater techniques were primarily combined with the park facilities of water areas, paved open spaces, and pathways. Additionally, we found that larger parks employed a wider range of techniques for managing stormwater runoff and supported broader sets of park activities, while those at smaller scales prioritized infiltration, detention, and purification measures, as well as concentrated on social and economic activities. This study is the first to explore SPC parks that integrate stormwater management and park services, thereby providing implications for SPC development in China and insights into the ways that the two properties can be combined in other cities.
... Currently, the construction of sponge cities in China is still in the exploratory stage. The idea has been mainly to learn from and refer to the construction ideas and methods of the United States, Australia, Germany, Japan and other countries (Bunster-Ossa 2013; Hui et al. 2017;Xu et al. 2018;Guo & Gao 2021). However, the unique hydrogeological structure of karst areas presents a significantly different environment. ...
In recent years, there has been rapid urbanization development in China. The rapid expansion of cities and the increase in the proportion of the area of impervious surfaces have caused urban flooding problems. The karst area in Southwest China is characterized by a sensitive ecosystem, poor self recovery ability and typical karst development. The problems of a fragile and imbalanced water ecology are particularly prominent in karst areas, making it necessary to explore the applicability of the concept of sponge cities in such environments. This study reviews the technical ideas, methods and concepts of sponge cities in China and abroad in recent years. Guiyang, a typical karst mountain city in China, was taken as an example in this study. This was because Guiyang has special hydrogeological characteristics as well as the current urbanization development processes that are affecting the water resources and the environment in the region. It is believed that the construction of mountain sponge cities in karst areas should be mainly through source reduction, process control and end management, combined with intelligent construction methods. Focus should be on strengthening the prevention and control of soil erosion in key areas and risk areas and on properly handling the relationship between urban construction and water resources and ecological environment protection.
HIGHLIGHT
This study provides construction ideas and technical reference for international peers who are committed to the study of urban sustainable development and land and water resources management, especially for how to deal with the relationship between mountain city construction and ecological environment protection of water and soil resources in karst areas.;
... Climate change is a significant factor that increases extreme precipitation and urban flood events across most global regions and countries (Zhou et al., 2012;Xu et al., 2018). The urban hydrological cycle and subsidence are intensified due to temperature change. ...
Urban road transport disruptions caused by urban floods have become severe in the Chinese megacities due to climate change and urbanisation. Urban road planning, design, and land drainage systems are insufficiently coping with intense rainstorms, especially in the wet season. This is reflected in more research findings on urban flood impacts and road transport disruption over the past decade. Here we provide a critical overview of current research on urban road inundation, road traffic delays, and accessibility losses under flood conditions, and illustrate up-to-date practices with the relevant governmental institutions. Our review implies that urban flood management in road design is still at an embryonic stage in the Chinese megacities. Hence, we review the lessons and experiences of urban flood impacts on roads in the global context. We argue that it is essential to enhance better co-production practices on emergency responses and recovery measures between authorities, which is vital to improving flood resilience in uncertain climates.
... As pointed out by Acharya et al. (2021) and among others, the role of Unharmed Aerial Systems (UAV), especially drones, is becoming stronger and stronger in the context of experimental Ecohydraulics, given their heigh capability of reaching the most inapproachable areas belonging to both natural and urban territories (De Paola et al., 2018;Nguyen et al., 2018;Xu et al., 2018;Cotugno et al., 2020;Dudunake et al., 2020;Crimaldi and Lama, 2021;Lama et al., 2021c). ...
The assessment of the hydrodynamic influence of riverine and aquatic vegetation on vegetated rivers over time is considered the most relevant objective of Ecohydraulics. The purpose of this study is to detect the real-scale ecohydraulic traits of a vegetated channel fully covered by Arundo donax L. (giant reed) patches, by using a thermographic camera mounted on a commercial drone. The thermographic camera is a portable device capable of creating an image by employing the infrared (IR) radiation acquired by its sensors defined as "bolometer". Based on ten cross-sections uniformly distributed across the examined channel, instrumented cross-sections, and a map of the vegetation's drone-based Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), it was possible to obtain a direct correlation between NDVI-based Leaf Area Index (LAI) of the giant reed stands and their thermal properties. The direct comparison between LAI and temperature embodies a first research step in the deep understanding of the capabilities of thermographic devices in experimental Ecohydraulics. The potential of the outcomes of this study is represented by the possibility of operating in hardly accessible territories such as massively vegetated watercourses.
... There are also examples for larger areas to deal stemwater rationally, such as Ganzhou in Jiangxi province, China [48]. The urban drainage system of Ganzhou also make reasonable use of ditches, ponds and city walls to achieve source reduction and resource utilization of a large amount of runoff generated by rainfall events, and quickly discharge excess runoff into downstream receiving water bodies [50]. All of the above are good references for sponge city construction and modern stormwater management. ...
In recent years, China has been committed to strengthening environmental governance and trying to build a sustainable society in which humans and nature develop in harmony. As a new urban construction concept, sponge city uses natural and ecological methods to retain rainwater, alleviate flooding problems, reduce the damage to the water environment, and gradually restore the hydrological balance of the construction area. The paper presents a review of sponge city construction from its inception to systematic demonstration. In this paper, research gaps are discussed and future efforts are proposed. The main contents include: (1) China’s sponge city construction includes but is not limited to source control or a drainage system design. Sponge city embodies foreign experience and the wisdom of ancient Chinese philosophy. The core of sponge city construction is to combine various specific technologies to alleviate urban water problems such as flooding, water environment pollution, shortage of water resources and deterioration of water ecology; (2) this paper also introduces the sponge city pilot projects in China, and summarizes the achievements obtained and lessons learned, which are valuable for future sponge city implementation; (3) the objectives, corresponding indicators, key contents and needs of sponge city construction at various scales are different. The work at the facility level is dedicated to alleviating urban water problems through reasonable facility scale and layout, while the work at the plot level is mainly to improve the living environment through sponge city construction. The construction of urban and watershed scales is more inclined to ecological restoration and blue-green storage spaces construction. Besides, the paper also describes the due obligations in sponge city construction of various stakeholders.
... The removal rates of TSS by green roof are 93% [60], the average removal rate of Cu by infiltration trench was 34% [61], and the removal rate of TN and TP by vegetative swale was more than 60% [62]. LID measures have been used in China [63,64] and many western developed countries [37,65] for the control and management of urban rainfall and runoff and achieved excellent results, which has become a means to achieve ecological urbanization. ...
The problems of flooding and pollution caused by urban stormwater runoff have become increasingly prominent in recent years. It is widely generally accepted that the expansion of urban construction land area (UCLA) and the increase in impervious rate (IR) have an impact on ecological problems, but the extent of the impact is sufficiently unclear. Consequently, based on the hydrological, hydrody-namic, water quality, pollutant build-up, and wash-off models in the storm water management model (SWMM), this paper theoretically explored the mechanism and extent of the influence of different UCLA and IR on the urban stormwater runoff and pollution. The results show that the variation of stormwater runoff and pollution is closely related to UCLA and IR. In the case of the inevitable increase of UCLA, it is essential to improve the permeability. There is a critical value of the influence of UCLA on stormwater runoff and IR on stormwater runoff pollution. The critical value is not a fixed value but changes with the rainfall intensity changing. Rainfall intensity plays an essential role in the process of urban stormwater runoff and pollution process.
... Waterlogging disasters intensify the scour and erosion action on shallow soil and increase the risk of ground collapse. Sponge city is constructed to provide the city with an elastic function as a sponge for rainwater management, which has been widely proposed in China (Xu et al. 2018b). ...
Urban ground collapse (UGC) is becoming more common in China, resulting in significant socioeconomic losses and even personal casualties. The frequency of UGC accidents is highest in the east coastal area owing to developed urbanization, while it is lowest in the northeast area because of its smallest land area. Natural causes (such as geological conditions and rainfall) and artificial causes (such as groundwater withdrawal, underground pipeline breakage, underground engineering, and other reasons) all contribute to UGC accidents in China. Groundwater influences most factors that lead to UGC. Adverse geology, such as collapsible loess and karst geology, is sensitive to groundwater. The groundwater environment is vulnerable to rainfall, pipeline leakage or groundwater withdrawal. Under the action of groundwater, the steady state of the soil may change, which finally leads to UGC. Groundwater control, which is essential for mitigating the risk of UGC, can be implemented through detailed geological surveys, sponge city and utility tunnel construction, and groundwater–level control measurement.
... To achieve cities sustainability, more attentions have been attracted to the flood-prone underground spaces, where water intrusion can cause severe damages on human beings, infrastructures, and urban functions [15]. A series of urban design strategies and management polices were created for urban drainage system to optimize the Sustainable Flood Retention Basin (SFRB) assessment in practice [16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25]. Although a lot of efforts have been made by researchers and governments, destructive flooding events in underground spaces in mega-cities are increasing [12,13,[26][27][28][29][30][31]. ...
Underground flooding events are being exacerbated due to the rapid expanding of underground space in urban and the extreme precipitation events by climate change. It is increasingly necessary to study hydrodynamics and instabilities of human on staircases in the flood-prone underground space for risk identification and disaster reduction. However, the turbulent complexity and complicated fluid-human interaction still challenge the study of flow structure and the calibration of human instability model. In this work, a hydrodynamic model coupled with the mechanics-based method was proposed to study fluid-human interactions and hazard risks on flooding stairways. Numerical validations show that the model can obtain reliable solutions of flow characteristics on staircases. It is found that there exists a jet flow downstream the rest platform and the critical region after the 3rd step downstream the platform is identified as a high risk area to cause sliding instability. The risk of sliding instability for a child is higher than that for an adult in jet flow region. In addition, results show that the downstream vortical flow structure and turbulent effect are obviously enhanced because of the interdict of jet flow by the human obstacle.
... As a result, extreme rainstorms have occurred frequently and led to severe waterlogging in Chinese cities. This could also be attributed to damages to urban hydrology by rapid urbanization (Lyu et al., 2018;Xu et al., 2018). The destruction of hydrological environment has caused a series of problems of rainwater management and control, and many cities have serious waterlogging problems in ood season (Guo 2019; KUANG et al. 2018;YANG et al. 2021). ...
The impervious area of the airport is high, which leads to the deterioration of the water environment and frequent waterlogging disasters. The construction of sponge airport has become an important and arduous task in the new era of civil aviation design industry in China. In order to compare the effects of different control measures at different scenarios, take the airport along China's southeast coast as an example, three scenarios were designed in this study (Scenario 1: no LID facilities and other measures; Scenario 2: two pump stations were setting; Scenario 3: both LID facilities and pump stations). Three simulation models under LID facilities and other measures were developed using SWMM with return period of 5a. The simulation results at different scenarios were compared, the number and the best opening scheme of pumps for each reservoir are finally obtained. The results of Scenario 3 show that the full-flow duration of nodes in the study area is greatly shortened. The decrease of full-flow duration of J1, J2 and J3 was 1.2, 0.8 and 0.5 hours respectively, with reduction rates of 40%, 53.3% and 28.6% respectively. The rainfall peak flows both the first and the second were reduced in this scenario, and the reduction rates were 10.68% and 12.78% respectively. However, the reduction effect of the third peak is poor with the further increase of rainfall intensity. The reduction rate of the total inflow and peak flow of rainwater buckets and permeable pavement is better than that of vegetative swale. The results of this study can provide the reference for the design of sponge airport and the airport flood control management.
... As a result, extreme rainstorms have occurred frequently and led to severe waterlogging in Chinese cities. This could also be attributed to damages to urban hydrology by rapid urbanization (Lyu et al., 2018;Xu et al., 2018). The destruction of hydrological environment has caused a series of problems of rainwater management and control, and many cities have serious waterlogging problems in ood season (Guo 2019; KUANG et al. 2018;YANG et al. 2021). ...
The impervious area of the airport is high, which leads to the deterioration of the water environment and frequent waterlogging disasters. The construction of sponge airport has become an important and arduous task in the new era of civil aviation design industry in China. In order to compare the effects of different control strategies at different scenarios, take the airport along China's southeast coast as an example, three scenarios were designed in this study (Scenario 1: no LID facilities and other measures; Scenario 2: two pump stations were setting; Scenario 3: both LID facilities and pump stations). Three simulation models under LID facilities and other measures were developed using SWMM with return period of 5a. The simulation results at different scenarios were compared, the number and the best opening scheme of pumps for each reservoir are finally obtained. The results of Scenario 3 show that the full-flow duration of nodes in the study area is greatly shortened. The decrease of full-flow duration of J1, J2 and J3 was 1.2, 0.8 and 0.5 hours respectively, with reduction rates of 40%, 53.3% and 28.6% respectively. The rainfall peak flows both the first and the second were reduced in this scenario, and the reduction rates were 10.68% and 12.78% respectively. However, the reduction effect of the third peak is poor with the further increase of rainfall intensity. The reduction rate of the total inflow and peak flow of rainwater buckets and permeable pavement is better than that of vegetative swale. The results of this study can provide the reference for the design of sponge airport and the airport flood control management.
... Urban ET refers to the evaporation of water from different underlayers to the atmosphere in urban areas, which is the link between the urban water cycle and energy cycle. It can not only cool the surroundings by consuming a large proportion of available energy but also reduce urban runoff by larger water holding capacity, which cannot be ignored in the construction of sponge cities [4]. Therefore, increasing urban green space to increase ET is considered to be the most economical and effective means to deal with problems resulting from urbanization and climate change [5,6]. ...
Urban evapotranspiration (ET) is an effective way to mitigate ecological challenges resulting from rapid urbanization. However, the characteristics of urban vegetation ET, especially how they respond to meteorological factors and soil water, remains unclear, which is crucial for urban ET regulation. Therefore, this study measured the actual ET rate of an urban lawn (ETlawn) using the Bowen ratio system and an urban tree (Ttree) by a sap flow system in the hot summer of a subtropical megacity, Shenzhen. The results showed that the daily ETlawn was more restricted by energy (Rs) and diffusion conditions (vapor pressure deficit, VPD), while the daily Ttree was more restricted by VPD and relative extractable water (REW) in the urban area. The daily Ttree decreased when the REW was lower than 0.18, while the daily ETlawn started to decrease when it was lower than 0.14. When REW was lower than 0.11, the Ttree stayed at a relatively low level. The impacts of VPD was more evident on the diurnal Ttree than on the diurnal ETlawn. Wind speed had a scarce impact as it was relatively low in urban areas. This study clarifies the different responses of ETlawn and Ttree to meteorological factors and soil water based on actual ET. The results are of great significance for the knowledge of urban forestry and urban hydrology.
Urban flooding is a major problem for large cities around the world. Rapid urbanization in China has tremendously increased, resulting in more frequent incidences of urban flooding. In 2013, China launched a program of 30 pilot sponge cities (SPCs) to establish integrated urban stormwater management. However, today, after several years of implementation, some sponge cities still experience flooding. This study provides answers and solutions to these problems, by evaluating the overall performance of SPC in China from a systematic perspective considering the variable climatic conditions. This paper also highlights the limitations associated with implementing the current SPC. The adoption of overseas models, before adhering them to Chinese catchment properties, has generated significant uncertainty for simulation outputs and material provision challenges at various stages of the implementation process. Furthermore, hydrological connectivity between neighboring catchments has been neglected in most SPC projects. Developing local models based on local conditions and needs would address these issues and open new research windows for exploring more effective stormwater management initiatives. That includes the advancement of cost-effective evaluation studies, modern optimum efficiency design studies, and the analysis of groundwater contamination due to high infiltration rates and so on.
Mine closure is the natural final stage of mining activity. The process of financing mine liquidation is
complex and expensive. The many years of conducted hard coal extraction affect the surface height
differences. Analyses of the shifts in hydrogeological conditions and water hazard states in mining plants
led to legal regulation adaptations, primarily in terms of hydrogeological documentation preparation, and
made it necessary to conduct work concerning new options for water hazard assessment and prevention.
Current subjects of particular interest include shifts in terrain morphology and the water regime, resulting
in periodic flooding and permanent flooding of the most depressed areas as well as changes in the
directions and intensity of surface water flows. This publication presents a multi-criteria analysis of the
possibility of reducing the liquidation costs of an inactive mine through the retrofitting of the existing
system of rainwater drainage from subsidence basins. The analysis revealed the primary factors
disrupting the course of the drainage process and the problems resulting from them. Technically feasible
solutions is presented, together with their assessment. Applying the multi-criteria analysis made it
possible to select optimal solutions from a group of proposed technical system retrofitting variants
The implementation of grey and green infrastructure is an effective means to address urban flooding and nonpoint source pollution, but due to the complexity of the process and the diversity of benefits, there is a lack of measurement of the comprehensive benefits. Adopting a typical university in Beijing as an example, this paper simulated the multidimensional benefits of the water quantity, water quality, and ecology of grey and green facility renovation by coupling the storm water management model (SWMM) and InfoWorks Integrated Catchment Management (ICM). Monetization methods and economical means were employed to characterize the comprehensive benefits. The results showed that grey and green infrastructure retrofitting reduced the number of severe overflow nodes in the study area by 54.35%, the total overflow volume by 22.17%, and the nonpoint source pollution level by approximately 80% under the heavy rain scenario and 60% under the rainstorm scenario. The annual benefits of grey and green infrastructure renovation reached CNY764,691/year: of this amount, CNY275,726/year was from hydrological regulation, CNY270,895/year was from nonpoint source pollution reduction, and CNY218,070/year was from ecological improvement. The benefits of green facilities were higher than those of grey facilities, and the combined benefits were negatively correlated with the rainfall level, with a total benefit–cost ratio of 1.19. The results provide methodological and data support for grey and green infrastructure retrofitting within the context of sponge cities.
The tradition of Banjar farmers in making artificial rivers for water management in rice fields can be adopted as city drainage, especially in housing complexes. For the adoption to be successful, it is necessary to pay attention to how the water flow works to ensure its implementation, as well as development. The method used in this paper is qualitative. Data were collected based on direct observation activities, and supplemented with secondary data in the form of written sources, documents, pictures, and maps. The analysis was carried out by descriptive, comparison, and interpretation. The result obtained is the natural flow of water in artificial rivers applying a gravity system which is realized by placing attention to heights, in order from highest to lowest, rice fields, saka, handil, and natural rivers. The adoption of this pattern for drainage in housing complexes needs to take into account of the basic concept, and be developed according to current conditions. Therefore, it can be concluded that the way of regulation works with artificial river facilities is feasible to be adopted and applied to drainage in the current housing complexes.
The Party’s 14th Five-Year-Plan and the 2035 Visionary Goals point out that green and sustainable development is the direction of China’s road in the present age, and provide a theoretical basis for further improvement of ecological civilization. “Sponge city” is a new type of urban construction idea in China; moving from pilot to vigorous implementation at present, it is an important element of China’s promotion of green development and development of ecological civilization. At present, a number of sponge city pilot projects have been built in China, and evaluation of their effects is already a matter of urgency. The overall planning of China’s current policies in sponge city construction and the specific analyses conducted by experts from both subjective and objective aspects have not been able to completely fill the gap in this regard, thus making it particularly urgent to conduct in-depth studies. Based on this, this paper discusses the performance assessment of sponge cities in China on the basis of the prediction and analysis of the development trend of sponge cities in China. In the performance assessment system, the correctness and timeliness of the index system should be considered in terms of practical effects; in the city performance assessment, the ideas of new city development such as low-carbon cities and smart cities should be combined to build a comprehensive and multi-perspective intelligent assessment system, so as to provide a strong boost to promote the development of city construction and its evaluative research. Firstly, a system-dynamic model is applied to sort out and combine its internal operation mechanism, and a set of evaluation systems based on the ecological philosophical perspective of the sponge city and urban sustainable development performance is established. Second, to improve the accuracy of the research results, parallelism tests and robustness analysis were conducted on this performance index evaluation system. The study’s results show that sponge city construction has achieved good results in sustainable urban development and has contributed to future development.
Urban floods are the most severe disaster in most Chinese cities due to rapid urbanisation and climate challenges. Recently, media data analytics has become prominent in enhancing urban flood resilience. In this study, news media data from the GKG of the GDELT project was innovatively used to examine the pattern of news media responses towards urban flooding in China's Sponge City Programme (SCP) pilot cities. We find that public sentiments toward urban flood events have been more positive in SCP pilot cities from 2015 to 2021. News media responses towards urban floods exhibit strong seasonality, which is significantly connected with rainfall patterns. Most of the media articles were posted during the urban flood event. Finally, we suggest the opportunities and challenges in applying GKG data analytics and new technologies for urban flood resilience. The results can provide beneficial references to urban flood management strategies in China's Sponge Cities for associated policymakers and stakeholders.
Este trabalho busca, por meio da elaboração de uma Revisão Sistemática de Literatura (Systematic Literature Review – SLR), analisar estudos publicados dentro da temática de manejo sustentável de águas, com foco nos conceitos recentemente criados de Cidade Esponja (Sponge City – SC) e Cidades Sensíveis à água (Water Sensitive City – WSC), reunindo informações sobre como esses conceitos contribuem de forma positiva para o desenvolvimento urbano sustentável das cidades. Além disso, também buscou-se pontuar as vantagens e desafios observados durante o processo de planejamento e/ou implementação desses conceitos. Dos 25 artigos analisados, 19 foram realizados na China. O maior desafio encontrado consistiu na falta de equipe com experiência multidisciplinar para o desenvolvimento do planejamento urbano e a maior vantagem, foi a resiliência às inundações adquirida pelas cidades. Concluiu-se que o tema já está bastante amadurecido em muitos locais, já foi desenvolvido um bom conhecimento técnico sobre os diversos dispositivos e existe viabilidade prática para a aplicação dos conceitos de SC e WSC em diferentes regiões de muitos países.
Climate disruption and rapid urbanization present numerous challenges to infrastructure and communities in Chinese cities, from flooding and coastal erosion, to drought and pollution. This review article focuses on the utilization of Blue‐Green Infrastructure (BGI)—a suite of nature‐based strategies combining hydrological functions (blue) with vegetated landscaping (green)—to provide climate resilience and urban multifunctionality in China's large, high‐density cities. Chinese cities are utilizing BGI in new construction, in neighborhood retrofits, and in revival of ancient nature‐based infrastructure. The literature gives most attention to BGI in China's Sponge City Initiative that addresses the pluvial flooding crisis. Quantitative monitoring of BGI shows progress in stormwater‐related functions and to a lesser extent with rainwater utilization to address water scarcity. Other studies document multifunctional aspects of BGI, including cooling and energy‐saving functions of urban trees and green roofs, and green space expansion with parks that serve as retention basins. However, significant challenges and potential remain. China's urban infrastructure, including BGI, needs stronger design to be robust under extreme conditions as climate disruption intensifies. There is potential for BGI to more fully address habitat fragmentation, extreme heat, sea‐level rise and other climate and urbanization hazards. Further research and pilot projects are needed to characterize and quantify the benefits of multifunctional BGI. More integrated planning across city sectors, with greater incorporation of ecological and social functions, will help Chinese cities achieve multiple goals: providing carbon‐neutral and climate‐resilient infrastructure, improving air and water quality, regenerating ecosystems, and enhancing urban quality of life.
This article is categorized under: Energy and Urban Design > Climate and Environment
Energy and Climate > Systems and Infrastructure
Energy and Urban Design > Systems and Infrastructure
This paper constructs a sponge city construction potential evaluation index system, uses a variable fuzzy recognition model to evaluate the construction level of sponge cities in 13 prefecture‐level cities in Jiangsu Province from 2013 to 2019, and analyzes its dynamic evolution trend based on Kernel density estimation. The analysis shows that the construction potential of sponge city in Jiangsu Province shows an overall upward trend, and the potential levels of 13 cities can be divided into three camps: Suzhou, Wuxi, Nanjing, Nantong and Changzhou are the first camps with higher potential; Yangzhou, Zhenjiang and Taizhou are the second camp of medium level; Xuzhou, Huai’an, Suqian, Yancheng and Lianyungang are the third camp of lower level. The overall situation is a trend of " big in the south and small in the north ". On this basis, the advantages and disadvantages of different cities and their development directions were further clarified and a certain reference for promoting the construction of sponge city was provided.
Studying the microstructure and permeability evolution of coarse porous concrete (CPC) during acid corrosion is of great significance for solving urban waterlogging and building sponge cities. In this study, permeability and micro-scanning tests were conducted on CPCs with varying cement contents in sulphuric acid solution. The condensation coefficient was defined in terms of the volume element material derivative, and a kinetic model was established. The results show that with decreasing pH of the sulphuric acid solution and increasing cement content, the permeability of the CPC decreases, promoting both hydration and corrosion.
Sponge City is an integrated urban stormwater management approach and practice to tackle waterlogging, flooding, water scarcity, and their related problems. Despite many positive effects of Sponge City on flood control that have been investigated and revealed, the effect on aquifer recharge is still less known. Considering maximizing the function of natural elements such as surface water bodies and subsurface storage space, to minimize the use of a gray drainage system, a Sponge City design was proposed to substitute the planning development scheme in the study area. The stormwater management model of SWMM (storm water management model) and the groundwater flow model of MODFlow (Modular Three-dimensional Finite-difference Groundwater Flow Model) were adopted to evaluate the flood-control effect and aquifer-recharge effect, respectively. Compared with the traditional planning scenario, the peak runoff is approximately 92% less than that under the traditional planning scenario under the condition of a 5-year return period. Due to the increase in impervious areas of urban construction, the total aquifer recharge from precipitation and surface water bodies was decreased both in the present planning scenario and the Sponge City design scenario. However, the Sponge City design has a positive impact on maintaining groundwater level stabilization and even raises the groundwater level in some specific areas where stormwater seepage infrastructure is located.
Background:
With the advancement of urbanization, the original hydrological environment of the city is damaged.
Objective:
This study aims to solve the problems in urban water ecological environment in urbanization based on the construction concept of the sponge city.
Methods:
First, through the analysis of waterlogging caused by urbanization, the construction of the sponge city is proposed, and the function and landscape architecture scheme of the sponge city are introduced. Then, in order to achieve the comprehensive control goal of the sponge city, according to related disciplines and experimental methods, the sponge city is evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively from the aspects of environment, resources, security, system and ecology. Finally, the mosquito problem caused by the sponge city landscape is studied from the residents' subjective feelings through the questionnaire survey.
Results:
The results show that 60%residents think that the mosquito problem in the residential areas has a "very large" and "relatively large" impact, which has a serious impact on the physical and mental health of residents in the community; female residents are more vulnerable to the interference of mosquitoes; in the residential areas built for 5-10 years, the residents have the strongest feeling of mosquitoes.
Conclusions:
This exploration provides a reference for studying the health risk analysis of residents under the construction of sponge city.
With the rapid development of urbanization, more and more cities are facing the risk of flood disasters and the threat of water environment safety during the rainy season. Sponge City, as a new urban water resources management method, has attracted extensive attention in the academic circle. In order to promote the development of Sponge City, a bibliometric analysis method based on Web of Science (WoS) database and Bibliometrix tool is proposed in this study. After refining the retrieved 26,383 papers, 1,456 papers were obtained. All the article information including author, Keywords, and publication time was downloaded. The bibliometric analysis model was established to analyze and discuss the development of Sponge City and related researches during the period 1998–2020 (data up to August 15, 2020). Research performance, research focus, and development trend were displayed by bibliometric measurement indicators and visual graphics. The results show that the number of research papers on Sponge City has been increased year by year in the past 10 years (2010‐2020). Sponge City and related research is increasing rapidly, and the top five countries in terms of research volume are China, USA, UK, South Korea and Canada. China, USA, UK, and Australia are the countries with the most extensive international cooperation in the field of Sponge City. Keywords such as “Sponge City”, “LID (Low Impact Development)”, “SWMM (Storm Water Management Model)” appeared frequently. In our opinions, interdisciplinary research methods, digital information management technology, and comprehensive performance evaluation are the hot research directions for Sponge City in the future. This study aims to provide directions for future research on Sponge City, as well as scientific guidance and reference for government decision makers on Sponge City.
The Yangtze River Basin and Huaihe River Basin in Southern China experienced severe floods 1998 and 2016. The reasons for the flooding hazards include the following two factors: hazardous weather conditions and degradation of the hydrological environment due to anthropogenic activities. This review work investigated the weather conditions based on recorded data, which showed that both 1998 and 2016 were in El Nino periods. Human activities include the degradations of rivers and lakes and the effects caused by the building of the Three Gorges Dam. In addition, the flooding in 2016 had a lower hazard scale than that in 1998 but resulted in larger economic losses than that of 1998. To mitigate urban waterlogging caused by flooding hazards, China proposed a new strategy named Spongy City (SPC) in 2014. SPC promotes sustainable city development so that a city has the resilience to adapt to climate change, to mitigate the impacts of waterlogging caused by extreme rainfall events. The countermeasures used to tackle the SPC construction-related problems, such as local inundation, water resource shortage, storm water usage, and water pollution control, are proposed for city management to improve the environment.
This research investigates geohazards and preventative countermeasures for Lanzhou City, China. To investigate the factors related to the development of geohazards in Lanzhou, the regional geological conditions around Lanzhou were investigated. The geomorphology of the region is comprised of a loess landform underlying quaternary loess deposits. A large number of faults induced by strong neotectonic movements are present in the area. Therefore, earthquakes frequently occur around Lanzhou. Earthquakes cause numerous rock falls and landslides, with landslide masses found scattered on the upper middle level of the area’s mountains. When intense rainfall occurs, a lot of loose deposits are brought together along steep gullies, forming debris flows; hence, a disaster chain of earthquake–landslide–debris flow is formed. To evaluate the georisks around Lanzhou, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was employed to assess geohazards. The spatial distribution of the evaluated georisk levels was mapped using a Geographic Information System (GIS). Based on the assessed results, about 55% of the urban area and 44% of Gaolan County have high or very high-risk levels. The ratio of relatively high disaster risk levels is up to 31% of the total area. To mitigate these geohazards, both strategic decision making and technical countermeasures should be implemented.
Global warming induces temperature variations and sea level changes for a long period of time. Many coastal cities around the world have experienced the harmful consequences of sea level changes and temperature variations. The city of Shanghai in China also suffers from the serious consequences of these two climatic factors. The geological and climatic conditions of Shanghai make it sensitive to flooding risks during heavy rainfall events. This paper analyses the conditions of sea level changes, temperature variations, and heavy rainfall events in Shanghai. Correspondingly, eustatic sea level change, tectonic movement of the continent, and land subsidence in Shanghai have effects on sea level changes. Correlation analysis indicates extraordinary short duration rainfall events have a relationship with temperature variations due to global warming. Moreover, the number of extraordinary torrential rainfall events also has a correlation with sea level changes. Pluvial flooding and potential damage to coastal structures are more likely to have serious effects as the number of flooding hazard events due to global warming and sea level changes increases. This study also established that to efficiently protect the environment, control economic losses, and prevent potential hazards, extra countermeasures including monitoring, forecasting, and engineering technology treatment should be adopted. Monitoring measurements combined with a database system on a website was found to be useful for forecasting and simulating flooding hazards. For systematic sustainable urban water system management, appropriate treatment technologies, such as sustainable urban water system, which can control and manage water quantity and quality, namely "the Sponge City", should also be considered.
With the rapid development of social economy in China, increased urban population, and rapid urbanization cause serious problems, for example, a heavy rain in the city inevitably leads to waterlogging, which poses a great threat to the livelihood and property security. Disaster due to urban flood is a key problem that restricts the development of urban ecology in China. The reason is the sharp increase of impermeable surface ratio in urban areas, leading to a decrease in rainfall infiltration and increase in surface runoff. To effectively solve the urban waterlogging, China proposed the construction of sponge city. This paper analyzes and summarizes the reasons for the formation of urban waterlogging, and introduces the concept of the sponge city technology to prevent waterlogging.
Waterlogging is one of the major water issues in most cities of China and directly restricts their urbanization processes. The construction of Sponge City is an effective approach to solving the urban water issues, particularly for the waterlogging. In this study, both the urban issues emerged at the stage of rapid urbanization in China and the demands as well as problems of Sponge City construction related with the water issues were investigated, and the opportunities and challenges for the Sponge City construction in the future were also proposed. It was found that the current stormwater management focused on the construction of gray infrastructures (e.g., drainage network and water tank) based on the fast discharge idea, which was costly and hard to catch up with the rapid expansion of city and its impervious surface, while green infrastructures (e.g., river, lake and wetland) were ignored. Moreover, the current construction of Sponge City was still limited to low impacted development (LID) approach which was concentrated on source control measures without consideration of the critical functions of surrounding landscapes (i.e., mountain, river, wetland, forest, farmland and lake), while application of the integrated urban water system approach and its supported technologies including municipal engineering, urban hydrology, environmental science, social science and ecoscape were relatively weak and needed to be improved. Besides, the lack of special Sponge City plan and demonstration area was also a considerable problem. In this paper, some perspectives on Good Sponge City Construction were proposed such as the point that idea of urban plan and construction should conform to the integral and systematic view of sustainable urban development. Therefore, both the basic theoretical research and the basic infrastructure construction such as monitoring system, drainage facility and demonstration area should be strengthened, meanwhile, the reformation and innovation in the urban water management system and the education system should also be urgently performed. The study was expected to provide a deeper thinking for the current Sponge City construction in China and to give some of suggestions for the future directions to urban plan and construction, as well as urban hydrology discipline.
Urban flooding and waterlogging is becoming one of the foremost challenges in the process of rapid urbanization expansion in China. With a huge investment, the Chinese government presently is conducting a large project for the construction of “Sponge City,” aiming at the urban water disaster mitigation and efficient water management. However, the effects of present practices and actions are far beyond the expected, and a large number of troublesome and perplexing problems are waiting to be solved. It should be realized that the control of urban floods and waterlogs is a long-term and complexly systemic project, rather than a simple urban construction project. More meticulous and rational actions and policies should be taken by keeping patient, and both structural and non-structural measures are needed for the construction of Sponge City, by which the huge investment could achieve the desired targets and benefits for the mitigation of urban water disasters in China.
This paper reported a tornado hazard happened on June 23, 2016, in Yancheng city, Jiangsu Province. The moving footprint of this huge tornado was from west to east. Shuoji, Chenliang, Goudun, Banhu, Xingou, Wutan towns in Funing district and Sheyang town in Sheyang district were severely hit by this tornado. This tornado along with rainstorm and hailstorm had claimed 99 lives and caused more than 3800 flats to collapse as well as damaged 48 high-voltage circuits. As the cold air from northwest met the subtropical high pressure system that forms over relatively cool water bodies (i.e., Indian and Pacific Oceans), such a powerful meteorological phenomenon was initiated. The strong connective airflow intensified the development of this tornado. Based on the preliminary investigation and analysis of this tornado, cost-effective timber structures with adequate anchorage of the framing to foundations and adequate connection between walls and roofs may be recommended to ensure occupants safety and reduce potential damage in these extreme wind events. Additionally, it is suggested to utilize early warning system along with geographical information system (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), and remote sensing (RS) (3S) to monitor and precast the occurrence of rainfall, hailstorm, and tornado hazards in future.
It has been observed that in the urban center of Shanghai, land subsidence has accelerated, and the groundwater level has continued to drop even though the net withdrawn volume (NWV) of groundwater has remained unchanged since 1980. An analysis of monitoring data shows that drawdown of the groundwater level is one of the factors that have influenced land subsidence since 1980. The NWV of groundwater in urban areas, however, is not the critical factor controlling the drawdown of the groundwater level. Since the 1980s, there have been many underground works constructed in the unique strata of Shanghai, which has an interlayered structure known as a multi-aquifer-aquitard system (MAAS). Investigation into land subsidence caused by urban construction is now receiving much attention. Based on the principle of a strategic environmental assessment (SEA) for sustainable urban development, this paper presents a discussion and analysis of the factors which can influence the development of land subsidence during continued urbanization in Shanghai. The main factors include the additional loading caused by the construction of structures, the cut-offeffect due to construction in aquifers, the drawdown of groundwater level caused by leakage into underground structures, and the decrease of groundwater recharge from neighboring zones. SEA is recommended for the future development of Shanghai.
Flooding hazards caused by heavy rainfall in Shanghai have been reported extensively in the last 15 years. Geologically, Shanghai is sensitive to flooding hazards due to low-lying ground caused by land subsidence. Climatically, Shanghai is in the East Asia monsoon area and frequently experiences torrential rains. In this study, data from fifty-four pluvial flooding events between 2001 and 2015 were collected and analysed. The influence factors contributing to pluvial flooding are evaluated, and recommendations for protective measures are presented. The pluvial flooding prevention capacity in Shanghai is controlled by rain water storage and discharge capacity, which is associated with the sewer network, pumping stations and its sluice and pumping gates. Within the last three decades, the number of local torrential rainfall events and short-duration torrential rains has increased annually. However, the rain water storage capacity has decreased dramatically and the rain water discharge capacity has become limited during this period. In an extreme case, the discharge function of the sewer network was even temporarily lost because of flooding of the distributaries of the Huangpu River. Thus, in order to prevent flooding hazards caused by heavy rain, it is suggested that a large sluice and pumping station between the Huangpu River and the Yangtze River estuary is constructed in the near future, considering the continuous subsidence of the city and the ongoing rising sea levels.
The impact of urbanization on a heavy rainfall event that occurred in Beijing on 21 July 2012 was investigated using version 3.6.1 of the Weather Research and Forecasting Model coupled with a multilayer urban canopy model. High-resolution land use data for Beijing in 2010 with modified urban parameterization were introduced into the model. Evaluation showed that the simulation result generally agreed well with observations. Two sensitivity tests with different urban high-resolution land use scenarios were employed to analyze the impact of urban expansion on this rainfall event. The simulation results confirmed that urbanization expansion played an important role in the distribution and intensity of precipitation for this extreme event. Urbanization led to total precipitation increasing in upstream and downstream directions. The start time of the precipitation process was advanced by 1 h, and the duration became longer due to the influence of urbanization. Moreover, urbanization caused the spatial distribution of precipitation to become more concentrated. The total precipitation amount above 250 mm and the frequency of precipitation intensity above 40 h−1 mm are both increased. The results of this study show that urbanization plays a significant role in frontal-type rainfall.
An urban waterlog disaster can produce severe results, such as residents’ property loss, environmental damages and pollution, and even casualties. This paper presents a system specification for urban waterlog disasters according to the analysis of urban waterlog disaster risks. Then, a two-stage stochastic mixed-integer programming model is formulated. The model minimizes the total logistics cost, and risk-induced penalties. Moreover, a deterministic counterpart of the stochastic model is proposed to study the expected value of perfect information. The multi-attribute utility theory is used to build assessment functions that assess the utility of the rescue system and the degree contributed to disaster relief for each rescue center. Finally, a real example of rescue logistics is examined for the urban waterlog disasters in Pudong District of Shanghai, China. Using the proposed model, two main results can be obtained. First, the expected value of perfect information experiment reveals that an additional ¥45,005 logistics cost and an additional ¥2417 risk-induced penalties can be incurred due to the presence of uncertainty. Second, as the weight of risk-induced penalty increases from 0.1 to 0.9, the logistics cost is increased by 41.21%, which thus contributes to a decrease of risk-induced penalty by 97.44%. Some managerial implications are discussed based on the numerical studies.
This paper presents a numerical investigation into the leakage behavior of cut-off walls in gravel strata due to dewatering in a deep excavation pit. The calculated values of the groundwater head and surface settlement using a model agree well with the measured values. Values of the hydraulic conductivity (k) and storage coefficient (Ss) of each soil layer are obtained from the test results when the cut-off wall is 43 m deep. The leakage through the cut-off wall in gravel is analyzed by considering a variation in hydraulic conductivity in different sections of the cut-off wall. The simulated results show that a significant leakage occurred in the 54 m deep cut-off wall. Although leakage did occur in the full cut-off wall in the confined aquifer, the full cut-off wall is still more efficient in preventing groundwater seepage than the partial cut-off wall. The relative depths of the cut-off wall and of the wells have a significant effect on ground surface settlement during the withdrawal of groundwater. Therefore, the appropriate selection of relative depth of both cut-off wall and pumping well is an effective way of controlling surface settlement outside the pit.
China’s urban environments are particularly vulnerable to flooding due to climate change and rapid urbanization. Study of the urban flood risk analysis has significantly increased over the past decade, and this paper therefore reviews the main results (i.e. theoretical basis, methods, techniques, case studies) obtained in the literature from China. We focus on the following topics: (1) urban flood hazard analysis, (2) exposure and vulnerability analysis, and (3) urban flood risk assessment. Recent advances made in the research area are presented with suggestions for further research to improve the availability and reliability of urban flood risk analysis.
Distributed piles are often installed in the foundation pit in sandy soil before dewatering. Hydraulic conductivity should be estimated considering the block effect of piles on groundwater seepage. Research shows that the effective medium theory (EMT) could be used to calculate the equivalent hydraulic conductivity (k
eq) of a heterogeneous medium with other material inclusions. In order to verify the applicability of EMT in an aquifer with piles, an experimental investigation is conducted. In this experiment, a sandy soil is considered as an aquifer and polyvinylchloride pipes are adopted as piles. Piles are distributed in rectangular and triangular layouts. The relationship between k
eq of the aquifer and the volume replacement ratio is plotted for these two layouts. The results indicate that EMT could well predict k
eq for the cases with the rectangular layout; however, for triangular layouts, the prediction becomes poor. To provide a better prediction of k
eq of the aquifer with piles distributed in a triangular layout, a modified EMT (MEMT) is proposed, in which a correction factor is adopted considering different layouts of piles. The MEMT can provide better k
eq predictions for an aquifer with piles in the triangular layout pattern than those obtained using the EMT.
Accurately documenting urban growth and evaluating its hydrological impact are of great interest for urban planning and water/land resource management. St. Charles County, a suburb of St. Louis, Missouri, has undergone significant urban expansion in recent decades. Rapid urban sprawl in the Dardenne Creek watershed within the county has had a profound influence on surface runoff. We examined the patterns of land use/land cover (LULC) change in this watershed using Landsat TM/ETM+ imagery in 1982, 1987, 1991, 1999, and 2003. Calibrated with the observed hydrological data in 2003, a Long-Term Hydrologic Impact Assessment (L-THIA) model was used to evaluate the effect of LULC change on surface runoff. Results indicated a rapid increase of urban areas in the watershed, from 3.4% in 1982 to 27.3% in 2003, dominated by changes in the lower portion of the watershed close to the metropolitan area. Model simulations suggest >70% increase in average direct runoff in the watershed from 1982 to 2003, and the runoff increase is highly correlated with urban expansion. This work helps raise awareness of the scale of hydrologic impacts of urbanization in this watershed, and provides a simple calibrated tool for local planners to assess potential hydrological impacts of future planning and development activities.
This paper provides a straightforward way to evaluate tunnel settlement caused by land subsidence in the soft deposits of Shanghai. By analyzing field measurements of tunnel settlement and land subsidence, it was found that the tunnel settlement was caused by ground subsidence under the tunnel, and was unrelated to the compression of the upper soil layers. Because significant compaction of the upper layers can occur due to urban construction, the measured land subsidence, which is the ground surface subsidence, cannot represent the sublayer subsidence. To solve this problem, this paper takes metro stations as the monitoring point at the depth of the tunnel, and uses a cubic spline function to fit the line of the station points. The derived fitting curve is then used to represent the ground subsidence under the tunnels. The rationality of taking the stations as monitoring points is verified based on a load transfer analysis. The proposed method is applied to investigate the settlement of metro tunnels in Shanghai. It was found that land subsidence-induced settlement accounts for 62.5% of the maximum cumulative settlement in some sections of Metro Lines No. 1 and No. 2 up until 2010.
A comparative study of optimization techniques for identifying soil parameters in geotechnical engineering was first presented. The identification methodology with its 3 main parts, error function, search strategy, and identification procedure, was introduced and summarized. Then, current optimization methods were reviewed and classified into 3 categories with an introduction to their basic principles and applications in geotechnical engineering. A comparative study on the identification of model parameters from a synthetic pressuremeter and an excavation tests was then performed by using 5 among the mostly common optimization methods, including genetic algorithms, particle swarm optimization, simulated annealing, the differential evolution algorithm and the artificial bee colony algorithm. The results demonstrated that the differential evolution had the strongest search ability but the slowest convergence speed. All the selected methods could reach approximate solutions with very small objective errors, but these solutions were different from the preset parameters. To improve the identification performance, an enhanced algorithm was developed by implementing the Nelder-Mead simplex method in a differential algorithm to accelerate the convergence speed with strong reliable search ability. The performance of the enhanced optimization algorithm was finally highlighted by identifying the Mohr-Coulomb parameters from the 2 same synthetic cases and from 2 real pressuremeter tests in sand, and ANICREEP parameters from 2 real pressuremeter tests in soft clay.
Storm-induced urban flooding is a global issue that causes large damages and fatalities. Characterizing extreme rainfall is critical to urban flood risk management. Although China's cities have been experiencing a rapid increase in urban flooding in recent decades, there is a lack of national-wide analysis of the occurrence of extreme urban rainfall. This study examined the trends in extreme rainfall in 146 cities in China for the period 1960–2014. The trends were also analysed in terms of city size (small, big and mega cities) in two city clusters (Jing-Jin-Jin City Cluster and Yangtze City Cluster). There was a strong spatial variation in the trends of extreme rainfall across the country, with negative trends in North China and positive trends in Southeast China. Both positive and negative trends were noted for the other regions of China. All the cities in Jing-Jin-Ji City Cluster had a decreasing trend in extreme rainfall, with a significant decline (p = 0.03) for mega cities. Then all cities in the Yangtze City Cluster had an increasing trend in extreme rainfall, with a significant increase (p=0.02) for big cities. The findings suggested that efforts to alleviate storm-induced urban flash floods should take into account both spatial disparities in climate and future changes in extreme rainfall events.
There exist some difficulties in determining aquifer parameters based on pumping test data within a partially penetrated retaining walls using traditional Cooper-Jacob method. Many other site-specific factors, such as the effect of partially penetrating well and the large diameter of the wells, cannot easily be accommodated in theoretical well formulae. The semi-log drawdown-time curves affected by the effects of barrier, wellbore storage, and partial penetration well can be characterised by four distinct stages of drawdown: i) Stage I, drawdown is unaffected by the barrier, ii) Stage II, drawdown is significantly influenced by the barrier, iii) Stage III, the drawdown-time curve runs parallel to that deduced from greenfield conditions, and iv) Stage IV, the drawdown becomes a constant value. To handle the four distinct stages of drawdown, a semi-analytical method using the slope of the late-time drawdown asymptote of Stage III for determining the transmissivity is proposed. The horizontal intercept, resulting from an extension of the late-time drawdown asymptote from Stage II, is used for determining the storage coefficient. Pumping test data from a case history are analysed using the proposed semi-analytical method, and the results obtained are compared with those deduced from the numerical simulation. The comparison between the analytical results and those obtained from the numerical simulation appeared satisfactory.
Estimated and measured settlements caused by pumping rarely agree. Several reasons could explain this mismatch, including the influence of layering, the mechanical parameters used in the predictions, or the relationship between settlements and drawdown. We analyze the influence of the above issues by investigating the mechanical response of pumped elastic porous media under different conditions. A radially symmetric conceptual model is considered and several hydro-mechanical simulations are performed varying the boundary conditions, the size of the modeled domain and the presence or not of an overlying layer. The simplicity of the considered problem allows us to compare our results with existing analytical solutions, to identify the role of each variable on pumping settlements and to generalize the results. The most relevant results are as follows: (1) Settlements are proportional to drawdown only outside a circle of radius equal to 0.7 times the thickness of the pumped porous medium; inside, they are virtually constant, which leads to two simple procedures for computing pumping settlements. (2) Poorly conductive layers located above (or below) a pumped porous medium (with higher hydraulic conductivity) reduce and smooth settlements. (3) Boundary constraints affect the local specific storage coefficient and the displacements occurred. (4) The specific storage coefficient evaluated by interpreting pumping tests with the Cooper and Jacob method (1946) leads to overestimation of the actual Young’s Modulus of the soil. The main conclusion is that settlements are less differential than expected near pumping wells. Still, they must always be evaluated acknowledging the nature of layering, the boundary constraints and carefully selecting the mechanical parameters of the soil.
As a result of global climate change, urban flooding has become a global concern in recent years because of its significant negative impacts on cities. To cope with the frequent occurrence of urban flooding in recent years as well as water shortages, China has started a new nationwide initiative called Sponge City intended to increase urban resilience. This study aimed to examine public perceptions of and knowledge about urban flooding and sponge city construction, as well as the public’s willingness to support sponge cities through two options, which includes (1) paying a domestic water fee surcharge and (2) buying government-issued credit securities. We found that most respondents knew about urban flooding and sponge cities, and also supported sponge city construction. Residents believed that government grants and public-private partnerships (PPP) should be the main financial sources for sponge city construction. However, respondents also accepted 17% of the domestic water price as a surcharge to be used for sponge city construction. Meanwhile, the willingness to pay (WTP) for government-issued credit securities for sponge city construction was 55% of the average annual capital surplus. We also found that occupation, education, and income were the main factors affecting respondents’ WTP to support sponge city initiatives. Though increasing water prices by a certain amount will be acceptable to the public, a more properly designed PPP model should be considered and promoted by the government to overcome financial insufficiencies and ensure the sustainability of the sponge city initiative.
Bocaviruses have been found in the feces of humans and a variety of animals, including pigs, cattle, dogs, gorillas, cats, and sea lions. Here, we have characterized the almost complete genome (5224 nt) of a novel bocavirus from feces of domestic minks, which has been provisionally named mink bocavirus. The NS1 protein of mink bocavirus shared 36.9–52 % amino acid sequence identities with those of other known bocaviruses and phylogenetically clustered with bocaviruses from other carnivores. According to the genetic distance-based criteria, mink bocavirus qualifies as a novel species of bocavirus. PCR of feces from a group of domestic minks, which included both healthy animals and animals suffering from diarrhea, revealed that 30 % (9/30) shed virus. However, no association between viral shedding and the presence of diarrhea could be determined.
Urban drainage systems are in general failing in their functions mainly due to non-stationary climate and rapid urbanization. As these systems are becoming less efficient, issues such as sewer overflows and increase in urban flooding leading to surge in pollutant loads to receiving water bodies are becoming pervasive rapidly. A comprehensive investigation is required to understand these factors impacting the functioning of urban drainage, which vary spatially and temporally and are more complex when weaving together. It is necessary to establish a cost-effective, integrated planning and design framework for every local area by incorporating fit for purpose alternatives. Carefully selected adaptive measures are required for the provision of sustainable drainage systems to meet combined challenges of climate change and urbanization. This paper reviews challenges associated with urban drainage systems and explores limitations and potentials of different adaptation alternatives. It is hoped that the paper would provide drainage engineers, water planners, and decision makers with the state of the art information and technologies regarding adaptation options to increase drainage systems efficiency under changing climate and urbanization.
This paper gives an overview of the evolution of city drainage in ancient China, and analyzes the achievement of drainage of such cities as Pingliangtai in Henan province, Xibo of Shang Dynasty, Linzi, the capital of the State of Qi, Chang'an, the capital of Han and Tang Dynasties, Kaifeng, the Eastern Capital of Northern Song Dynasty, Ganzhou, Dadu, the capital of Yuan Dynasty; and Beijing, the capital of Ming and Qing Dynasties. This paper also sums up the characteristics and the management experiences of the drainage facilities of ancient Chinese cities, including drainage system management methods, rules and laws about drainage in different eras, and overall principles of ancient city water systems. At present, most major cities in China are facing issues relating to drainage systems and city water systems. These cities are often bothered by floods and other water-related problems. Learning from the ancestors' experience would be important and necessary for modern planners and decision makers. Therefore this paper may be used for reference in modern city planning and construction.
In the design of a deep retaining wall, it is necessary to consider the blocking effect on groundwater seepage of retaining walls in aquifers. In this study, both laboratory tests and numerical simulation with finite element method (FEM) wereadoptedto investigate the blocking effect on groundwater seepage under different insertion depths of retaining wall in aquifer. Laboratory tests were conducted to analyse this blocking effect in an unconfined aquifer. The test results indicate that the effective insertion depth ratio (J) of retaining wall in Shanghai aquifer sand is about 70%. A three-dimensional numerical model (3D-FEM) was conducted to analyse the laboratory test results. The FEM results show that FEM is an reliable method to analyse the blocking effect on groundwater seepage in aquifer. Based on the same aforementioned procedure, a 3D FEM model is established to investigate the blocking effect in the confined aquifer in Shanghai deposit. Both laboratory test and FEM results show that drawdown of groundwater level decreases with an increase of the insertion depth ratio, J, of retaining structures in an aquifer.The optimal value of J (approximately 70%) is achieved for retaining wall based on a synthetic results from laboratory test, FEM analysis, and the equation of Pujades et al for either unconfined aquifers or confined aquifers of Shanghai.
Hundreds of years ago, the ancient Chinese implemented several outstanding projects to cope with the changing climate and violent floods. Some of these projects are still in use today. These projects evolved from the experience and knowledge accumulated through the long coexistence of people with nature. The concepts behind these ancient stormwater management practices, such as low-impact development and sustainable drainage systems, are similar to the technology applied in modern stormwater management. This paper presents the cases of the Hani Terrace in Yunnan and the Fushou drainage system of Ganzhou in Jiangxi. The ancient Chinese knowledge behind these cases is seen in the design concepts and the features of these projects. These features help us to understand better their applications in the contemporary environment. In today's more complex environment, integrating traditional and advanced philosophy with modern technologies is extremely useful in building urban and rural stormwater management systems in China.
Over many centuries, the repeated and serious flooding of many of China's ancient cities has led to the development of various measures to mitigate the impact of floods. These have included structural measures, such as the construction of walls, dams and dykes, with tree planting for soil consolidation; installation of drainage systems and water storage capacity; the raising of settlement levels and the strengthening of building materials. Non-structural measures include warning systems and planning for emergency evacuation. Urban planning and architectural design have evolved to reduce flood damage, and government officials have been appointed with specific responsibilities for managing the flood control systems. In view of the serious consequences of modern neglect of these well-tried methods, this paper examines China's historical experience of flooding and demonstrates its continuing relevance for today. A brief historical survey is followed by a detailed discussion of various flood prevention measures. The paper is illustrated by city plans from ancient local chronicles.
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