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Blockchain Based Secure Data Handover Scheme in Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access
Abstract
Non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) with successive interference cancellation receiver is considered as one of the most potent multiple access techniques to be adopted in future wireless communication networks. Data security in the NOMA transmission scheme is on much attention drawing issue. Blockchain is a distributed peer-to-peer network enables a way of protecting information from unauthorized access, tempering etc. By utilizing encryption techniques of blockchain, a secured data communication scheme using blockchain in NOMA is proposed in this paper. A two-phase encryption technique with key generation using different parameter is proposed. In the first-phase data is encrypted by imposing users’ public key and in the second phase, a private key of the base station (BS) is engaged for encryption. Finally, the superiority of the proposed scheme over existing scheme is proven through a comparative study based on the different features.
... Recently, many efficient handover schemes have been proposed. In [37], A. Islam et al. proposed a secure non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) handover scheme for end-users based on blockchain. In [38], Kim et al. proposed a security handover schema between end-users and RSUs in vehicular networks. ...
... Indeed, when end-user moves between coverages, they are controlled by advanced handover schemes [37,38], as described in Section 2. The handover process is seamless. Another point from our mechanism is the EC services, which have been executed in the past, will be stored in the information map. ...
... Since users with better channel conditions have prior information about the messages of other users, strong users can help in enhancing the performance and security of users with weaker channel conditions. The authors in [60] benefit from public/private key encryption to secure the data of each user, as shown in Fig. 11. After receiving the data requests of users (steps (1) and (2)), the gateway encrypts the data of each user using its corresponding public key such that other superimposed users can decode, but not recover, any signal expect theirs (step (3)). ...
... Another approach would be adapting existing PLS availability schemes in the context of NOMA systems. [50], [51], [52], [53] Theoretical analysis and mathematical derivations These schemes do not secure transmitted data itself Additional resources and communicated messages are required for scheduling algorithms between the BS and the legitimate user Most optimization problems presented in the literature are non-convex, hence, they are very complex algorithms Design a data confidentiality solution based on physical channel parameters to secure transmitted data Securing transmitted data using asymmetric encryption (public/private keys) [60] No one except the legitimate user can decode its signals due to the confidentiality of the private key Asymmetric encryption is unpractical requires additional resources and overhead 1) Secure exchange of public keys. 2) Encryption using public keys. ...
More and more attention is being directed towards the Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) technology due to its many advantages such as high data rate, enhanced spectral and energy efficiency, massive connectivity, and low latency. On the other hand, secure data transmission remains a critical challenge in wireless communication systems since wireless channels are, in general, exposed. To increase the robustness of NOMA systems and overcome the issues related to wireless transmission, several Physical Layer Security (PLS) schemes have been recently presented. Unlike conventional security algorithms, this type of solutions exploits the dynamicity of the physical layer to secure data using a single iteration and minimum operations. In this paper, we survey the various NOMA-based PLS schemes in the literature, which target all kinds of security properties. From this study, we have noticed that the majority of the research work in this area is mainly focused on data confidentiality and privacy and not on other security properties such as device and source authentication, key generation, and message integrity. Therefore, we discuss the PLS data confidentiality schemes for NOMA and their limitations, challenges, and countermeasures, and we propose different methods to address the remaining security properties.
... However, blockchain technology is not bound within doing financial transactions. It has started to draw the interest of the stakeholders of a wide span of industries which covers finance, healthcare, utilities, real estate, government sector, and digital content distribution etc. [3,4,5,6,7,8], due to its flexibility and security mechanism. The concept of blockchain was employed in the database named "BigchainDB", a database which is capable of piling large quantity data [9]. ...
... Before selecting a QSP, BSSSQS master selects a set of 10 prime numbers. Each prime number is selected following the uniform distribution, as shown in Eq. (7). Let, (P) is the set of prime numbers and ρ is the set of already selected prime numbers. ...
Existing education systems are facing a threat of question paper leaking (QPL) in the exam which jeopardizes the quality of education. Therefore, it is high time to think about a more secure and flexible question sharing system which can prevent QPL issue in the future education system. Blockchain enables a way of creating and storing transactions, contracts or anything that requires protection against tampering, accessing etc. This paper presents a new scheme for smart education, by utilizing the concept of blockchain, for question sharing. A two-phase encryption technique for encrypting question paper (QSP) is proposed. In the first phase, QSPs are encrypted using timestamp and in the second phase, previous encrypted QSPs are encrypted again using a timestamp, salt hash and hashes from previous QSPs. These encrypted QSPs are stored in the blockchain along with a smart contract which helps the user to unlock the selected QSP. An algorithm is also proposed for selecting a QSP for the exam which picks a QSP randomly. Moreover, a timestamp based lock is imposed on the scheme so that no one can decrypt the QSP before the allowed time. Finally, security is analyzed by proving different propositions and the superiority of the proposed scheme over existing schemes is proven through a comparative study based on the different features.
... It makes sure that planned paths are followed correctly while taking into account changes and unknowns. Model predictive control (MPC) has become a common way to track a vehicle's path because it lets them guess what will happen next and find the best control inputs over a limited prediction range [15]. MPC approaches tracking a vehicle's path as an optimization problem. ...
Self-driving cars are a big change in the way people get around. They promise to make transportation safer, more efficient, and more convenient. Strong control system design, which includes path planning and trajectory tracking, is a key part of how they work. This essay looks at mathematics methods that are important for reaching these goals. The path planning problem is to find a way to get from where you start to where you want to go while taking into account natural and changing limits. Different methods, like geometric algorithms, optimization techniques, and statistical approaches, are used to find lines that don't collide and maximize things like time, energy, and comfort. Trajectory tracking, on the other hand, is the process of sticking to the planned path even when there are problems or unknowns. Model predictive control, feedback linearization, and adaptive control are some of the control methods that are used to make sure the car stays stable and follows the path that is wanted. One of the hardest parts of controlling a driverless car is balancing the different goals of planning a path and following its current path in real time. Because of this, we need to create combined control systems that can smoothly handle the planning and performance steps while taking into account how the surroundings and car state change over time. Also, the rise of linked and self-driving cars opens the door to joint control methods, in which cars talk to each other and work together to improve safety and traffic flow. Vehicle-to-vehicle contact is used by cooperative route planning algorithms to coordinate moves and avoid crashes, which makes the system more reliable and efficient as a whole.
... Blockchain Technologies Improved security [158] Enhanced security in 6G-V2X systems Limited spectral efficiency and complex signal processing algorithms [159] Overcoming wireless channel limitations Enabling robust information flow in high-mobility channels [159], [160] Tactile Communication in V2X ...
The advent of 6G marks a transformative phase in wireless communication, ushering in a hyperconnected experience. This paper explores optimizing sidelink technologies in Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communication through integrating 6G capabilities. Emphasizing challenges in sidelink resource allocation, the study introduces mathematical solutions. The survey further investigates the evolution of Cellular-V2X (C-V2X) and sidelink standardization within the 6G V2X Sidelink context, highlighting key features and applications. Additionally, it examines inter-UE coordination, resource re-evaluation, and pre-emption operations in 5G-V2X Sidelink, addressing associated challenges and mathematical formulations. The paper focuses on power-based resource allocation in 5G-V2X, addressing challenges and proposing solutions for the 6G V2X Sidelink landscape. Encompassing direct communication, collision issues, spectrum compliance, resource fairness, uncertainty, and interference management, the survey comprehensively explores challenges and solutions in current sidelink resource allocation. It evaluates traditional and emerging techniques, such as cognitive radio, cooperative communication, power control, dynamic spectrum access, ML-aided allocation, blockchain-enabled allocation, and edge computing-driven allocation. The resource allocation requirements for diverse V2X services in 6G V2X Sidelink are outlined, explicitly focusing on Vehicular to Vehicular (V2V), Vehicular to Infrastructure (V2I), Vehicular to Pedestrian (V2P), and other V2X services, addressing their specific needs.
... This involves both the client and the server. The "peer-to-peer" network protocol is used by "Bitcoin," which enables transactions to happen directly between users without needing a middleman [12,13]. A complete blockchain system consists of data blocks for storing data and cryptographic signatures, system logs, peer-to-peer network infrastructure, maintenance system methodologies, workloads for data mining, proof rules, unknown transmission data mechanisms, "Unspent Transaction Output" (UTXO), Merkle trees, and other related engineering concepts. ...
With the advancement of new technology, security is the biggest issue nowadays. To solve security problems, blockchain technology will be used. In recent work, most of the work has been done on homogeneous systems, but in our research, the primary focus is on the security of wireless sensor networks using blockchain. Over the last few decades, the Internet of Things (IoT) has been the most advancing technology due to the number of intelligent devices and associated technologies that have rapidly grown in every field of the world, such as smart cities, education, agriculture, banking, healthcare, etc. Many of the applications are developing by using IoT technologies for real-time monitoring. Because of storage capacity or low processing power, smart devices or gadgets are vulnerable to attack as existing cryptography techniques or security are insufficient. In this research work, firstly, we review and identify the privacy and security issues in the IoT system. Secondly, there is a solution for the security issues, which is resolved by blockchain technology. We will check the wireless sensor network to see how data work on distributed or decentralized network architecture. Wireless sensor network clustering technique was introduced by researchers for network efficiency because when the workload spreads, the system will work faster and more efficiently. A cluster comprises a number of nodes, and the cluster head manages the local interactions between the nodes in the cluster (CH). In general, cluster members connect with the cluster head, and the cluster head aggregates and fuses the data acquired in order to save energy. Before approaching the sink, the cluster heads may additionally create another layer of clusters among themselves. The clustering concept divides data traffic into several groups similar to the other data points in the same data point. In contrast, this data point is dissimilar from other data points in another group. All results are presented at the end of this study paper, in which we will see the network or nodes’ performance in the specific area of the network, how it works, and how efficient it is. Likewise, Blockchain also works in a distributed manner.
... In NOMA-based V2X, data security is a real issue as one user's decoding often involves the decoding of other users. Such an issue may be addressed by utilizing blockchain for secured networking, as reported in [20]. On the other hand, the low-latency nature of NOMA may help tackle the slow access problem in blockchain-based V2X networking, imposed by the inherent algorithm in attaining consensus among decentralized entities, such as vehicles and infrastructure. ...
We are on the cusp of a new era of connected autonomous vehicles with unprecedented user experiences, tremendously improved road safety and air quality, highly diverse transportation environments and use cases, and a plethora of advanced applications. Realizing this grand vision requires a significantly enhanced vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication network that should be extremely intelligent and capable of concurrently supporting hyperfast, ultrareliable, and low-latency massive information exchange. It is anticipated that the sixth-generation (6G) communication systems will fulfill these requirements of the next-generation V2X. In this article, we outline a series of key enabling technologies from a range of domains, such as new materials, algorithms, and system architectures. Aiming for truly intelligent transportation systems, we envision that machine learning (ML) will play an instrumental role in advanced vehicular communication and networking. To this end, we provide an overview of the recent advances of ML in 6G vehicular networks. To stimulate future research in this area, we discuss the strength, open challenges, maturity, and enhancing areas of these technologies.
... [100] proposed a cooperative spoofing attack detection technique to identify MAC attacks. In [101], Islam et al. presented a blockchain-based secure data handover approach in non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) transmission schemes. They discussed a two-phase encryption algorithm to prevent MAC spoofing in WNs. ...
The emerging need for high data rate, low latency, and high network capacity encourages wireless networks (WNs) to build intelligent and dynamic services, such as intelligent transportation systems, smart homes, smart cities, industrial automation, etc. However, the WN is impeded by several security threats, such as data manipulation, denial-of-service, injection, man-in-the-middle, session hijacking attacks, etc., that deteriorate the security performance of the aforementioned WN-based intelligent services. Toward this goal, various security solutions, such as cryptography, artificial intelligence (AI), access control, authentication, etc., are proposed by the scientific community around the world; however, they do not have full potential in tackling the aforementioned security issues. Therefore, it necessitates a technology, i.e., a blockchain, that offers decentralization, immutability, transparency, and security to protect the WN from security threats. Motivated by these facts, this paper presents a WNs survey in the context of security and privacy issues with blockchain-based solutions. First, we analyzed the existing research works and highlighted security requirements, security issues in a different generation of WN (4G, 5G, and 6G), and a comparative analysis of existing security solutions. Then, we showcased the influence of blockchain technology and prepared an exhaustive taxonomy for blockchain-enabled security solutions in WN. Further, we also proposed a blockchain and a 6G-based WN architecture to highlight the importance of blockchain technology in WN. Moreover, the proposed architecture is evaluated against different performance metrics, such as scalability, packet loss ratio, and latency. Finally, we discuss various open issues and research challenges for blockchain-based WNs solutions.
... By contrast, Bitcoin uses the P2P network protocol, and thus, businesses can occur directly between users without any medium. [24] [25]. ...
The proposed approach uses blockchain-based technology to strengthen the data security of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). This paper integrates blockchain-based technology with data transfer to establish an extremely secure WSNs structure. The present wireless network is built on the architecture of the Internet of Things (IoT) and employs a blockchain-based method to make the reliability of data transmission strong. In this proposed research, many small-area wireless sensor networks establish the entire WSNs structure, and every small-area wireless sensor network has a primary data collection node called a "mobile database." The "mobile database" node of this study uses embedded microcontrollers with an operating system, such as Raspberry Pi and Arduino Yun. This block contains the sensor data collected by itself and the hash value of the previous block. Then the hash value of its own block, which is also part of the hash calculation of the next block, was calculated through the mining calculation program. Any block in the proposed method includes the encrypted hash-value of the previous block, the current timestamp, and the transaction data. In our research content, the transaction data is represented as wireless network sensing data. Basically, the system employs the hash function for calculation using the Merkel-tree algorithm. Such programming makes the block with blockchain-based technology difficult to tamper with content. This study approach revises the blockchain-based transaction ledger to become a sensor data record. Therefore, the proposed system gathers and analyzes sensor data for more reliability in the wireless sensing network structure. Furthermore, the innovative system with blockchain-based technology can treat a private cloud-end. This paper also carries on to visualize the uploaded sensing data by the sensors and draws corresponding charts based on big data analysis. The wireless network architecture proposed in this paper is built on embedded devices, making it easy for the system to build a web server. Using Python or JavaScript programming language in the web environment is relatively more convenient for data visualization and data analysis. Finally, this study uses traditional methods and innovative methods to compare data transmission. When the system uses innovative methods with blockchain-based technology, it is almost impossible for any operator to tamper with the data transmitted by the sensor.
... Because the sensor data are accessed via Internet browsers, the proposed system is compatible with the operating systems of any mobile device. As long as a mobile device is equipped with a browser app, the user can conveniently log-in to the system and analyze the sensor data and graphical statistics [9,10]. This paper applies many of the blockchain advantages. ...
This paper proposes a method for improving the data security of wireless sensor networks based on blockchain technology. Blockchain technology is applied to data transfer to build a highly secure wireless sensor network. In this network, the relay stations use microcontrollers and embedded devices, and the microcontrollers, such as Raspberry Pi and Arduino Yun, represents mobile databases. The proposed system uses microcontrollers to facilitate the connection of various sensor devices. By adopting blockchain encryption, the security of sensing data can be effectively improved. A blockchain is a concatenated transaction record that is protected by cryptography. Each section contains the encrypted hash of the previous section, the corresponding timestamp, and transaction data. The transaction data denote the sensing data of the wireless sensing network. The proposed system uses a hash value representation calculated by the Merkel-tree algorithm, which makes the transfer data of the system difficult to be tamped with. However, the proposed system can serve as a private cloud data center. In this study, the system visualizes the data uploaded by sensors and create relevant charts based on big data analysis. Since the webpage server of the proposed system is built on an embedded operating system, it is easy to model and visualize the corresponding graphics using Python or JavaScript programming language. Finally, this study creates an embedded system mobile database and web server, which can utilize JavaScript program language and Node.js runtime environment to apply blockchain technology to mobile databases. The proposed method is verified by the experiment using about 1600 data records. The results show that the possibility of data being changed is very small, and the probability of data being changed is almost zero.
... In NOMA systems, adversaries could be either internal or external; an internal adversary is a NOMA user from the set of legitimate users in the network, whereas external adversaries do not belong to that set. The NOMA PLS schemes in the literature can be divided into eight classes as shown in Table 2 8. Utilizing asymmetric cryptography for securing the signal of each user using public/private keys [44]. ...
Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) has recently emerged as a promising multiple access technique for current and future mobile communication networks. Unlike conventional multiple access schemes, NOMA exploits the power domain to service a large number of users at different power levels, using the same time–frequency resources. However, this technology suffers from major security threats since users are able to decode the messages of other paired users utilizing the same resources. In this paper, we propose an efficient and lightweight cipher scheme for NOMA systems at the physical layer. Unlike previous schemes in the literature, the proposed solution combines cryptography and Physical Layer Security (PLS) to provide robust security at minimum cost by adopting a structure that requires a single round with a single operation. Moreover, it is generic in the sense that any simple cipher operation such as permutation, substitution, phase shuffling, or pseudo-random masking, can be utilized in order to secure the underlying NOMA frame symbols. Also, we propose a dynamic key derivation scheme that benefits from the dynamic properties of wireless channels. Simulation results and cryptanalysis show that the proposed solution achieves the desired security level and strikes a good balance between performance and security level.
... A blockchain is a chain of blocks where blocks are connected to hold data or information regarding any event [2]. Each transaction or activity within the blockchain is verified by consensus of a majority of the participants (i.e., without the approval of the majority network, no activity is acceptable) [3]. Once some data have been inserted into a blockchain, it becomes very difficult to change it due to having an immutability configuration [4]. ...
Voting is a very important issue that can be beneficial in terms of choosing the right leader in an election. A good leader can bring prosperity to a country and also can lead the country in the right direction every time. However, elections are surrounded by ballot forgery, coercion, and multiple voting issues. Moreover, while giving votes, a person has to wait in a long queue and it is a very time-consuming process. Blockchain is a distributed database in which data are shared with the participant of the node and each participant holds the same copy of the data. Blockchain has properties like transparency, pseudonymity, and data integrity. In this paper, a fully decentralized e-voting system based on blockchain technology is proposed. This protocol utilizes smart contracts in the e-voting system to deal with security issues, accuracy, and voters’ privacy during the vote. The protocol results in a transparent, non-editable, and independently verifiable procedure. The protocol discards all the intended fraudulent activities occurring during the election process by removing the least participation of the third party. Both transparency and coercion are obtained at the same time.
... Blockchain is a distributed database that is replicated and shared among the peers of a network. The blockchain concept was first introduced by Satoshi Nakamoto, a person or a group who used this name as a pseudonym [1]. Any individual from the network can check and verify the ledgers [2]. ...
To stay up to date with world issues and cutting-edge technologies, the newspaper plays a crucial role. However, collecting news is not a very easy task. Currently, news publishers are collecting news from their correspondents through social networks, email, phone call, fax, etc. and sometimes they buy news from the agencies. However, the existing news sharing networks may not provide security for data integrity and any third party may obstruct the regular flow of news sharing. Moreover, the existing news schemes are very vulnerable in case of disclosing the identity. Therefore, a universal platform is needed in the era of globalization where anyone can share and trade news from anywhere in the world securely, without the interference of third-party, and without disclosing the identity of an individual. Recently, blockchain has gained popularity because of its security mechanism over data, identity, etc. Blockchain enables a distributed way of managing transactions where each participant of the network holds the same copy of the transactions. Therefore, with the help of pseudonymity, fault-tolerance, immutability, and the distributed structure of blockchain, a scheme (termed as NEWSTRADCOIN) is presented in this paper in which not only news can be shared securely but also anyone can earn money by selling news. The proposed NEWSTRADCOIN can provide a universal platform where publishers can directly collect news from news-gatherers in a secure way by maintaining data integrity, without experiencing the interference of a third-party, and without disclosing the identity of the news gatherer and publishers.
... However, communication between the UAV and UGV, between the UAV and UGV, and between the UAV and GCS surrounds with cyber threats (i.e., man-in-the-middle attack and reply attack) and also mission data can be altered. Blockchain has drawn a lot of attention [5]. Blockchain is a network of peers where each peer holds the same of the data [6]. ...
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) has recently attracted a lot of attention in the research field with its diverse functionality. UAV and UGV can enhance efficiency in search and rescue (SAR) missions by operating side by side. However, communication between UAV and UGV, UAV and ground control system (GCS), and UGV and GCS are surrounded by cyber threats and data also vulnerable to an integrity issue. Blockchain can bring security in the aforementioned threats. This paper introduces a blockchain-empowered UAVUGV cooperative SAR scheme in which UAV and UGV work side by side to bring efficiency in the mission. Moreover, a proof of concept is established to manifest the feasibility of the proposed scheme based on throughput and processing time.
... Moreover, collecting data faces cyber threats like man-in-the-middle, ddos, etc. Blockchain has recently drawn a lot of attention both in industry and academic [3]- [6]. Blockchain supports features like data immutability, secure communication, etc. [7]. Blockchain can be probable solution for the aforementioned threats [8]. ...
Controlling greenhouse effect especially reducing carbon-di-oxide (CO2) gas emission rate is one of the biggest difficulties of the 21st Century. This paper comprehensively described the issues regarding the greenhouse effect and possible controlling mechanism of the Green House Effect to save the world. As excessive CO2 gas emission in the atmosphere is the main reason for the Green House Effect (GHE), a simple and secure system can restrain the CO2 gas emission rate in the Universe. Blockchain Technology is introduced to protect the data from third-party alteration and to make the system more robust against the threats (i.e., cyber threats and data integrity). This paper endeavors to introduce a new dimension of research about controlling the GHE by collecting data with sensors and transmit these data to the blockchain with the assistance of the internet of things.
... Blockchain is an emerging technology which has drawn a lot of attention of both academia and industry [14]. Blockchain is a distributed ledger that is shared among the participant and each of them holds the same copy of the data [15]. Blockchain was first introduced by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2009. ...
Trespassing in the marine area is a very critical issue. As a result, countries are losing revenue as well as it's a threat against the sovereignty of the country. As sea area is large, it's not always possible to monitor every part in real-time. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is a promising technology that can assist to alleviate this issue. However, communication between the control center and a UAV encircles with cyber threats as well as data in the surveillance may experience unauthorised modification. This paper represents a blockchain-empowered smart surveillance architecture in which UAV performs surveillance and uses a two-phase authentication process to verify the marine vehicles. The experimental result manifests that the proposed scheme is faster and consumes less energy than the existing authentication algorithms.
... technology is currently inuseintherecordingof medical data,trackingofproductsinthesupplychain, etc. [38].In blockchain, dataare deposited ina block andeach block hasauniquehash,whichis generated based onthecontentoftheblock [39].Eachblockpointstotheprevious block's hash;thus,blocksstayinthechain,andthatiswhyitiscalled blockchain. Blockchain adopts asymmetric encryption tomaintainsecurity [40].Eachuserholdsaprivatekeyandapublic keythatis generated fromtheprivatekey.Everyuserusesthis publickeyasanidentityinthenetwork,andthus,theidentity oftheuserremains obscured [41].However, blockchain also utilizesa Merkle tree [39].A Merkle treeisa structure thatis generated fromthehashofthedata.Any alteration inthedata causesachangeinthe Merkle tree.Byutilizingthe Merkle tree, blockchain preservestheintegrityofdata.However,toadda block tothechain,everynode,calleda miner orvalidator,must agreeonthevalidityoftheblock [42].These characteristics can be possible solutions against the aforementioned issues(i.e.,cyberthreatsanddataintegrity)indata acquisition from loT using a DAY. ...
Internet of things (IoT), mobile edge computing (MEC), and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) have attracted significant attention in both industry and academic research. By consolidating these technologies, IoT can be facilitated with improved connectivity, better data transmission, energy saving, and other advantages. However, the communication between these entities is subject to potential cyber threats. In addition, the integrity of the data must be maintained after storing into local storage. Blockchain is a data structure that supports features like pseudonymity, data integrity etc. This paper represents a blockchain based data acquisition process in which information is gathered from IoTs using UAV as a relay and is securely kept in blockchain at MEC server. In the proposed scheme, data are encrypted prior to transfer to MEC server with the assistance of a UAV. Upon receiving the data, MEC server validates the data and the identity of the sender. Successful validation is followed by stocking of the data into blockchain, subsequent to obtaining consent from the validators. Security analysis is conducted in order to show the feasibility of the proposed secure scheme. Finally, the performance of the proposed scheme is analyzed via simulation and implementation.
... Blockchain has brought a revolution in the realm of technology [1,2] and has started to draw the interest of the stakeholders of a wide span of industries including finance, healthcare, and digital content distribution [3][4][5][6][7][8]. In blockchain, when a transaction occurs in the network, the transaction has to experience validation called a consensus mechanism, a process where some of the participants reach a mutual agreement in allowing that transaction [9]. ...
In this study, we present a new scheme for smart education utilizing the concept of a blockchain for question sharing. A two-phase encryption technique for encrypting question papers (QSPs) is proposed. In the first phase, QSPs are encrypted using a timestamp, and in the second phase, previously encrypted QSPs are encrypted again using a timestamp, salt hash, and hash from the previous QSPs. These encrypted QSPs are stored in a blockchain along with a smart contract that helps the user to unlock the selected QSP. An algorithm is also proposed for selecting a QSP for the exam that randomly picks a QSP. Moreover, a timestamp-based lock is imposed on the scheme so that no one can decrypt the QSP before the allowed time. Security analysis is conducted to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed scheme against different attacks. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed scheme is demonstrated through implementation, and the superiority of the proposed scheme over existing schemes is proven through a comparative study based on different features.
... However, blockchain adopts asymmetric encryption (private/public keys) to maintain communication. In blockchain, a public key is used as the identity of the user and a private key is utilized to validate the data [44]. Moreover, blockchain employs a Merkle tree 1 in blocks. ...
This paper presents a blockchain enabled secure data acquisition scheme utilizing an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) swarm where data are collected from internet of things (IoT) devices and subsequently, forwarded to the nearest server through the UAV swarm. Before initiating data acquisition, the UAV swarm shares a shared key with IoT devices in order to maintain communications. However, prior to transmitting data, IoT devices encrypt the data and forward it to the UAV swarm. Upon receiving the data, the UAV swarm implements a two-phase validation utilizing the π-hash bloom filter and the digital signature algorithm to validate the sender; in addition, prior to forwarding data to the nearest server, it performs encryption. However, before adding data in blockchain, consent from all validators is required. Finally, the data are stored in blockchain with the approval of validators. A security analysis is performed to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed scheme. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed scheme is manifested through implementation and simulation. The security analysis and the performance results show that UAV assist IoT devices both in terms of connectivity and energy consumption, and provides security against the threats mentioned in the paper.
... Blockchain is a peer to peer network in which data are shared among the peers and each peer holds the same copy of the data [16], [17]. Blockchain brings security in the data by providing pseudonymity, integrity, etc. [18]. ...
Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is an emerging technology that becomes popular not only in military operation but also in civil applications. Internet of things (IoT) is another popular technology which brings automation in our daily life. Like other areas, IoT also exposes its potential in healthcare. Using IoT sensors, it becomes easy to monitor the health of a user remotely. UAV consolidated with mobile edge computing (MEC) can provide real-time services in outdoor health monitoring. However, communication among them surrounds with cyber threats and data integrity issue. Blockchain is a data structure in which data are shared among peers. In this paper, a blockchain based secure outdoor health monitoring scheme using UAV is proposed for a smart city. In the proposed scheme, health data (HD) are accumulated from users wearable sensors and these HD are transmitted to the nearest MEC server via UAV. Prior to transmitting to MEC, HD experience encryption in order to provide protection against cyber threats. Moreover, after arriving at MEC, HD are diagnosed and if any abnormalities are found in the user’s health, MEC server notifies the user and the nearest hospitals. When the processing is completed, HD are stored in blockchain with the consent of validators. Finally, simulation results and experimental set up are discussed in order to manifest the feasibility of the proposed scheme.
... A blockchain is a chain of blocks where blocks are connected to hold data or information regarding any event [2]. Each transaction or activity within the blockchain is verified by consensus of a majority of the participants (i.e., without the approval of the majority network, no activity is acceptable) [3]. Once some data have been inserted into a blockchain, it becomes very difficult to change it due to having an immutability configuration [4]. ...
Voting is a very important issue which can be beneficial in term of choosing the right leader in an election. A good leader can bring prosperity to a country and also can lead the country in the right direction every time. However, elections are surrounds with ballot forgery, coercion and multiple voting issues. Moreover, while giving votes, a person has to wait in a long queue and it is a very time-consuming process. Blockchain is a distributed database in which data are shared with the participant of the node and each participant holds the same copy of the data. Blockchain has properties like distributed, pseudonymity, data integrity etc. In the paper, a fully decentralized e-voting system based on blockchain technology is proposed. This protocol utilizes smart contract into the e-voting system to deal with security issues, accuracy and voters’ privacy during the vote. The protocol results in a transparent, non-editable and independently verifiable procedure that discards all the intended fraudulent activities occurring during the election process by removing the least participation of the third party and enabling voters’ right during the election. Both transparency and coercion are obtained at the same time.
... Moreover, after collecting data, protecting these data from tampering is also challenging in the MEC server. Blockchain is another emerging technology in which data are chained together and shared among the participant nodes and each node contain the same copy of data [2][3][4]. Moreover, blockchain provides supports, such as data privacy, data security against tampering, data distribution etc. [5]. ...
Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) has been regarded as one of promising research field because of its capability of performing critical operations. Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) is an emerging technology where the cloud has brought to the base station and utilizes radio access network in order to meetup network challenges. UAV combined MEC can perform real-time activities. Internet of Underwater Things (IoUT) is a network of things which play a very important role in underwater monitoring and surveillance. However, UAV can provide better support to IoUT in terms of communication and energy saving while communicating with remote BS. However, communication from remote areas with IoUTs via UAV creates many cyber threats. Blockchain is another emerging technology which provides support in terms of data security, integrity etc. This paper presents a blockchain based secure scheme in which UAV is integrated with MEC in order to assist in underwater monitoring.
In recent years, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have become integral in various applications ranging from environmental monitoring to defense. However, the security and reliability of these networks remain a paramount concern due to their susceptibility to various types of cyber-attacks and failures. This paper proposes a novel integration of blockchain technology with WSNs to address these challenges. Blockchain, with its decentralized and tamper-resistant ledger, offers a robust framework to enhance the security and reliability of sensor networks. The study begins by analyzing the current security threats and challenges faced by WSNs, emphasizing the need for a solution that can ensure data integrity, confidentiality, and network resilience. We then introduce blockchain technology and discuss its key features such as decentralization, immutability, and consensus algorithms, which are beneficial in creating a secure and reliable WSN environment. Subsequently, we present a detailed architecture of how blockchain can be integrated with WSNs. This includes the deployment of a lightweight blockchain protocol suited for the limited computational resources of sensor nodes. We also explore the use of smart contracts for automated, secure data handling and network management within WSNs. To validate the proposed integration, we conduct a simulations based on network attacks. The results demonstrate significant improvements in the security and reliability of WSNs when blockchain is implemented. This is evidenced by enhanced resistance to common attacks, such as data manipulation and node compromise and increased network uptime.
Storing data in real time along with keeping it secure is the biggest challenge in industry today. Many land issues arise because there is no database which is protected for tracking the real-time changes in data. Also, land records currently are registered in paper format. This kind of data is thus vulnerable to any changes and maybe destroyed by natural or man-made disasters. The emerging blockchain technology is a boon to store any information in real time and is immune to any changes. In this paper, we propose a solution in the form of distributed app (DApp) which uses the idea of blockchain as distributed database, smart contracts using ethereum platform and Polyline API from Google to mark the land boundaries. Smart contracts allow the performance of credible transactions by using sophisticated cryptography and without interference from third parties. These transactions are traceable and irreversible. Proponents of smart contracts claim that many kinds of contractual clauses may be made partially or fully self-enforcing. In this case, along with the self-verifiable clauses, involving banking parties can perform additional monetary checking. A user can sell or transfer a property that he owns or may buy a new land plot open for sale in desired geographical area. This solution allows maintaining land records easily and in real time without having a single point of failure for the database system. Removal of third-party interventions such as brokers from the process of land title transfer between old and new owners makes the process more transparent and cheaper.
Since its inception, the blockchain technology has shown promising application prospects. From the initial cryptocurrency to the current smart contract, blockchain has been applied to many fields. Although there are some studies on the security and privacy issues of blockchain, there lacks a systematic examination on the security of blockchain systems. In this paper, we conduct a systematic study on the security threats to blockchain and survey the corresponding real attacks by examining popular blockchain systems. We also review the security enhancement solutions for blockchain, which could be used in the development of various blockchain systems, and suggest some future directions to stir research efforts into this area.
In this paper, first we briefly describe the differences in the working principles of uplink and downlink NOMA transmissions. Then, for both uplink and downlink NOMA, we formulate a sum-throughput maximization problem in a cell such that the user clustering (i.e., grouping users into a single cluster or multiple clusters) and power allocations in NOMA cluster(s) can be optimized under transmission power constraints, minimum rate requirements of the users, and SIC constraints. Due to the combinatorial nature of the formulated mixed integer non-linear programming (MINLP) problem, we solve the problem in two steps, i.e., by first grouping users into clusters and then optimizing their respective power allocations. In particular, we propose a low-complexity sub-optimal user grouping scheme. The proposed scheme exploits the channel gain differences among users in a NOMA cluster and group them into a single cluster or multiple clusters in order to enhance the sum-throughput of the system. For a given set of NOMA clusters, we then derive the optimal power allocation policy that maximizes the sum throughput per NOMA cluster and in turn maximizes the overall system throughput. Using KKT optimality conditions, closed-form solutions for optimal power allocations are derived for any cluster size, considering both uplink and downlink NOMA systems. Numerical results compare the performance of NOMA over orthogonal multiple access (OMA) and illustrate the significance of NOMA in various network scenarios.
Motivated by the recent explosion of interest around blockchains, we examine whether they make a good fit for the Internet of Things (IoT) sector. Blockchains allow us to have a distributed peer-to-peer network where non-trusting members can interact with each other without a trusted intermediary, in a verifiable manner. We review how this mechanism works and also look into smart contracts-scripts that reside on the blockchain that allow for the automation of multi-step processes. We then move into the IoT domain, and describe how a blockchain-IoT combination: 1) facilitates the sharing of services and resources leading to the creation of a marketplace of services between devices and 2) allows us to automate in a cryptographically verifiable manner several existing, time-consuming workflows. We also point out certain issues that should be considered before the deployment of a blockchain network in an IoT setting: from transactional privacy to the expected value of the digitized assets traded on the network. Wherever applicable, we identify solutions and workarounds. Our conclusion is that the blockchain-IoT combination is powerful and can cause significant transformations across several industries, paving the way for new business models and novel, distributed applications.
Non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) has recently received considerable
attention as a promising candidate for 5G systems. A key feature of NOMA is
that users with better channel conditions have prior information about the
messages of the other users. This prior knowledge is fully exploited in this
paper, where a cooperative NOMA scheme is proposed. Outage probability and
diversity order achieved by this cooperative NOMA scheme are analyzed, and an
approach based on user pairing is also proposed to reduce system complexity in
practice.
\begin{abstract}
Next-generation mobile network development for future radio access, or 5G, intends to provide high capacity, improved Quality of Service (QoS), carrier broadening in new spectrum, and enhanced security in data privacy. So far, the main focus of researchers and vendors in the areas of cellular telecommunication is to improve capacity and spectrum in order to get better QoS, but less attention has been given to provide a secure and trustworthy connectivity service. Among different potential candidates for 5G, non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) is one of the key contenders. NOMA employs the principle of successive interference cancellation (SIC) at the receiver side to separate the user’s information. However, implementation of SIC increases concerns over user privacy. In this paper, shortcomings of conventional SIC are discussed and a new secure SIC scheme is presented. Our proposed SIC scheme enhances user security by using the MAC address and IMEI, which are dedicated to a smartphone as private keys. This private key enables the user to encode data without disturbing other users’ privacy.
\end{abstract}
We propose and investigate a dual-hop cooperative relaying scheme using non-orthogonal multiple (NOMA) access (termed NOMA-RS) where two sources communicate with their corresponding destinations in parallel over the same frequency band via a common relay. In this scheme, after receiving symbols transmitted in parallel by both sources with different allocated powers, the relay forwards a superposition coded composite signal using NOMA to the destinations. One of the main benefits of NOMA-RS is that multiple (two) sources can share the same relay, unlike the previous works. Through the simulations and mathematical analysis, we demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed protocol in terms of ergodic sum capacity by considering perfect and imperfect successive interference cancellation.
Non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) is one of the promising radio access techniques for performance enhancement in next-generation cellular communications. Compared to orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA), which is a well-known high-capacity orthogonal multiple access (OMA) technique, NOMA offers a set of desirable benefits, including greater spectrum efficiency. There are different types of NOMA techniques, including power-domain and code-domain. This paper primarily focuses on power-domain NOMA that utilizes superposition coding (SC) at the transmitter and successive interference cancellation (SIC) at the receiver. Various researchers have demonstrated that NOMA can be used effectively to meet both network-level and user-experienced data rate requirements of fifth-generation (5G) technologies. From that perspective, this paper comprehensively surveys the recent progress of NOMA in 5G systems, reviewing the state-of-the-art capacity analysis, power allocation strategies, user fairness, and user-pairing schemes in NOMA. In addition, this paper discusses how NOMA performs when it is integrated with various proven wireless communications techniques, such as cooperative communications, multiple input multiple output (MIMO), beamforming, space time coding, and network coding, among others. Furthermore, this paper discusses several important issues on NOMA implementation and provides some avenues for future research.
Non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) has attracted
significant attention in the research community as a
potential radio access technology for future wireless networks.
In this work, we propose a two-phase cooperative decode-and-forward
(DF) relaying scheme based on Alamouti (2by�1 multiple-input
single-output mode) space-time block coded non-orthogonal
multiple access (STBC-NOMA). Closed-form solutions for ergodic
sum capacity and outage probability of the proposed
scheme are analyzed over independent Rayleigh fading channels.
Asymptotic approximations for ergodic sum capacity, outage
probability and outage sum capacity at high signal-to-noise
ratio regime are also provided. It has been pointed out that
the proposed cooperative relaying system (CRS) using STBCNOMA
can attain significant performance gains compared to
the conventional CRS using NOMA and the traditional DF
relaying schemes. It is also demonstrated that the relay position
between the transmitter and receiver has significant impact on the
performance of the proposed protocol. In addition, the proximity
between analytical and simulation results confirms the efficiency
of the proposed protocol.
In this paper, a novel dynamic power allocation scheme is proposed to downlink and uplink non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) scenarios with two users for more flexibly meeting various quality of service requirements. The exact expressions for the outage probability and the average rate achieved by the proposed scheme, as well as their high signal-to-noise ratio approximations, are established. Compared with the existing works, such as NOMA with fixed power allocation and cognitive radio inspired NOMA, the proposed scheme can: 1) strictly guarantee a performance gain over conventional orthogonal multiple access; and 2) offer more flexibility to realize different tradeoffs between the user fairness and system throughput. Monte Carlo simulation results are provided to demonstrate the accuracy of the developed analytical results and the performance gain of the proposed power allocation scheme.
A purely peer-to-peer version of electronic cash would allow online payments to be sent directly from one party to another without going through a financial institution. Digital signatures provide part of the solution, but the main benefits are lost if a trusted third party is still required to prevent double-spending. We propose a solution to the double-spending problem using a peer-to-peer network. The network timestamps transactions by hashing them into an ongoing chain of hash-based proof-of-work, forming a record that cannot be changed without redoing the proof-of-work. The longest chain not only serves as proof of the sequence of events witnessed, but proof that it came from the largest pool of CPU power. As long as a majority of CPU power is controlled by nodes that are not cooperating to attack the network, they'll generate the longest chain and outpace attackers. The network itself requires minimal structure. Messages are broadcast on a best effort basis, and nodes can leave and rejoin the network at will, accepting the longest proof-of-work chain as proof of what happened while they were gone.