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Article
The Protective Role of Astaxanthin for UV-Induced
Skin Deterioration in Healthy People—A Randomized,
Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial
Naoki Ito * ID , Shinobu Seki and Fumitaka Ueda
Pharmaceutical and Healthcare Research Laboratories, Research and Development Management Headquarters,
FUJIFILM Corporation, 577, Ushijima, Kaisei-machi, Ashigarakami-gun, Kanagawa 258-8577, Japan;
shinobu.seki@fujifilm.com (S.S.); fumitaka.ueda@fujifilm.com (F.U.)
*Correspondence: naoki.a.ito@fujifilm.com; Tel.: +81-42-339-8919
Received: 7 June 2018; Accepted: 21 June 2018; Published: 25 June 2018
Abstract:
Skin is a major safeguard tissue in humans. Because biological barrier function is deteriorated
by several kinds of stresses including exposure to ultra-violet (UV) rays, the protection and treatment
of skin conditions by dietary supplements are important. We therefore evaluated the effects of
dietary supplementation with an algal food-derived antioxidant, astaxanthin, on UV-induced skin
deterioration. Twenty-three healthy Japanese participants were recruited to a 10-week double-blind
placebo-controlled study. They were assigned to the astaxanthin group supplemented with a capsule
containing 4 mg of astaxanthin or the placebo group. To assess the protective role of astaxanthin
for UV-induced skin deterioration, we determined the minimal erythema dose (MED) and analyzed
UV-induced changes of moisture and transepidermal water loss (TEWL) at baseline and after 9 weeks of
supplementation. Subjective skin conditions were assessed by the visual analog scale. The astaxanthin
group showed increased MED compared with placebo. In addition, the astaxanthin group had
a reduced loss of skin moisture in the irradiated area compared with placebo. Subjective skin conditions
for “improvement of rough skin” and “texture” in non-irradiated areas were significantly improved by
astaxanthin. Astaxanthin seems protective against UV-induced skin deterioration and helps maintain
healthy skin in healthy people.
Keywords: astaxanthin; antioxidant; skin; ultra-violet; UV; MED; moisture
1. Introduction
The skin, a major safeguard tissue in humans, is composed of the epidermis, dermis and
subcutaneous tissue. These structures prevent the invasion of various microorganisms or pathogens
and protect our body from physiological damage. The skin also prevents the excessive transpiration
of moisture [
1
]. These protective functions are called “barrier functions”. Impaired barrier functions
result in increased transepidermal water loss (TEWL), the loss of water that passes from inside the
body through the epidermis, and a decrease of moisture, a water content of the stratum corneum.
Furthermore, the skin undergoes oxidative damage by various stresses including daily exposure to
ultra-violet (UV) rays from the sun, which leads to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS)
such as singlet oxygen or secondary lipid peroxyl radicals. These radicals damage biological molecules
including proteins or DNA, which disturbs healthy skin conditions. Because the biological barrier
function is impaired by these repeated stresses [
2
] and endogenous anti-oxidative capacity is gradually
decreased with age [
3
], the protection and treatment of skin conditions by daily supplements have
received increasing attention [2,4–6].
Astaxanthin is a red carotenoid found in shrimp, crab, salmon and microalgae [
7
,
8
]. Astaxanthin
exerts a strong anti-oxidative activity by scavenging free radicals [
9
]. In particular, the scavenging effect
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Nutrients 2018,10, 817 2 of 10
of astaxanthin for singlet oxygen is approximately 1000 times higher than that of coenzyme Q10 [
9
].
Astaxanthin is absorbed from the small intestine, transported to the plasma and erythrocytes [
10
],
to the brain by crossing the blood-brain barrier [
11
,
12
], and to the skin including the epidermis and
dermis [
13
]. On the basis of its strong anti-oxidative activity, the beneficial effects of astaxanthin as a
supplement have been evaluated for a wide variety of human health issues including metabolism [
14
,
15
], exercise performance [
16
], cognitive functions and mental fatigue (combined with or without
sesamin) [
17
–
19
], sleep efficiency (combined with zinc) [
20
], and skin conditions [
21
–
25
]. Because
of its strong single oxygen scavenging effects, the protective role of astaxanthin for skin conditions
or UV-induced skin deterioration has been evaluated in cells, rodents and humans [
13
,
23
,
26
–
30
].
Regarding UV-induced skin deterioration, the administration of astaxanthin prevented UV-induced
photo-aging and burn-wound progression in rodents [
13
,
27
]. In addition to astaxanthin, several
carotenoids such as
β
-carotene and lycopene also showed protective effects against sun damage [
2
].
However, in contrast to rodent studies, there have been only limited study on the beneficial effects of
astaxanthin on UV-induced skin deterioration in healthy people [26].
Sunburn and subsequent darkening is a common response after exposure to sunlight.
The beneficial effects of astaxanthin to improve UV-induced skin deterioration in healthy people
was previously evaluated [
26
]. Although supplementation with astaxanthin reduced UV-induced skin
darkening as evaluated by colorimetric L value or scoring on a skin tone color scale [
26
], the change in
minimal erythema dose (MED), which is the amount of UV radiation that produces minimal erythema
of an individual’s skin [
31
], and the associated UV-induced changes in skin condition including skin
moisture and TEWL have not been analyzed. Thus, although the effects of astaxanthin at relatively late
stages of UV-induced skin deterioration including skin color or recovery from UV-induced damage
have been analyzed, its effects on the relatively early changes of UV-induced skin deterioration
including MED and associated skin conditions are unknown. It is important to determine the effects of
astaxanthin at early stages to develop methods to protect skin from UV and maintain healthy skin.
Therefore, in this study, we evaluated the effects of dietary supplementation with astaxanthin on
UV-induced skin deterioration. We hypothesized that astaxanthin exerts anti-oxidative activity in the
epidermis or dermis to protect skin from UV-induced stimuli. We set MED as the primary outcome
and other skin conditions including moisture and TEWL in the irradiated area as secondary outcomes.
In addition, subjective skin conditions were analyzed by a visual analog scale (VAS). Safety evaluation
was also conducted.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design, Randomization and Blinding
We performed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group comparison trial to
evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation with astaxanthin on UV-induced skin deterioration in
healthy Japanese participants. This study consisted of 1 week of basement measurement and 9 weeks
of supplementation. An equal number of participants was allocated to either the astaxanthin group or
placebo group. This study was approved by the Kenshokai Ethical Review Board (Approved Number:
20170927-2) and followed the Declaration of Helsinki and Ethical Guidelines for Medical and Health
Research Involving Human Subjects. This study was registered in the UMIN Clinical Trials Registry
(ID: UMIN000028925). Participants, practitioners and clinicians were blinded. Practitioners performed
interventions, outcome measurement and analysis and clinicians performed safety evaluations.
According to our independent trials that evaluated the effects of dietary supplementation with
astaxanthin on skin TEWL in 10 healthy people [
23
], we set the required sample size as 10. We set
the evaluation of MED as the primary outcome. We set other skin conditions including moisture and
TEWL in the irradiated area and safety evaluation as secondary outcomes. Participants were enrolled
and randomly allocated by practitioners into the astaxanthin or placebo group using a random number
Nutrients 2018,10, 817 3 of 10
table considering the sex, age, MED, and moisture and TEWL at non-irradiated areas. Allocation was
concealed until all participants finished the tests.
2.2. Participants
Participants aged from 30 to less than 60 years in the Osaka area were enrolled in this study.
Participants who received an explanation of the objectives and details of this study, and gave written
informed consent were included. This study consisted of a supplementation period for 9 weeks
from October to December 2017. Participants with the following criteria were included: (1) Subjects
aged from 30 to 59 years old at the time informed consent was provided; (2) Subjects whose skin
phototype was type II or type III [
32
–
34
]; (3) Subjects who accepted test for UV-induced erythema
in their back skin; (4) Subjects whose basement MED was judged as second, third or fourth points
in six-grade UV-irradiated area; (5) Subjects who could visit to the administrative facility on every
inspection day; (6) Subjects who provided the written informed consent for the involvement of this
trial by themselves. Participants with the following criteria were excluded from the study: (1) Subjects
having photosensitivity disorder; (2) Subjects who took medicine which affect light sensitivity of
skin; (3) Subjects who regularly went to a dermatology office; (4) Subjects who continuously took a
functional food or a quasi-medicine which had same or similar effects with astaxanthin; (5) Subjects
who continuously took medicine, quasi-medicine, functional food or supplement which advocated or
emphasized effectiveness for which was evaluated in this trial, or which advocated or emphasized
the improvement of joint pain; (6) Subjects who had skin disease or abnormality in skin condition
such as atopic dermatitis; (7) Subjects who showed the apparent change of skin condition which was
not related to the intake of test food at the end of trial compared with the initiation; (8) Subjects who
took anti-inflammatory medicine at least once a month; (9) Subjects who worked on the night shift or
the day and night shift; (10) Subjects who were receiving the medical treatment or the prophylactic
treatment, or who are diagnosed the need of medical treatment; (11) Subjects who had a past history
for the severe disease or abnormality of glucose metabolism, lipid metabolism, liver function, kidney
function, cardiovascular system including heart function, respiratory tract, endocrine system and
nerve system, or for psychiatric disorder; (12) Subjects who had a past history of alcoholism or drug
addiction; (13) Subjects who had a risk for food allergy; (14) Subjects who frequently ingested food
which was rich in same active ingredient of test food, or who ingested these kind of food during 3 days
before and after trial initiation and the last 3 days from the end of trial; (15) Subjects who frequently
ingested food which might affect skin color; (16) Subjects who showed apparent abnormality in blood
test, or who were positive for HBs antigen or HCV antibody in trial duration including the screening
period; (17) Subjects who were pregnant or during lactation when the informed consent was provided,
or who hoped to become pregnant during the trial; (18) Subjects who were involved in another trial
within 4 weeks prior to this trial, or who will participate in another trial; (19) Subjects who were judged
to be inappropriate for this trial by the doctor who was responsible for this trial.
2.3. Supplement Formulation
One supplementary capsule contained 4 mg of astaxanthin. The placebo capsule contained a filling
agent instead of astaxanthin. One capsule was administered every day for 9 weeks. The astaxanthin
capsule and placebo capsule were not distinguishable by their shape, taste or color. For the astaxanthin
capsule, we used natural astaxanthin derived from Haematococcus pluvialis (ASTOTS, FUJIFILM),
which was processed by the dispersant technology that improved the absorbability of astaxanthin
in humans [
35
]. Furthermore, astaxanthin was extracted by supercritical CO2 extraction technology,
which enabled us to use solvent-free products.
2.4. Evaluation of UV-Induced Skin Deterioration
To assess the effect of UV on skin, we used the back skin for the area to be evaluated because it
usually receives less exposure to daily sunlight. A Solar Simulator (Model 601-300 2.5 UV Multiport,
Nutrients 2018,10, 817 4 of 10
Solar Light Co. Inc., Glenside, PA, USA) was used for irradiation. To measure MED, 31.8, 36.5, 42.0, 48.3,
55.5 and 63.9 mJ/cm
2
of UV-B were used before and after 9 weeks of supplementation. The evaluation of
MED was performed at 16–24 h after irradiation. The day after irradiation, an expert evaluator measured
the MED by visual assessment. Skin moisture and TEWL at the irradiated area were measured by a
Corneometer
®
(Courage & Khazaka Electronic GmbH, Köln, Germany) and VAPOSCAN AS-VT100RS
(Asch Japan Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan), respectively. The back skin exposed to 1.15 MED (which meant
1.15 times the amount of UV rays of MED) and 1.32 MED were evaluated for moisture and TEWL.
These values were measured at 1 and 7 days after irradiation. A non-irradiated area near the irradiated
area was used for normalization. Skin conditions were evaluated in an environment testing room
with a stable temperature (21
±
1
◦
C) and humidity (
50 ±5%
). These objective skin conditions were
evaluated before and after supplementation. For weekly subjective skin conditions, the VAS analysis
for “skin texture”, “skin clarity”, “youthfulness, visual impression”, “improvement of rough skin”,
“improvement of crow’s feet”, “improvement of skin dullness” and “improvement of nasolabial folds”
was used.
2.5. Blood Sampling and Safety Evaluation
Serum was obtained from the participants at baseline and after 9 weeks of supplementation
to perform general biochemical examination of blood including aspartate aminotransferase, alanine
transaminase,
γ
-glutamyl transpeptidase, alkaline phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase, total bilirubin,
direct bilirubin, indirect bilirubin, total protein, albumin, urea nitrogen, creatinine, uric acid, total
cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglyceride,
glucose, sodium, chloride, potassium, HBs antigen and HCV antigen, and hematologic tests including
white blood cell, red blood cell, hemoglobin, hematocrit and platelet for safety evaluation.
2.6. Statistical Analysis
All results were presented as the mean
±
standard deviation (SD). The differences in MED and
other scores between placebo and the astaxanthin group were assessed by the Mann–Whitney U-test
and unpaired t-test, respectively. No additional analyses were performed. Probabilities less than 5%
(*, p< 0.05, **, p< 0.01 and ***, p< 0.001) were considered statistically significant. Statistical analyses
were performed with IBM SPSS statistics software (version 23, IBM Japan, Ltd., Tokyo, Japan).
3. Results
3.1. Participants
Eighty-one participants were recruited from the Osaka area and twenty-three participants
(age ranging from 30 to 56 years, 21 females and 2 males) were enrolled. These participants were
assigned to the astaxanthin group (n= 12) or placebo group (n= 11). All participants finished the study.
One participant in the astaxanthin group was excluded from the analysis because of an aberrant serum
bilirubin level before and after supplementation (Figure 1). Finally, 22 participants (age range from 30 to
56 years, 20 females and 2 males) were analyzed. Thus, the per protocol set analysis was performed. No
statistically significant differences were observed for baseline scores including age, gender, MED and
moisture and TEWL at the non-irradiated area between the originally included participants and finally
analyzed participants. The participants were recruited from September to October 2017. This study
consisted of a 9-week administration period from October to December 2017. The placebo group and
astaxanthin group were matched according to age, gender, MED, and moisture and TEWL at the
non-irradiated area (Table 1). The mean compliance was 100
±
0% and
99.5 ±1.7%
in the placebo and
astaxanthin groups, respectively. All subjects had a >94% ingestion rate. No statistically significant
differences were observed for ingestion rate between the groups.
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Nutrients 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 10
Figure 1. Flow diagram of participants.
Table 1. Baseline characteristics of participants who completed the 10 weeks study.
Placebo (n = 11) Astaxanthin (n = 11) p Value
Age (mean ± SD) 43.7 ± 7.4 43.2 ± 6.6 0.86
Female, n (%) 10 (90.1) 10 (90.1)
MED (mJ/cm2) (mean ± SD) 42.7 ± 3.98 43.3 ± 4.27 0.75
Moisture (A.U.) (mean ± SD) 42.5 ± 9.44 43.1 ± 4.95 0.85
TEWL (g/m2) (mean ± SD) 3.62 ± 1.42 3.44 ± 0.66 0.72
3.2. UV-Induced Changes of Skin Conditions
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation with astaxanthin on
UV-induced skin deterioration. We irradiated skin with UV before and after 9 weeks of
supplementation. Astaxanthin was administered for 9 weeks starting from the end of the baseline
measurements. The raw value of MED was comparable between the astaxanthin group and placebo
group before (Table 1) and after supplementation (44.0 ± 6.2 mJ/cm2 in the placebo group and 48.4 ±
8.2 mJ/cm2 in the astaxanthin group, p = 0.162). However, the astaxanthin group showed a significant
increase in MED from baseline compared with the placebo group after supplementation (Figure 2a,b).
Furthermore, the decrease of moisture at the area irradiated with 1.15 MED was significantly
attenuated in the astaxanthin group compared with the placebo group at 7 days after irradiation
(Figure 3). The comparable decrease of moisture was observed in the area irradiated with 1.32 MED
between the placebo group and astaxanthin group. No significant differences between the
astaxanthin group and the placebo group in TEWL at the irradiated area were observed. In addition
to objective skin conditions, we also evaluated subjective skin conditions by VAS. Changes from
baseline in “improvement of rough skin” and “texture” in the non-irradiated area during the
supplementation period were significantly improved in the astaxanthin group compared with the
placebo group (Figure 4). There were no significant differences in “skin clarity”, “youthfulness, visual
impression”, “improvement of crow’s feet”, “improvement of skin dullness” and “improvement of
nasolabial folds”.
Figure 1. Flow diagram of participants.
Table 1. Baseline characteristics of participants who completed the 10 weeks study.
Placebo (n= 11) Astaxanthin (n= 11) pValue
Age (mean ±SD) 43.7 ±7.4 43.2 ±6.6 0.86
Female, n(%) 10 (90.1) 10 (90.1)
MED (mJ/cm2) (mean ±SD) 42.7 ±3.98 43.3 ±4.27 0.75
Moisture (A.U.) (mean ±SD) 42.5 ±9.44 43.1 ±4.95 0.85
TEWL (g/m2) (mean ±SD) 3.62 ±1.42 3.44 ±0.66 0.72
3.2. UV-Induced Changes of Skin Conditions
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation with astaxanthin
on UV-induced skin deterioration. We irradiated skin with UV before and after 9 weeks of
supplementation. Astaxanthin was administered for 9 weeks starting from the end of the baseline
measurements. The raw value of MED was comparable between the astaxanthin group and placebo
group before (Table 1) and after supplementation (44.0
±
6.2 mJ/cm
2
in the placebo group and
48.4
±
8.2 mJ/cm
2
in the astaxanthin group, p= 0.162). However, the astaxanthin group showed a
significant increase in MED from baseline compared with the placebo group after supplementation
(Figure 2a,b). Furthermore, the decrease of moisture at the area irradiated with 1.15 MED was
significantly attenuated in the astaxanthin group compared with the placebo group at 7 days after
irradiation (Figure 3). The comparable decrease of moisture was observed in the area irradiated with
1.32 MED between the placebo group and astaxanthin group. No significant differences between the
astaxanthin group and the placebo group in TEWL at the irradiated area were observed. In addition to
objective skin conditions, we also evaluated subjective skin conditions by VAS. Changes from baseline
in “improvement of rough skin” and “texture” in the non-irradiated area during the supplementation
period were significantly improved in the astaxanthin group compared with the placebo group
(Figure 4). There were no significant differences in “skin clarity”, “youthfulness, visual impression”,
“improvement of crow’s feet”, “improvement of skin dullness” and “improvement of nasolabial folds”.
Nutrients 2018,10, 817 6 of 10
Nutrients 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 10
Figure 2. Dietary supplementation with astaxanthin increases the minimal erythema dose.
(a) Representative imaging of an irradiated area in the placebo group (left) and astaxanthin group
(right) before and after supplementation; (b) Change in MED from baseline in the placebo group
(black) and astaxanthin group (red). * p < 0.05 by Mann–Whitney U-test. Error bars indicate the
standard deviation (SD).
Figure 3. Dietary supplementation with astaxanthin attenuates the decrease of moisture at the irradiated
area. Change in moisture from baseline at the irradiated area 7 days after irradiation. The moisture
levels at the irradiated area were normalized by those at the non-irradiated area. * p < 0.05 by unpaired
t-test. Error bars indicate the SD.
Figure 4. Subjective skin conditions “improvement of rough skin” and “texture” are improved by
dietary supplementation with astaxanthin. Change in VAS score for “improvement of rough skin” (a)
and “texture” (b) from baseline at the non-irradiated area in the placebo group (black) and astaxanthin
group (red). Positive and negative numbers indicate improvement and deterioration, respectively.
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 and *** p < 0.001 by unpaired t-test. Error bars indicate the SD.
Figure 2.
Dietary supplementation with astaxanthin increases the minimal erythema dose.
(
a
) Representative imaging of an irradiated area in the placebo group (left) and astaxanthin group
(right) before and after supplementation; (
b
) Change in MED from baseline in the placebo group (black)
and astaxanthin group (red). * p< 0.05 by Mann–Whitney U-test. Error bars indicate the standard
deviation (SD).
Nutrients 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 10
Figure 2. Dietary supplementation with astaxanthin increases the minimal erythema dose.
(a) Representative imaging of an irradiated area in the placebo group (left) and astaxanthin group
(right) before and after supplementation; (b) Change in MED from baseline in the placebo group
(black) and astaxanthin group (red). * p < 0.05 by Mann–Whitney U-test. Error bars indicate the
standard deviation (SD).
Figure 3. Dietary supplementation with astaxanthin attenuates the decrease of moisture at the irradiated
area. Change in moisture from baseline at the irradiated area 7 days after irradiation. The moisture
levels at the irradiated area were normalized by those at the non-irradiated area. * p < 0.05 by unpaired
t-test. Error bars indicate the SD.
Figure 4. Subjective skin conditions “improvement of rough skin” and “texture” are improved by
dietary supplementation with astaxanthin. Change in VAS score for “improvement of rough skin” (a)
and “texture” (b) from baseline at the non-irradiated area in the placebo group (black) and astaxanthin
group (red). Positive and negative numbers indicate improvement and deterioration, respectively.
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 and *** p < 0.001 by unpaired t-test. Error bars indicate the SD.
Figure 3.
Dietary supplementation with astaxanthin attenuates the decrease of moisture at the
irradiated area. Change in moisture from baseline at the irradiated area 7 days after irradiation.
The moisture levels at the irradiated area were normalized by those at the non-irradiated area. * p< 0.05
by unpaired t-test. Error bars indicate the SD.
Nutrients 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 10
Figure 2. Dietary supplementation with astaxanthin increases the minimal erythema dose.
(a) Representative imaging of an irradiated area in the placebo group (left) and astaxanthin group
(right) before and after supplementation; (b) Change in MED from baseline in the placebo group
(black) and astaxanthin group (red). * p < 0.05 by Mann–Whitney U-test. Error bars indicate the
standard deviation (SD).
Figure 3. Dietary supplementation with astaxanthin attenuates the decrease of moisture at the irradiated
area. Change in moisture from baseline at the irradiated area 7 days after irradiation. The moisture
levels at the irradiated area were normalized by those at the non-irradiated area. * p < 0.05 by unpaired
t-test. Error bars indicate the SD.
Figure 4. Subjective skin conditions “improvement of rough skin” and “texture” are improved by
dietary supplementation with astaxanthin. Change in VAS score for “improvement of rough skin” (a)
and “texture” (b) from baseline at the non-irradiated area in the placebo group (black) and astaxanthin
group (red). Positive and negative numbers indicate improvement and deterioration, respectively.
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 and *** p < 0.001 by unpaired t-test. Error bars indicate the SD.
Figure 4.
Subjective skin conditions “improvement of rough skin” and “texture” are improved by
dietary supplementation with astaxanthin. Change in VAS score for “improvement of rough skin”
(
a
) and “texture” (
b
) from baseline at the non-irradiated area in the placebo group (black) and
astaxanthin group (red). Positive and negative numbers indicate improvement and deterioration,
respectively. * p< 0.05, ** p< 0.01 and *** p< 0.001 by unpaired t-test. Error bars indicate the SD.
Nutrients 2018,10, 817 7 of 10
3.3. Clinical Safety
We observed no adverse events or severe changes in the scores of general biochemical
examinations of blood and hematologic tests. Adverse events related to the ingestion of astaxanthin
were not observed. Thus, the responsible physician reported no problems with the safety of astaxanthin.
4. Discussion
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report to show the effects of dietary supplementation
with astaxanthin on MED and the maintenance of moisture in an irradiated area in healthy subjects.
The beneficial role of astaxanthin for skin has been analyzed in several human studies [
22
,
23
]. Especially
for UV-induced skin deterioration, the protective role of astaxanthin against UV ray have been reported
both
in vitro
[
4
,
7
,
8
] and
in vivo
[
13
,
27
]. Furthermore, the effects of dietary supplementation with
astaxanthin on UV-induced skin color change were previously reported [
26
]. Although a relatively
late stage of UV-induced change of skin condition including darkening was analyzed, the effects of
dietary supplementation with astaxanthin on the early stage of UV-induced skin change including
MED was not reported. We found that dietary supplementation with astaxanthin increased the
MED and attenuated the UV-induced decrease of moisture in healthy human. These results
demonstrated the protective role of dietary supplementation with astaxanthin against UV-induced
stimuli and its usefulness for the maintenance of healthy skin. We observed a mean MED increase of
approximately 5 mJ/cm
2
in the astaxanthin group (Figure 2b). According to the Japan Meteorological
Agency, the mean UV-B radiation dose in the Tsukuba area in July between 1994 and 2008 was
23.56 kJ/m
2
/month [
36
]. Thus, dietary supplementation with astaxanthin might protect skin from
damage caused by UV rays comparable to exposure to the sun for 1.5 h in the Japanese summer.
Singlet oxygen is a major oxidant produced by UV rays. Because absorbed astaxanthin reaches
the epidermis and dermis [
13
], and has strong singlet oxygen scavenging activity [
9
], it is assumed
that astaxanthin directly exerts anti-oxidative activity at the epidermis and dermis to protect skin from
UV-induced skin deterioration. In addition to MED, we observed an attenuation of the UV-induced
decrease of moisture by supplementation with astaxanthin, which was consistent with a previous
study reporting an improvement in the UV-induced decrease of natural moisturizing factors in hairless
mice by astaxanthin [
13
]. The administration of astaxanthin also prevented the
in vivo
UV-induced
production of lipid peroxide and upregulation of ROS-producing enzymes, xanthine oxidase and
NADPH oxidase 4 [
27
]. Furthermore, the administration of astaxanthin prevented the UV-induced
decrease in the expression of endogenous antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and
glutathione peroxidase [
27
]. This suggested that astaxanthin promotes endogenous anti-oxidative
effects to reduce the UV-induced activation of ROS-producing enzymes. In addition to its anti-oxidative
capacity, astaxanthin has anti-inflammatory effects. Indeed, treatment with astaxanthin prevented the
UV-induced increase of interleukin (IL)-1
α
, IL-6, IL-8 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-
αin vitro
[
28
]
and myeloperoxidase, TNF-
α
, IL-1
β
and IL-6
in vivo
[
27
]. In addition, treatment with astaxanthin
prevented UV-induced DNA damage and apoptosis
in vitro
[
30
,
37
]. Furthermore, an earlier study
showed the beneficial effects of astaxanthin for the treatment of atopic dermatitis [
38
]. Our study is
in agreement with this report for the improvement of VAS regarding “improvement of rough skin”
and “texture”. These pleiotropic protective effects might contribute to the prevention of UV-induced
skin deterioration observed in this study. Furthermore, as described in the Materials and Methods,
we used dispersant technology, which improved the absorbability of astaxanthin in humans indicating
this technology reinforced the effects of astaxanthin on UV-induced skin deterioration [35].
Our study had several limitations. Astaxanthin is present in shrimp, salmon and salmon roe, which
are preferred by Japanese people. In this study, we prohibited participants to take functional foods
or quasi-medicines that contained astaxanthin or other factors with similar effects with astaxanthin.
However, we did not estimate the exact dietary intake of astaxanthin by
participants. Thus, the effects
of
supplementary astaxanthin may have been obscured. We hypothesized that astaxanthin supplementation
had antioxidant effects. Indeed, the MED was increased by supplementation with astaxanthin.
Nutrients 2018,10, 817 8 of 10
However, the precise mechanisms involved in how astaxanthin improved UV-induced skin
deterioration in healthy humans was not elucidated. Furthermore, the relationship between plasma
and/or skin astaxanthin concentration and the protective effects against UV-induced skin deterioration
was not analyzed. Further studies are required to determine the protective functions of astaxanthin in
human skin.
Author Contributions:
N.I. and S.S. designed the concept of this study. NI interpreted the results, and prepared
the manuscript. F.U. supervised this study. All authors discussed the results and commented on the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments:
We thank the DRC Corporation for the clinical management and analysis of the results as the
practitioner of this study. We also thank Yuri Okano (CIEL Corporation) for supervising this study. We also thank
Yuriko Oda, Ayano Imai and Yoshiyuki Shirakura (Fujifilm Corporation) for valuable discussions.
Conflicts of Interest: N.I., S.S. and F.U. belong to FUJIFILM Corporation, a sponsor and funder of this study.
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