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Health benefits and bioactive compounds of eggplant
Abstract
Eggplant is a vegetable crop that is grown around the world and can provide significant nutritive benefits thanks to its abundance of vitamins, phenolics and antioxidants. In addition, eggplant has potential pharmaceutical uses that are just now becoming recognized. As compared to other crops in the Solanaceae, few studies have investigated eggplant's metabolic profile. Metabolomics and metabolic profiling are important platforms for assessing the chemical composition of plants and breeders are increasingly concerned about the nutritional and health benefits of crops. In this review, the historical background and classification of eggplant are shortly explained; then the beneficial phytochemicals, antioxidant activity and health effects of eggplant are discussed in detail.
... Eggplants (Solanum melongena L.) belong to the Solanaceae family. This is a vegetable crop that grows in tropical and subtropical regions, such as in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Near East (Nergiz et al., 2018). And Asia is the largest producer. ...
... Half of the global production comes from Asia, most of which is distributed in two countries, China The results showed that the content of vitamin P in fresh fruit esh and peel was different (Dong et al., 2020). We can nd that recent studies have detailed some bene cial phytochemicals in eggplant, such as phenolic compounds, carotenoids and so on (Nergiz et al., 2018;Luthria et al., 2010). The differences between different varieties of eggplant may be due to factors such as living environment and soil, but there are not many detailed researches on composition differences. ...
... To the best of our knowledge, previous studies on eggplant metabolites have been published (Nergiz et al., 2018). But the primary metabolites such as amino acids are not described. ...
The main purpose of the present study was to clarify the differences present in the multi-element and metabolite profiles between two varieties of eggplants. A total of 54 elements were identified by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, 16 elements were significantly different between peel (n = 3) and flesh (n = 3). Besides, untargeted metabolomics combined with chemometric approach based on UHPLC-Q-TOF/ MS was used to identify the peel (n = 4) and flesh (n = 4).178 metabolites were screened with criteria of p < 0.05, fold change > 1.5 or < 0.67 and variable importance > 1 for the PLS-DA model prediction score. Amino acid compounds, maltitol and Kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside are the most important identification components of the two varieties of eggplant. Results showed that the two varieties of eggplants could be distinguished based on their multi-element and metabolite profiles, which may provide new directions for eggplant function research.
... toneladas (IBGE, 2017). A berinjela contém substâncias como alcaloides nicotinóides, que promovem um sabor amargo característico da hortaliça (GÜRBÜZ et al., 2018). Dessa forma, pode diminuir sua aceitabilidade, especialmente entre crianças (CHUNG; FONG, 2018). ...
... Assim, a adição de níveis superiores a 5,2% de FB reduz expressivamente a aceitabilidade da pizza em quase todos os parâmetros avaliados, corroborando com a literatura (SILVA et al., 2014;SOARES et al., 2019). O conteúdo elevado de alcaloides nicotinóides presentes na berinjela promovem um sabor amargo (GÜRBÜZ et al., 2018) e sensação de adstringência, reduzindo a aceitabilidade do produto (CARVALHO et al., 2006). Lucia Ines Andreote Menik VIVÊNCIAS Conforme se adicionou FB à pizza, observou-se um escurecimento da cor da massa (Figura 1). ...
O objetivo da pesquisa foi avaliar a aceitabilidade sensorial de pizza adicionada de diferentes teores de Farinha de Berinjela (FB). Foram desenvolvidas 5 formulações de pizza: F1 (0%, padrão), F2 (2,6%), F3 (5,2%), F4 (7,8%) e F5 (10,4%) de FB. Participaram da avaliação sensorial 62 avaliadores de 7 a 10 anos. A adição de níveis superiores a 5,2% de FB reduziu a aceitabilidade sensorial da pizza para os parâmetros de aparência, sabor, textura, cor, aceitação global e intenção de compra em relação ao produto padrão. A formulação F3 foi aquela com maior teor de FB e com aceitação similar a padrão para todos os parâmetros, com exceção do aroma que foi similar para todas as formulações (p>0,05). Teores mais elevados de cinzas, proteína, carboidrato, energia e fibra alimentar, e menores de lipídio e umidade foram verificados em F3. Conclui-se que um nível de adição de até 5,2% de FB em pizza é bem aceito por crianças em idade escolar. Assim, a farinha de berinjela pode ser adicionada em pizza e produtos similares, podendo ser oferecida ao público infantil com altas expectativas de comercialização.
... It is grown year-round except at higher altitudes. Tender fruits of brinjal contain protein, minerals, vitamins and iron (Gurbuz et al., 2018) [1] . One-hundred-gram edible portion of brinjal fruits possesses 5.9 g carbohydrates, 1.4 g protein, 0.3 g fats, 1.3 g fibre, 124 I.U Vitamin A, 11 mg Vitamin C. It also contains minerals like chlorine 52.0 mg, phosphorus 47.0 mg and 44.0 mg sulphur. ...
... It is grown year-round except at higher altitudes. Tender fruits of brinjal contain protein, minerals, vitamins and iron (Gurbuz et al., 2018) [1] . One-hundred-gram edible portion of brinjal fruits possesses 5.9 g carbohydrates, 1.4 g protein, 0.3 g fats, 1.3 g fibre, 124 I.U Vitamin A, 11 mg Vitamin C. It also contains minerals like chlorine 52.0 mg, phosphorus 47.0 mg and 44.0 mg sulphur. ...
The study conducted to know the association among different morpho-economical traits of brinjal. Total Ninety-six brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) genotypes were evaluated for computing genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of correlations for yield and its contributing characters for two year consecutively in two seasons. There was a strong correlation in brinjal genotypes, branches per plant, plant height, average fruit weight and fruits per plant had significant and positive associations with fruit yield per plant at genotypic and phenotypic levels in all environments.
... Tem origem na Índia, mas também é cultivada em países como Brasil, China, Egito e Irã. Aproximadamente 50 milhões de toneladas de berinjela são produzidas no mundo (GURBUZ et al., 2018). No Brasil, em 2017, foram produzidas cerca de 71 mil toneladas da hortaliça (IBGE, 2017), principalmente nos estados de São Paulo, Minas Gerais e na região Sul do país (EMBRAPA, 2019). ...
... Geralmente a casca da berinjela é descartada, apesar de conter quantidades significativas de proteína (7,5 g 100 g -1 ), carboidrato (48,6 g 100 g -1 ) (EL-DASHLOUTY et al., 2016), carotenoides (1,4 mg 100 g -1 ), além de conter compostos fenólicos, como as antocianinas (51,6 mg 100 g -1 ) (BOULEKBACHE-MAKHLOUF et al., 2013). Esses últimos compostos possuem capacidade antioxidante no organismo, reduzindo riscos do desenvolvimento de doenças crônicas não transmissíveis (GURBUZ et al., 2018). A adição da casca de berinjela já foi avaliada em produtos como pão (TEIXEIRA et al., 2018) e esfiha (ROSA et al., 2016) obtendo-se boa aceitabilidade e aumentando os teores de nutrientes como minerais, carboidrato e fibra alimentar. ...
Resumo: O objetivo da pesquisa foi desenvolver oficinas de culinária com crianças utilizando casca de berinjela como ingrediente em produtos alimentícios. Também, avaliar a aceitabilidade sensorial dos produtos e sua composição físico-química. Participaram da pesquisa 63 escolares, com idade entre 7 e 10 anos. Foram elaborados quatro produtos nas oficinas de culinária: brigadeiro, brownie, patê e panqueca. Todas as preparações apresentaram elevados Índices de Aceitabilidade (> 70%). O brownie apresentou menor teor de umidade e maior de cinzas, lipídeo, carboidrato e energia. Maior conteúdo de umidade foi observado para o patê e para o brigadeiro (p>0,05), contudo o patê teve a maior concentração de proteína e menor de cinzas, carboidrato e fibra. O brigadeiro foi o produto com o maior conteúdo de fibra e menores de proteína, lipídeo e valor calórico total. Conclui-se que a utilização de oficina de culinária para elaboração de produtos alimentícios com adição de casca de berinjela é uma estratégia educativa eficaz, garantindo uma boa aceitabilidade por crianças em idade escolar e melhorando o perfil nutricional dos produtos. Entretanto, deve-se considerar que os resultados de aceitação sensorial podem ser diferentes conforme o público avaliado.
... This Solanaceae species used to be considered a vegetable of secondary importance. However, its consumption has been increasing, due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, anti -obesity and anticancer properties, and because it helps reducing cholesterol and the risk of coronary diseases, besides being a source of various vitamins and minerals (PLAZAS et al., 2013;GÜRBÜZ et al., 2018). ...
... Eggplant is a vegetable that has high production and adapts to hot and humid environments (GÜRBÜZ et al., 2018). However, the quantity and quality of the water used in the cultivation affect its production. ...
Eggplant is a vegetable considered as moderately sensitive to salinity, and its production is affected by water deficit in the soil, mainly in the reproductive phase of the crop. The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of irrigation with brackish water using continuous drip and pulse in production, water consumption, water use efficiency, and soil salinization. The experimental design was in randomized blocks, in a 4 × 4 factorial scheme, with five replicates, totaling 80 plots. The treatments consisted of four forms of water application, continuous drip, and pulse throughout the cycle; continuous drip in the vegetative phase and pulse in the reproductive phase, and pulse in the vegetative phase and drip in the reproductive phase and four levels of irrigation water salinity - ECw (0.3; 1.5; 3.0; 4.5 dS m⁻¹). The inversion of irrigation treatments occurred 65 days after transplanting. Increase in water salinity from 0.3 to 4.5 dS m⁻¹, the total production (-11.96%), fruit length (-5.05%), and water use efficiency (-7.01%) reduced while there was no significant effect for the forms of water application and interaction between the studied factors. Pulse irrigation provided greater water savings and resulted in higher electrical conductivity in the soil saturation extract. The efficiency of water use did not show statistical difference when continuous drip or pulse irrigation was used throughout the cycle.
Keywords
Water use efficiency; Phenological phases; Salinity; Solanum melongena L
... Is a perennial plant, but they are grown commercially as an annual crop. Rich in antioxidants, the plants play an essential role in the prevention of chronic and degenerative diseases, including heart disease and cancer (Daunay et al., 2001;Frary et al., 2007;Gürbüz et al., 2018). In 2020, FAO statistics estimate that approximately 1,876,710 hectares (ha) were harvested worldwide, resulting in 56,618,843 tonnes (t) of production, 28,285 ha were harvested in Europe, yielding 960,227 t, and 4,710 ha were harvested in Romania, yielding 74,040 t (FAOSTATISTIC, 2022). ...
Perillus bioculatus F. (Heteroptera, Pentatomidae), or the two-spotted stink bug, is considered an important predator of Colorado potato beetle egg masses, larvae and adults. He is attracted to the volatile substances emitted by damaged plants. In Bacau County, the species was observed in 2022 in the eggplant culture at Vegetable Research and Development Station Bacau, during the survey of the Colorado potato beetle. The first apparition of the predatory insect was recorded at the beginning of August when we found 10 imago and 5 egg masses, that have been collected and transported into the laboratory. After a few days, 69 nymphs hatched from a total of 73 eggs. A total of 30 imago’s and 25 first instar nymphs of the two-spotted stink bug
were found in the second decade of August. The P. bioculatus dynamics proved to be affected by feeding conditions or conventional insecticide applications. In this study we report the presence of a new predator that is the natural enemy of the Colorado potato beetle in eggplants cultures, the focus of the present study being the density
and dynamics of this insect as a potential key factor in the development of biological management strategies for L. decemlineata Say pest control at Solanum melongena L
... Eggplant is among the most consumed agricultural products worldwide [1] . It can provide a significant proportion of antioxidants, with more phytochemicals offering many benefits to human health [2] . Therefore, drought and salinity are important factors limiting agricultural production [3] . ...
This study aims to valorize saffron by-products and use them as biostimulants in agricultural practices against chemical products. For this, different treatment of the aqueous extract of the stigmas, tepals and stamens: STS = 1 g/L stigma + 1 g/L tepal + 1 g/L sta-men, TS = 2 g/L tepal + 0.6 g/L stigma, ST = 1 g/L stigma + 1 g/L tepal, S = 1 g/L stigma, SS = 1 g/L stigma + 1 g/L stamen, T = 2 g/L tepal, are used as foliar treatment, seven times every fortnight during the cycle, in a complete random block, on eggplant plants in greenhouse conditions, to know their effect on plant growth and composition fruit biochemistry. The STS, S, and T treatments significantly (p ≤ 0.05) improved plant height compared to the other treatments and the control. Then, the T and S treatments significantly (p ≤ 0.05) improved the polyphenol contents (flavonols and anthocyanins). In contrast, the highest values are observed in the fruits of the plants receiving the T, S, and ST treatments for the protein content. However, the T and S treatments significantly decreased the ascorbic acid content (p ≤ 0.05). Our results show that using the aqueous extract of tepals at 2 g/L and saffron at 1 g/L can improve the main secondary metabolites of fruits in greenhouse conditions.
... Phenolic compounds have received a lot of interest because of their qualities that can help with a number of diseases. Furthermore, polyphenols may have a role in lowering the risk of metabolic syndrome due to their strong antioxidant activity, which can activate other defensive mechanisms [1,2]. Anthocyanins are glycosides of polyhydroxy and polymethoxy derivatives of 2-phenyl benzopyrylium cation salts that offer a variety of health advantages, including antioxidant, anti-cancer, anticardiovascular disorders, anti-diabetes, and anti-inflammation [3]. ...
Anthocyanin pigments, which the peel of eggplant is rich in, contribute to food quality because of their function in color, appearance, and nutritional advantages. For the first time, this study aimed to optimize the composition of the extracting solvent as three factors: factor A (ratio of ethanol to methanol 0–100% v/v), factor B (ratio of water to alcohol 0–100% v/v), and factor C (citric acid in the final solvent 0–1% w/v) using response surface methodology (RSM), central composite design (CCD) with α 2, and two repeats in axial and factorial points and four central points, for maximum total phenolic content, total anthocyanin content, extraction yield, antioxidant activity in terms of DPPH radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay of the eggplant peel dry extract assisted by ultrasound (200 watts power, frequency of 28 kHz) in 60 °C for 45 min has been investigated. The best optimal formulas determined using RSM for the final solvent comprised optimal formula 1 (i.e., ethanol-to-methanol ratio 59% and water-to-alcohol ratio 0%, and citric acid in final solvent 0.47%), and optimal formula 2 (i.e., ethanol-to-methanol ratio 67% and water-to-alcohol ratio 0%, and citric acid in final solvent 0.56%). In general, an alcoholic–acidic extract of eggplant peel made with an ethanol–methanol solvent including citric acid can be used in the food industry as a natural source of antioxidants and pigment.
... The leaves and fruits are also known to have the potential for reducing blood cholesterol level. Root of this species is credited in indigenous medicine as anti-asthmatic and general stimulant and dried seeds are used against dyspepsia and constipation [14][15][16] . ...
Solanum melongena L. is a member from the family Solanaceae along with S. tuberosum (potato), S. lycopersicum (tomato), Capsicum sp. (pepper) etc. Solanum melongena L. is commonly known as eggplant or brinjal and is a popular vegetable plant with various known nutritional and ethomedicinal values. Even though S. melongena is native to India and China but are know well spread all across the globe. The Indian state of Assam, located in the North-eastern part of India is one of the biodiversity hotspots in the world and is a treasure trove of various plant varieties. The Darrang district of Assam is known for its large scale production of vegetables and hence considering the above facts, a survey was conducted to assess the available biodiversity in terms of varieties of S. melongena L. in the region and further the market potential of the same was also surveyed. The study shows the availability of 16 varieties of S. melongena L viz., Pusa purple oval, Sagalihingia, Pusa Bhairav, Arka Nidhi or BWR-12, Snowy, Kuchia, Borbengena, White oval, Green oval, Long green, Pusa purple long, Pusakranti, Khorua-3, Arka Neelkanth, Simran and Pusa purple cluster in the region. Out of these, pusa purple long variety is more fruit yielding followed by Arkanidhi, Borbengna and Arkaneelkanth variety. A wide range of differences in terms of the price of Brinjal was observed. The per kg price of White oval and Borbengena variety was found highest due to more preferences by the customers. Whereas, the price of Pusa purple oval and Arka neelkanth varieties was found low. The varieties such as Pusa purple round and Pusa purple were cultivated rarely which needs proper attention for the conservation of such varieties for future.
... The levels of vitamins and minerals present in chilli hot peppers are amazingly high. 100 g of chilli hot peppers provides 240% of vitamin C, 39% of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), 32% of vitamin A, 13% of iron, 14% of copper and 7% of potassium [144]. They are rich in vitamins such as niacin, pyridoxine (vitamin B6), riboflavin and thiamin (vitamin B1) and minerals like manganese, iron, potassium, and magnesium. ...
Antioxidants are valuable ingredients present in vegetables. Vegetables are essential and crucial in human’s health and diet because of their minerals, antioxidant vitamins, phytochemical compounds, and dietary fibre content. This is the reason why an adequate consumption of vegetables has been linked with reduced risk and protection against various chronic diseases. Notably, each vegetable belongs to a group that contains a unique quantity of phytochemical compounds, which distinguish them from other groups and even within their group. The exact mechanisms by which the consumption of vegetables protects against human diseases are yet to be fully understood. However, the phytochemicals present in vegetables could be responsible for attenuating some of them. These phytochemicals are strong antioxidants that reduce the risk of chronic diseases by mounting resistance against the generation of free radicals and their damage. They are also involved in the modification of metabolic activation, detoxification of carcinogenic compounds, or attack of tumour formation in cells. This review highlights the inherent antioxidant potentials of vegetables, their roles as an excellent source of antioxidants and their impact on human health and diseases. Information provided in this review will provide more insight into the roles of antioxidants present in vegetables.
Daily consumption of eggplant powder containing 2.3 mg acetylcholine (ACh) is known to alleviate hypertension and improve mental status. However, eggplant powder used in clinical trials also contains the antihypertensive compound γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Although our previous study indicated that the main antihypertensive compound in eggplant is ACh, given that GABA amounts in eggplant do not reach the effective dosage, the effects of GABA on the antihypertensive effect of eggplant remain unclear. It is necessary to establish whether there is a synergistic effect between GABA and ACh and whether GABA in eggplant exerts antihypertensive effects. Consequently, here we sought to evaluate the effects of GABA on the antihypertensive effects of eggplant. We used a probability sum (q) test to investigate the combined effects of ACh and GABA and prepared eggplant powder with very low ACh content for oral administration in animals. ACh and GABA exhibited additive effects but the GABA content in eggplants was not sufficient to promote a hypotensive effect. In conclusion, ACh is the main component associated with the antihypertensive effects of eggplant but GABA within eggplants has a minimal effect in this regard. Thus, compared with GABA, ACh could be a more effective functional food constituent for lowering blood pressure.
In this study, the amounts of vitamins, beta-carotene, lycopene, glutathione (GSH, GSSG), malondialdehyde (MDA), and hydroxyneoneal (4-HNE) in eggplant samples grown in Turkey (dark and light colored eggplant) and Nigeria (white garden egg, bitter apple and bitter tomato) were determined by HPLC. In addition, the total amount of phenolic, and flavonoid substances and antioxidant capacity (ABTS, IC50) were determined by a UV-Visible spectrophotometer. The amounts of vitamins A, E, β-carotene and lycopene were found to be in the ranged of 0.13 -3.63; 3.63-39.0; 1.87-30.5; 1.52-6.79 µg/g dw, respectively. The amounts of vitamin C, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9 and B12 ranged 357-1136; 11.0-95.6; 1.9-5.4; 83-265; 30.16-65.43; 127-348; 24.74-78.6; 0.11-0.68 µg/g dw, respectively. GHS, GSSG, MDA and 4-HNE were found to be in between 364-1930; 225-962; 1.5-8.4; 24.57-38.25 µg/g dw, respectively. While the total phenolic substance was between 706-1260 µg GAE/g dw, the total amount of flavonoid substance was found to be in between 167-356 µg QE/g dw. ABTS values ranged between 365-692 µmol Troloxs/g dw, while IC50 values were in 65.1-99.3 µg/mL. It can be said that the differences observed in the parameters observed in eggplant varieties grown both in Turkey and Nigeria are due to genetic and geographical differences.
Constant changes during the seed maturation process affect its final quality and the post-harvest fruit resting, which can improve seed physiological quality. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the physiological and enzymatic activities of eggplant seeds extracted from fruits harvested at different ages and resting periods after harvest. Fruits were harvested presenting different colors at 40, 50, 60, and 70 days after anthesis (DAA) and rested for 0 (freshly harvested fruits), 10, and 20 days. The experimental design was set as completely randomized, with four replications and evaluated seeds extracted from six fruits per plot. The resting periods in eggplant fruits harvested at less than 60 DAA improved the mass of 1000 seeds, germination, vigor, and protein content. Seeds with higher germination and vigor presented lower dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POX) enzymatic activity. The results indicated that the ideal moment of eggplant harvest for seed production is when the fruit reaches the yellowish-brown color corresponding to about 60 DAA; however, if the eggplant fruit is harvested earlier (40 or 50 DAA), it has to rest for about 10 to 20 days to achieve high physiological quality (germination and vigor).
Keywords:
Solanum melongena; germination; seed vigor; seed maturation
The eggplant is an important vegetable that is used all over the world and it contains valuable bioactive properties. Cooking methods affect the nutritional value as well as the functional characteristics of vegetables. This study investigated the effect of air-frying at different temperatures and the extraction solvents on the bioactive properties of eggplant. The eggplant air-fried for 25 min and extracted with 50% ethanol exhibited the highest total flavonoid content (35.10 mg catechin equivalent per gram dry weight), while its total polyphenol content was found as 87.81 mg gallic acid equivalent per gram dry weight. The uncooked sample exhibited the lowest DPPH scavenging (IC50: 422.12 mg/mL reducing power: 0.914), while the highest DPPH scavenging activity (IC50: 2.87 mg/mL; reducing power: 0.936) was recorded for the sample air-fried for 25 min and extracted with 50% ethanol. The highest amount of tannic acid was found in medium-cooked eggplant, while chlorogenic acid was the highest in the high-cooked sample. These results might be helpful for functional food processors.
Purple eggplant fruits often turn brown during maturity stages, severely influencing their market value and shelf life. However, the metabolites and genes accounting for the fruit color changes are largely unknown. Here, metabolites and gene expression analyses were used to explore the candidates underlying the differences in fruit color changes between two eggplant genotypes, ‘14-345’ and ‘CGN23829’, with contrasting fruit color changes during fruit development. We found that flavonoids are the most differentially accumulated metabolites between ‘14-345’ and ‘CGN23829’. Higher contents of D3R and D3G are important for keeping the purple color at the maturity stage. Naringenin chalcone likely accounts for the color changes from purple to brown in ‘14-345’. Notably, at the physiological maturity stage, lower expression of early biosynthetic genes (EBGs) involved in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway is important to keep lower contents of metabolites upstream of anthocyanins, thus leading to more purple coloring. Taken together, the results indicate that delphinidins and naringenin chalcone play important roles in determining eggplant fruit color changes at maturity stages, which is helpful for further dissecting the mechanisms underlying fruit color differences and changes in eggplants.
Bacterial wilt is a soil-borne disease that represents ubiquitous threat to Solanaceae crops. The whole-root transcriptomes and metabolomes of bacterial wilt-resistant eggplant were studied to understand the response of eggplant to bacterial wilt. A total of 2,896 differentially expressed genes and 63 differences in metabolites were identified after inoculation with Ralstonia solanacearum . Further analysis showed that the biosynthesis pathways for phytohormones, phenylpropanoids, and flavonoids were altered in eggplant after inoculation with R. solanacearum . The results of metabolomes also showed that phytohormones played a key role in eggplant response to bacterial wilt. Integrated analyses of the transcriptomic and metabolic datasets indicated that jasmonic acid (JA) content and gene involved in the JA signaling pathway increased in response to bacterial wilt. These findings remarkably improve our understanding of the mechanisms of induced defense response in eggplant and will provide insights intothe development of disease-resistant varieties of eggplant.
Microorganisms are essential parts of soil and play an important role in mediating many processes and influencing plant health. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and nitrogen-fixing bacteria (NFB), the most common of such microorganisms, can benefit plants by enhancing the nutrient-absorbing ability of roots through bio-inoculation, also called biofertilization. Different methods have been tested and proven to be effective in the enhancement of soil nutrient availability. However, the effects of increased application of biological methods with minimal chemical fertilizers are still inconsistent. In this 2-year of fixed-point greenhouse test, we aimed to evaluate the impact of AMF (Rhizophagus irregularis) and/or NFB (Azotobacter) on growth, quality, and yield of eggplants under different N levels. Data showed that biofertilizer application with reduced chemical fertilizer had the highest impact on eggplant performance and yield. Indeed, low chemical fertilizers combined with adequate amounts of biofertilizers produced a higher plant height, length and width of leaves, dry matter, number of fruits per plant with better morphology, total yield per plant, and total soluble solids (TSS), suggesting that the use of Azotobacter and R. irregularis as biofertilizers could substantially reduce the use of chemical fertilizers without impairing the quality and yield of eggplant.
Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is an important commercial vegetable crop. Thirty-one genotypes were collected from 8 states of India for evaluation of genetic diversity. Nineteen morphological (ten qualitative and nine quantitative) and seven biochemical traits facilitated an assessment of the genetic differences and structure of these eggplant genotypes. The recorded traits of leaf hair, leaf prickles, calyx prickles, fruit pedicel prickles, leaf blade colour, fruit colour, days to 50% flowering, days to first harvest, fruit weight, fruit girth, number of fruits/plant, yield/plant, total phenolics content, antioxidant capacity, chlorophyll content and sugar content were found significantly variable. Many of these characters are of noteworthy socio-economic and nutritional importance and could be used as breeding objectives to improve yield and quality. Result show that in future breeding program of BRBL-1 and IC-89888, yield traits (number of fruits/plant and yield/plant) are important for primary selection. The 2D PCA plot based on biochemical data showed that BRBL-8 was highlighted for its phenolics content, antioxidant properties, chlorophyll content and high sugar content. IIHR-562, IC-261802 and Pant Rituraj have potential for improvement of traits like, number of fruits/plant, yield/plant, total anthocyanin content, phenolics content and antioxidant capacity.
Eggplant is an economically important vegetable with a potential for functional food production, mainly due to its high fruit antioxidant capacity. The goal of the present study was to investigate the main physicochemical and antioxidant parameters, and assess the bioactive profiles, of 19 eggplant genotypes of diverse origin, including Greek commercial varieties and hybrids, landraces and the related species S. macrocarpon. For that reason, the physicochemical traits (dry matter, pH, total soluble solids and total acidity) were assessed in the eggplant fruit and some important bioactive compounds (total phenols (TPC), total flavonoids (TFC), total monomeric anthocyanin (TAC), chlorogenic acid (CA) and its isomers neo- and crypto-CA) were assessed both in fruit pulp and peel. In addition, the antioxidant capacity was assessed according to ABTS•+, DPPH• and FRAP assays. The results revealed significant differences between the studied genotypes for all the evaluated traits, for both fruit parts. Solanum macrocarpon showed a distinct bioactive profile and was superior for most of the pulp traits (TFC, neo-CA, crypto-CA, ABTS•+, DPPH• and FRAP). Among the eggplant materials, the landrace ‘KD054/07′ had very high values for pH and some pulp traits (TPC, CA, ABTS•+ and FRAP), while the commercial F1 hybrid ‘Nilo’ was superior for dry matter and most of the peel traits (TPC, TFC, ABTS•+ and FRAP). The Greek commercial variety ‘Langada’ performed well for TAC and peel CA, ABTS•+ and FRAP, while ‘Tsakoniki’ had very high anthocyanin and pulp TPC content. These results constitute a source of information for a subset of the Greek eggplant germplasm and could contribute both to the promotion of Greek varieties of high bioactive and antioxidant value, as well as to the targeted selection of parents in breeding programs.
The organogenesis protocol was established for a unique brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) variety, “Mattu Gulla”, which has a distinct size, color and flavor. The objective of this study was to develop a reliable and efficient protocol for the initiation and maturation of somatic embryos into plantlets. The explants were cultured on Murashige and Skoog medium augmented with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) (1.0 mg/L) and benzyl aminopurine (BAP) (1.5 mg/L) for callus initiation. The developing calli (45-days old) were transferred onto an MS medium augmented with plant growth regulators to determine the embryogenic potential of the explants. The proportion of embryogenic callus was higher in hypocotyl-derived calli (HC) with indole butyric acid (IBA) (1.5 mg/L) and BAP (1.0 mg/L with 2,4-D and thidiazuron (TDZ) (1.0 mg/L) than in cotyledon and leaf-derived calli. The embryo initiation was recorded on the 23rd day after subculture from HC with the 2,4-D and TDZ (1.0 mg/L) combination, and germination was recorded. The somatic embryos developed from cotyledon-derived calli showed the highest number of plantlets and a significant percentage of ex vitro survival. In contrast, the lowest number of plantlets was noted from the embryos of hypocotyl-derived calli and ex vitro survival of plantlets. Under greenhouse conditions, the acclimatized plantlets thrived and produced fruits with viable seeds. The established protocol in this study should serve as a platform for large-scale somatic embryogenesis and micropropagation of plantlets. The somatic embryo-based manipulation should be exploited as a biotechnological tool in crop breeding and improving desired agronomic traits.
Commercial vegetables include tomatoes, potatoes, onions, and eggplant due to their surplus production, availability, and affordability. The valorisation of the massive wastage of commercial vegetables and providing a long-term solution has been challenging. The review addresses the implications of biowastes on the environment and fosters the recent investigations into valorising commercial vegetable waste to develop multiple value-added products. It discussed the outcomes of the multiple technologies, majorly on green chemistry extraction, while outlining other methods such as fermentation, enzymatic treatments, 3D printing foods, high-pressure homogenisation, microencapsulation, bio-absorption method, and pyrolysis for their respective vegetable wastes. Agri-residues can be a valuable source for formulating functional ingredients, natural additives, biodiesel, dyes, and animal feed. This comprehensive review proposes a strategy to upcycle low-cost biowaste to boost the economic and ecological benefits. The current review captures the interests and great collaborations between researchers, industrialists, policymakers, waste management bodies, and eco-activists.
The color of fruit peel is an economically important character of eggplant, and black-purple eggplant has received much attention for being rich in anthocyanin. However, the reason why different fruit peel colors form in eggplant is not well understood. In the present study, an integrative analysis of the metabolome and transcriptome profiles was performed in five eggplant varieties with different fruit colors. A total of 260 flavonoids were identified, and most of them showed significantly higher abundance in black-purple varieties than in other varieties. The transcriptome analysis indicated the activation of early phenylpropanoid biosynthesis genes (SmPAL, SmC4H, and Sm4CL) was more responsible for anthocyanin accumulation, while SmF3′5′H was the key factor for the formation of a purple color. Furthermore, two transcription factors, SmGL2 and SmGATA26, were identified as new hub genes associated with anthocyanin accumulation. The silencing of SmGL2 and SmGATA26 reduced anthocyanin accumulation in eggplant fruit peels, suggesting the possible involvement of SmGL2 and SmGATA26 in regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis. In addition, the pathway of plant hormone signal transduction was significantly enriched, indicating that phytohormones may cooperatively interact to modulate flavonoid biosynthesis. This study provides comprehensive information of flavonoid metabolites and new insights into the regulatory network of fruit coloration, which might be useful for the molecular breeding of eggplant.
Rice bacterial leaf blight caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) is responsible for a significant reduction in rice production. Due to the small impact on the environment, biogenic nanomaterials are regarded as a new type of antibacterial agent. In this research, three colloids of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were synthesized with different biological materials such as Arctium lappa fruit, Solanum melongena leaves, and Taraxacum mongolicum leaves, and called Al-AgNPs, Sm-AgNPs and Tm-AgNPs, respectively. The appearance of brown colloids and the UV-Visible spectroscopy analysis proved the successful synthesis of the three colloids of AgNPs. Moreover, FTIR and XRD
analysis revealed the formation of AgNPs structure. The SEM and TEM analysis indicated that the average diameters of the three synthesized spherical AgNPs were 20.18 nm, 21.00 nm, and 40.08 nm, respectively. The three botanical AgNPs had the strongest bacteriostatic against Xoo strain C2 at 20 µg/mL with the inhibition zone of 16.5 mm, 14.5 mm, and 12.4 mm, while bacterial numbers in a liquid broth (measured by OD600) decreased by 72.10%, 68.19%, and 65.60%, respectively. Results showed that the three AgNPs could inhibit biofilm formation and swarming motility of Xoo. The ultrastructural observation showed that Al-AgNPs adhered to the surface of bacteria and broke the bacteria. Overall, the three synthetic AgNPs could be used to inhibit the pathogen Xoo of rice bacterial leaf blight.
The purposes of this article are to address the different bioactive compounds present in plant matrices, emphasizing the importance in choosing the extraction method in the yield and quality of extracted compounds, using techniques to determine antioxidant activity. As well as to expose the main mathematical models used in the kinetic study for process optimization and the influence of encapsulation on the conservation of bioactive compounds. Bioactive compounds are chemical molecules that have medicinal properties, acting in the prevention of diseases. The wide variety of bioactive compounds present in plants determines their characteristics, and the different combinations of these phytochemicals confer the particularities of each matrix. The extraction of compounds is extremely important, due to their industrial applications, being widely used in the production of food, supplements, cosmetics, and medicines, as ingredients or additives of these products. It was observed that new technologies are able to improve extraction efficiency obtaining higher yields and antioxidant activity than conventional methods. To obtain the extraction mechanism, aiming at optimizing time, several empirical kinetic models are used. The employability of mathematical models helps in the kinetic extraction profile, verifying the extraction profile of antioxidant compounds. Among these models, Hyperbolic was the one that best adapted to the studies performed. Then, for the preservation of the bioactive compounds obtained in the extraction process, encapsulation is carried out. This process prevents the degradation of compounds caused by external conditions such as light, heat, humidity, and increase in desirable properties, decreasing the evaporation of trapped active agents.
Vegetable crops possess a prominent nutri-metabolite pool that not only contributes to the crop performance in the fields, but also offers nutritional security for humans. In the pursuit of identifying, quantifying and functionally characterizing the cellular metabolome pool, biomolecule separation technologies, data acquisition platforms, chemical libraries, bioinformatics tools, databases and visualization techniques have come to play significant role. High-throughput metabolomics unravels structurally diverse nutrition-rich metabolites and their entangled interactions in vegetable plants. It has helped to link identified phytometabolites with unique phenotypic traits, nutri-functional characters, defense mechanisms and crop productivity. In this study, we explore mining diverse metabolites, localizing cellular metabolic pathways, classifying functional biomolecules and establishing linkages between metabolic fluxes and genomic regulations, using comprehensive metabolomics deciphers of the plant’s performance in the environment. We discuss exemplary reports covering the implications of metabolomics, addressing metabolic changes in vegetable plants during crop domestication, stage-dependent growth, fruit development, nutri-metabolic capabilities, climatic impacts, plant-microbe-pest interactions and anthropogenic activities. Efforts leading to identify biomarker metabolites, candidate proteins and the genes responsible for plant health, defense mechanisms and nutri-rich crop produce are documented. With the insights on metabolite-QTL (mQTL) driven genetic architecture, molecular breeding in vegetable crops can be revolutionized for developing better nutritional capabilities, improved tolerance against diseases/pests and enhanced climate resilience in plants.
The main purpose of the present study was to clarify the differences present in the multi-element and metabolite profiles between two varieties of eggplants. A total of 54 elements were identified by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, 16 elements were significantly different between peel (n = 3) and flesh (n = 3). Besides, untargeted metabolomics combined with chemometrics was used to discriminate the peel (n = 4) and flesh (n = 4) of the two varieties of eggplants. A total of 178 metabolites were screened out with criteria of p < 0.05, fold change > 1.5 or < 0.67 and variable importance in projection score > 1 for the PLS-DA model. Maltitol and D-proline were the most important discriminants of the two varieties of eggplants. Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside was the most important identification components between peel and flesh of the two varieties of eggplant. Results showed that the two varieties of eggplants could be distinguished based on their multi-element and metabolite profiles, which may provide new directions for eggplant function research.
Eggplant is a widely consumed vegetable, with significant nutritional value and high antioxidant content, mainly due to its phenolic constituents. Our goal was to determine the levels of carbohydrates, proteins, total phenolics, anthocyanins, flavonoids, chlorogenic acid, and the antioxidant capacity in thirteen eggplant cultivars cultivated in Greece and to identify sequence polymorphisms in key regulating genes of the phenylpropanoid pathway (C4H, HCT, HQT, C3H, F3H, ANS, MYB1), which might relate to the phytochemical content of those cultivars. The carbohydrates’ content differs among and within cultivars, while the rest of the phytochemicals differ only among cultivars. The cultivars ‘EMI’ and ’Lagkada’ scored higher than the rest in phenolics, anthocyanins, ascorbic acid, caffeoylquinic acid, and antioxidant capacity. Moreover, significant correlations were observed between various ingredients and the antioxidant capacity (FRAP and DPPH). Sequence analysis revealed several SNPs in C4H, HQT, F3H, ANS, and MYB1 among the cultivars studied. According to chi-square and logistic regression analyses, the missense mutation C4H4-108 correlates significantly with flavonoids, anthocyanins, and proteins; the synonymous mutation HQT-105 correlates with anthocyanins and ascorbic acid; the missense mutation HQT-438 correlates with flavonoids and chlorogenic acid, while the missense mutation ANS1-65 correlates with anthocyanins and sugars. These polymorphisms can be potentially utilized as molecular markers in eggplant breeding, while our data also contribute to the study of eggplant’s secondary metabolism and antioxidant properties.
This study was conducted to investigate the beneficial role of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in improving eggplant fruits' biochemical composition and mineral content. The plants were treated with AMF Acaulospora laevis, and bacteria Pseudomonas fluorescens, and the corresponding variations were measured for mineral content (Ca, Fe, Mg, K, and P), biochemical parameters (dry matter, total soluble solid [TSS], phenolics, chlorogenic acid, vitamin C) along with arbuscular mycorrhiza spore number, and percentage of root colonization. The AMF and PSB-mediated soil and root-associated nutrients become available for uptake via mineralization, solubilization, and mobilization, primarily through the generation of organic acids and P-hydrolysing enzymes by the microbes. All the treatments showed a significant increase in the concentrations of different biochemical components. However, the combination of both A. laevis and P. fluorescens was found to be the most efficient. These results indicated the possibility of A. laevis and P. fluorescens being used as biofertilizers.
Food browning is an undesirable phenomenon causes by the enzyme polyphenol oxidase that led to food wastage and eventually deteriorate the market value. In this study, the effect of natural inhibitors including red grapefruit, key lime, red chilli pepper and pineapple on polyphenol oxidase extracted from pearl brinjal was investigated. As for the effects of chemical inhibitors, L‐cysteine exhibited stronger inhibition (IC50: 0.29 mM), as compared to citric acid (IC50: 50.73 mM). Meanwhile, red chilli pepper was found to be the best natural inhibitor (IC50: 65.78 mg/mL), followed by red grapefruit, key lime and lastly pineapple (IC50: 145.90 mg/mL, 206.78 mg/mL and 216.86 mg/mL, respectively). All the natural inhibitors showed an increase in inhibition percentage along with an increase in inhibitor concentration (13.33 ± 3.82 – 48.93 ± 3.05%). The present findings suggested the potential of red grapefruit, key lime, red chilli pepper and pineapple to replace chemical inhibitors in the future to inhibit browning.
The shoot and fruit borer has asserted itself as a severe pest of eggplant. In vitro mutagenesis is an excellent method for producing mutants resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses. This study aimed to create eggplant mutants that were resistant to shoot and fruit borer infestation. In the Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium, two genotypes, including a landrace, were treated with varying amounts of EMS. Among the treatments, MS medium supplemented with 2% EMS demonstrated the most favorable effect. Explant performance dropped by up to 1.5% with an increase in EMS in the medium. The 2% EMS dose was appropriate for in vitro mutant eggplant development, but the higher dose was extremely damaging. EMS made several mutants sterile. Three landrace mutants were insect-resistant. Total phenols, leaf chlorophylls A and B, antioxidants, and solasodine were abundant in these genotypes. Correlation studies found a link between affected fruits and shoots and total phenols, antioxidants, and solasodine. Solasodine was shown to be related to chlorophylls A and B. The eggplant shoot and fruit borer infestation rate can be reduced by increasing these specific biochemical properties.
The way of cooking vegetables could differently affect the phenolic profiles of foods and their impact on human colon microbiota. In this work, we investigated the stability and bioaccessibility as well as the impact and fate of dark purple eggplant (DPE) phenolic compounds in the gut microbiota after grilling or frying in comparison to the raw one. After cooking, DPE underwent a gastro-intestinal digestion along with a proximal colon fermentation using the short-term batch model MICODE (multi-unit in vitro colon gut model). During the process, the phenolic compounds profiles (through high-resolution mass spectrometry) and microbiomics (qPCR of 14 core taxa) analyses were performed. Results showed that thermal treatments increased the amount of extractable phenolic compounds as well as their bioaccessibility. The highest gastro-intestinal release was observed in fried DPE (2468.46 ± 13.64 μmol/100g), followed by grilled DPE (1007. 96 ± 12.84 μmol/100g) and raw DPE (900.93 ± 10.56 μmol/100g). Mass spectrometry analysis confirmed that colonic bacteria were able to metabolize DPE phenolic compounds mainly to 3-(3’-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid. Furthermore, results indicated that frying was better than grilling in terms of fostering more the growth of beneficial bacterial taxa and limiting that of opportunistic taxa. For example, fried DPE determined an increase in abundance of Bifidobacteriaceae Lactobacillales of 2.66 and 3.80 times. This work is one of the first exploring how cooking methods can affect the phenolic composition of DPE and differently impact on the colon microbiota tuning and modifying the food functionalities.
This study describes the preparation and characterization of eggplant peel extract-loaded electrospun gelatin nanofiber and study of its in vitro release. Results obtained by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electronic microscopy (TEM) micrograph revealed that eggplant peel extract-loaded electrospun gelatin nanofiber is in nanometric range with an average diameter 606.7 ± 184.5 and 643.6 ± 186.7 nm for 20 and 33.3 mg mL −1 of extract addition, respectively. Moreover, the incorporation of extract improved morphology by being smooth, homogeneous, and without account formation compared to nanofibers without extract (control). Fourier transform-infrared (FT-IR) spectra indicated that interaction exists between electrospun gelatin nanofiber and eggplant peel extract by hydrogen bond interactions, mainly. Electrospun gelatin nanofibers showed encapsulation efficiency greater than 90% of extract and a maximum release of 95 and 80% for the medium at pH 1.5 and 7.5, respectively. Therefore, the electrospinning technique is a good alternative for the conservation of bioactive compounds present in the eggplant peel through elec-trospun gelatin nanofiber.
The Fat Mass and Obesity-associated (FTO) gene has been shown to play an important role in developing obesity, manifesting in traits such as increased body mass index, increased waist-to-hip ratio, and the distribution of adipose tissues, which increases the susceptibility to various metabolic syndromes. In this study, we evaluated the impact of fruit-based diets of Solanum melongena (SMF) and Solanum aethiopicum fruits (SAF) on the FTO gene expression levels in a high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese animals. Our results showed that the mRNA level of the FTO gene was downregulated in the hypothalamus, and white and brown adipose tissue following three and six weeks of treatment with SMF- and SAF-based diets in the HFD-induced obese animals. Additionally, the Solanum fruit supplementation exhibited a curative effect on obesity-associated abrasions on the white adipose tissue (WAT), hypothalamus, and liver. Our findings collectively suggest the anti-obesity potential of SMF and SAF via the downregulation of the FTO gene.
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a debilitating disease associated with locomotion impairment, and conventional therapeutic drugs are not optimal for managing RA. There is an avalanche of medications used for the management of RA. Still, studies have shown that they are associated with severe side effects, including hepatotoxicity, retinopathy, and cardiotoxicity disorders of the central nervous system (CNS), skin, blood, and infections. Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is currently gaining attention as a novel panacea for managing debilitating diseases, such as RA. Nigerian folk herbal remedies are replete with a plethora of curative medicine, albeit unvalidated scientifically but with seemingly miraculous provenance. Studies of the identification of bioactive compounds present in these botanicals using advanced spectral analytical techniques have enhanced our understanding of the role of Nigerian herbal remedies in the treatment and management of RA. Interestingly, experimental studies abound that the bioactive compounds present in the extracts of plant botanicals protected animals from the development of RA in different experimental models and reduced the toxicity associated with conventional therapeutics. Validated mechanisms of RA amelioration in human and animal models include suppression of the expression of NF-κB, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, IL-17, IL-23, chemokines, TGF-β, RANKL, RANK, iNOS, arginase, COX-2, VEGFA, VEGFR, NFATC1, and TRAP in the synoviocytes. Decreased ROS, NO, MDA, carbonyl groups, and PGE2 in the synovial fluid increased the expression of PPARα/γ; antioxidant and anti-inflammatory molecules also improve RA etiology. In this mini-review, we discuss the global burden of RA, the novel role of plant-based botanicals as potential therapeutics against signaling pathways in RA. Also addressed is the possible repurposing/reprofiling of plant botanicals to increase their therapeutic index among RA patients that patronize traditional healers in Nigeria with a global projection
Vegetables cultivated on contaminated agricultural soils are being consumed by the public, and consequently cause serious health concerns due to contaminants' dietary intake. The current study examines the safety and sustainability of eating eggplant (Solanum melongena) by looking into the possibility of heavy metals translocation from polluted soils to the edible sections, as well as the health hazards that come with it. Soil and eggplant samples were taken from three contaminated and other three uncontaminated farms to estimate their chemical constituents and plant growth properties. Based on the pollution load index data, the contaminated soils were highly polluted with Fe, Cu, Pb, and Zn; and relatively polluted with Cr, Mn, Cd, Mn, Co, and V. Under contamination stress, the fresh biomass, dry biomass, and production of eggplant were significantly reduced by 41.2, 44.6, and 52.1%, respectively. Likewise, chlorophyll a and b were significantly reduced from 1.51 to 0.69 mg g−1 and 1.36 to 0.64 mg g−1, respectively. The uncontaminated plant shoots had the highest quantities of N, P, and proteins (1.98, 2.08, and 12.40%, respectively), while the roots of the same plants had the highest K content (44.70 mg kg−1). Because eggplant maintained most tested heavy elements (excluding Zn and Pb) in the root, it is a good candidate for these metals' phytostabilization. However, it had the potential to translocate Mn and Zn to its shoot and Pb, Cr, Mn, and Zn to the edible fruits indicating its possibility to be a phytoextractor and accumulator of these metals. Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Mn, and Co quantity in the edible sections of eggplant grown in contaminated soils exceeded the permissible level for normal plants, posing health hazards to adults and children. For safety issues and food sustainability, our investigation strongly recommends avoiding, possibly, the cultivation of eggplant in contaminated agricultural lands due to their toxic effects even in the long run.
This research aimed to evaluate the effect of adding different levels of eggplant flour in cookie on the physicochemical and nutritional characteristics and to verify the sensory acceptability among children. Four eggplant flour cookie formulations were prepared: EF0 (or standard), EF2.5, EF5.0, and EF7.5 (Eggplant Flour 0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5%, respectively). The sensory acceptability, physicochemical and nutritional composition were evaluated. The eggplant flour addition of 7.5% to cookie reduced the acceptability (p > 0.05). The samples EF5.0 and EF7.5 showed higher diameter, expansion and thermal factor, while the EF0 and EF2.5 had higher thickness (p < 0.05). The flour addition significantly increased the hardness, Water activity (Aw), Titratable Acidity (TA) and Soluble Solids (SS) in the cookie, however, L* a* and b*, pH and SS/TA ratio values were reduced (p < 0.05). Increased levels of ash, dietary fibers, ascorbic acid, anthocyanins, total phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity were verified on the cookie after eggplant flour addition. Meanwhile, there was a reduction in energy and carbohydrate values. It is concluded that eggplant flour addition up to 5% in cookie maintains the sensory acceptability similar to the standard product when evaluated by children. In addition, it can be considered a viable alternative to improve most of the physicochemical and nutritional characteristics of the product.
Food extract’s biological effect and its improvement using nanotechnologies is one of the challenges of the last and the future decades; for this reason, the antioxidant effect of scarlet eggplant extract liposomal incorporation was investigated. Scarlet eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum L.) is a member of the Solanaceae family, and it is one of the most consumed vegetables in tropical Africa and south of Italy. This study investigated the antioxidant activity and the phytochemical composition of S. aethiopicum grown in the Basilicata Region for the first time. The whole fruit, peel, and pulp were subjected to ethanolic exhaustive maceration extraction, and all extracts were investigated. The HPLC-DAD analysis revealed the presence of ten phenolic compounds, including hydroxycinnamic acids, flavanones, flavanols, and four carotenoids (one xanthophyll and three carotenes). The peel extract was the most promising, active, and the richest in specialized metabolites; hence, it was tested on HepG2 cell lines and incorporated into liposomes. The nanoincorporation enhanced the peel extract’s antioxidant activity, resulting in a reduction of the concentration used. Furthermore, the extract improved the expression of endogenous antioxidants, such as ABCG2, CAT, and NQO1, presumably through the Nrf2 pathway.
The influence of steaming and sous-vide on color, mechanics, mastication, and dynamic sensory perception of eggplant and zucchini was explored. Two cooking methods were deployed at three treatment times (15, 30, and 45 min) to obtain a complete image.
Experimental factors and interactions affected the flesh and skin color of the vegetables (P < .05), for most of the analyzed factors. Vegetables’ flesh and skin color analysis showed different cooking effects on the two vegetables. Sous-vide resulted in darker and browner eggplant flesh compared to steaming, while the opposite was found for zucchini. For both vegetables, steaming caused more intensive flesh coloration. Concerning the skin color, both cooking methods equally affected eggplant, but sous-vide gave a lighter, whiter, and less green color of the zucchinis.
Sous-vide always gave firmer samples concerning the mechanical parameters. For the shortest treatment time of 15 min, sous-vide resulted in the shearing force of 44 N for eggplant and 29 N for zucchini, compared to steaming which reached 9 N and 8 N, accordingly. A smaller drop in large-deformation parameters was recorded for sous-vide treatments which reflected on the mastication parameters since eggplant required 26 and zucchini 20 chews, in comparison to 15 and 11 for steaming.
The dominance of the perceived firmness decreased with longer cooking. It was more emphasized for zucchinis than for the eggplant, where it was perceived as smoother. Juiciness was an important attribute of both vegetables. Cooking methods affected specific flavor perceptions differently, which was more pronounced for eggplant steaming and zucchini sous-vide.
It has long been recognized that the antioxidants present in fresh plant materials may be very different to those we ingest via our food. This is often due to the use of food processing strategies involving thermal/non-thermal treatments. Current research mostly focuses on determining what is present in vegetative starting materials; how this is altered during processing; how this influences activity in the gut and following uptake into bloodstream; and which in vivo physiological effects this may have on human body. Having a better understanding of these different steps and their importance in a health-and-nutrition-context will place us in a better position to breed for improved crop varieties and to advise the food industry on how to optimize processing strategies to enhance biochemical composition of processed foods. This review provides an overview of what is currently known about the influence which food processing treatments can have on antioxidants and gives some pointers as to their potential relevance.
The Solanaceae family is considered one of the most important families among plant species because, on one hand encompasses many staple food crops of the human diet while, on the other hand, it includes species rich in powerful secondary metabolites that could be valorized in medicine or drug formulation as well as nutraceuticals and food supplements. The main genera are Solanum, Capsicum, Physalis, and Lycium which comprise several important cultivated crops (e.g., tomato, pepper, eggplant, tomatillo, and goji berry), as well as genera notable for species with several pharmaceutical properties (e.g., Datura, Nicotiana, Atropa, Mandragora, etc.). This chapter discusses the nutritional value of the most important Solanaceae species commonly used for their edible fruit, as well as those used in the development of functional foods, food supplements, and nutraceuticals due to their bioactive constituents. The toxic and poisonous effects are also discussed aiming to highlight possible detrimental consequences due to irrational use. Finally, considering the high amount of waste and by-products generated through the value chain of the main crops, the sustainable management practices implemented so far are presented with the aim to increase the added-value of these crops.
Objectives
Natural biopolymer nanoparticles are an emerging area of research in green electronic devices and biomedical and agricultural fields. However, because drought and salt are two keys environmental aspects that affect agricultural crop yields around the world, a new strategy has been suggested to valorize the waste of Taif rose petals (Rosa damascena Miller var. trigintipetala) in the production of polysaccharide material on the nanoscale. In this study, we explore the effects of drought and salinity stress on the physiology of eggplants.
Methods
The key objectives of this research were to investigate the effect of polysaccharide crude nanoparticles extract (PCE) in the alleviation of drought and salinity stress in eggplants.
Results
Reduced chlorophyll content, chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), and chlorophyll stability index (CSI) were seen in the plants that had been subjected to drought and salt stress. Under drought and salt stress, proline, total soluble protein, and sugar levels were all shown to be higher. However, polysaccharide crude nanoparticles extract reverses the negative effects of drought and salt stress and increases the chlorophyll content, chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), and chlorophyll stability index (CSI) in the presence of drought and salt stress. When PCE was supplemented, the accumulation of lipid peroxidation was reduced, and the activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, POX, GR) were raised.
Conclusion
In summary, the results suggest that exogenous PCE can mitigate the detrimental effects of drought and salt stress in eggplants by modulating antioxidant systems. Furthermore, the findings of this study give experimental proof that PCE can be used to increase drought tolerance as well as production in eggplant plants.
Agro-food industrial residues (AFIRs) are produced in vast amounts around the world. These wastes are commonly called lignocellulosic wastes that are a source of value added products. Solid-state fermentation (SSF) for bioconversion of lignocellulosic waste, which produces various bioproducts, has economic and environmental advantages. The lignocellulosic compounds are biorenewable and most plentiful resource on earth that can be utilized for manufacturing value-added products. Furthermore, the use of lignocellulosic, starchy, and other agro-industrial by-products in the manufacture of these biomolecules has yet to be thoroughly investigated. As a result, there is a vast opportunity for the development of cost-effective, sustainable biorefining technologies. The main components of lignocellulosic biomass used in biorefineries are cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. To obtain final biobased products, these components must be processed through a series of procedures that include pretreatments, enzymatic hydrolysis, and fermentation. Biotechnology techniques and process engineering are critical in developing integrated processes for producing various value-added products from lignocellulosic biomass, including biofuels, biochemicals, bioactive substances, enzymes, and biomaterials. This review focuses on the valorization potential of lignocellulosic, palm oil mill, brewing, and dairy biomass produced as agri-food industrial by-products for developing biobased products in the biorefinery scenario. It is the first review of its kind to include variety of products that can be derived from different wastes encircling all the pros and cons of current technology and focusing on future improvements.
Given the general beneficial effects of antioxidants-rich foods on human health and disease prevention, there is a continuous interest in plant secondary metabolites conferring attractive colors to fruits and grains and responsible, together with others, for nutraceutical properties. Cereals and Solanaceae are important components of the human diet, thus, they are the main targets for functional food development by exploitation of genetic resources and metabolic engineering. In this review,
we focus on the impact of antioxidants-rich cereal and Solanaceae derived foods on human health by analyzing natural biodiversity and biotechnological strategies aiming at increasing the antioxidant level of grains and fruits, the impact of agronomic practices and food processing on antioxidant properties combined with a focus on the current state of pre-clinical and clinical studies. Despite the strong evidence in in vitro and animal studies supporting the beneficial effects of antioxidants-rich diets in preventing diseases, clinical studies are still not sufficient to prove the impact of antioxidant rich cereal and Solanaceae derived foods on human.
The total phenolic content, anthocyanins, phenolic acids, antioxidant capacity and α-amylase inhibitory activity of black (Aydin Siyahi), purple (Kadife Kemer) and white (Trabzon Kadife) eggplants grown in Turkey were subjected to a comparative investigation. The black cultivar exhibited the highest total phenolic (17,193 and 6552 mg gallic acid equivalent/kg fw), flavonoid (3019 and 1160 quercetin equivalent/kg fw) and anthocyanin (1686 and 6167 g delphinidin-3-O-glucoside equivalent/kg fw) contents in crude extracts of the peel and pulp. The majority of the caffeic acid was identified in the ester (2830 mg/kg fw) and ester-bound (2594 mg/kg fw) forms in the peel of ‘Kadife Kemer’ and in the glycoside form (611.9 mg/kg fw) in ‘Aydin Siyahi’, as well as in the pulp of these two eggplants. ‘Kadife Kemer’ (purple eggplant) contained the majority of the chlorogenic acid in free form (27.55 mg/kg fw), compared to ‘Aydin Siyahi’ in the ester (7.82 mg/kg fw), glycoside (294.1 mg/kg dw) and ester-bound (2.41 mg/kg fw) forms. The eggplant cultivars (peel and pulp, mg/kg fw) exhibited a relatively high delphinidin-3-O-rutinoside concentration in the peel of ‘Aydin Siyahi’ (avg. 1162), followed by ‘Kadife Kemer’ (avg. 336.6), and ‘Trabzon Kadife’ (avg. 215.1). The crude phenolic extracts of the eggplants exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity values (peel and pulp, µmoL Trolox equivalent/kg fw) of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH, 8156 and 2335) and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC, 37,887 and 17,648). The overall results indicate that black and purple eggplants are the cultivars with greater potential benefits in terms of their phenolics and antioxidant values than the white eggplant.
The buritirana is a little-explored species of the Arecaceae family. The biometric and physicochemical characteristics, nutritional and chemical composition and antioxidant and antibacterial potential of the buritirana fruit fractions were evaluated here for the first time. The fruits presented an oblong shape. The pulp represented 16.58% of the whole-fruit weight (10.07 g). The moisture, ash and soluble fiber contents were similar for the whole fraction without seed (WS) and pulp. Although the total carbohydrate content was the same for seed and peel (23.24 g·100 g−1), the seed showed higher protein and insoluble fiber contents. Except for glucose (1256.63 mg·100 g−1), the seed showed the highest concentrations of mono-, di- and oligosaccharides. Mineral content ranged from 0.43 to 800 mg·100 g−1 in all fractions. The peel fraction showed the highest content of vitamin C. The physicochemical results indicate the pulp and WS fraction have potential for the production of fruit-derived food products. Protocatechuic and quinic acids and epicatechin/catechin were found in all fractions. The assay antioxidant capacity DPPH, phenolic content and total flavonoids were higher in the pulp; TEAC and ORACHF values were lower in the seed. Volatile organic compounds were not identified, and the fractions did not show antibacterial activity.
The nutrimental composition and main nutraceutical components were determined in Chinese, Philippine, American, Hindu and Thai eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) types grown in Sinaloa, Mexico. Thai type showed the highest amount of protein (0.90%), crude (1.54%) and dietary (3.93%) fibre and the highest concentrations of total soluble phenolics (2049 mgCAE 100g-1) and chlorogenic acid (1700 mg 100g-1). Hindu type obtained the highest content of the minerals potassium (191.19 mg 100g-1), calcium (59.63 mg 100g-1), phosphorus (33.52 mg 100g-1), magnesium (28.96 mg 100g-1), manganese (0.44 mg 100g-1), zinc (0.78 mg 100g-1), in addition this eggplant type showed the highest levels of ascorbic acid (22 mg 100g-1). Philippine type showed the highest concentration in anthocyanins (161.10 mgC3GE 100g-1) and the highest levels of radical scavenging activity in DPPH (92.50% of inhibition) and ORAC (538.90 μmolTE g-1). Nutrient components with functional properties like biologically essential minerals, dietary fibre, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and soluble phenols were found in higher amounts in the five eggplant types analyzed, as compared with reports from other parts in the world available in the literature.
Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is one of the most consumed vegetables in the world. The eggplant glycoalkaloids (GAs) are toxic secondary metabolites that may have detrimental effects on human health, particularly if the magnitudes of GAs are higher than the recommended food safety level (200 mg per kg of fresh mass). In this study, the content of solasonine compound and the expression patterns of solasodine galactosyltransferase (SGT1) gene were assessed in different tissues (mature leaves, flower buds, young, mature, and physiologically ripe fruits) of two Iranian eggplant genotypes (D1 and J10) under field conditions. The maximum mass fraction of solasonine in D1 was detected in flower buds (135.63 μg/g), followed by leaf (113.29 μg/g), physiologically ripe fruit (74.74 μg/g), young fruit (61.33 μg/g), and mature fruit (21.55 μg/g). Comparing both genotypes, the genotype of bitter fruits (J10) contained higher mass fraction of solasonine, as one of the main factors for producing bitter flavour of the plant. Regarding the expression profiles of SGT1, in both genotypes, the activity of the gene was increased nearly parallel with the concentration of solasonine. In the J10 genotype, transcript level of the gene was significantly higher than the genotype of sweet fruits (D1). Although both D1 and J10 genotypes are possibly recommendable for human food consumption, D1 is more suitable for daily diet.
p>Comparative phytochemical composition, antibacterial activity, cytotoxicity and antioxidant potentiality of seven brinjal cultivars Solanum melongena L. were determined. Strong presence of carbohydrates, phenolic glycosides and weak presence of alkaloids, falvonoids, tannins, terpenoids, steroids and saponins were recorded in all the brinjal varieties. Antibacterial assay of brinjal extracts showed varying degree of sensitivity against both gram-positive and gramnegative bacteria. In cytotoxicity assay, the LC<sub>50</sub> values ranged between 59.91 to 216.45 mg/ml after 6 hours was an indication of poor cytotoxic potential of brinjal cultivars. The DPPH free radical scavenging activity ranged between 80.79% to 87.64 although the phenolic content was found between 6.082 to 9.292 mg GAE/g among the brinjal cultivars.
Jahangirnagar University J. Biol. Sci. 5 (2): 41-50, 2016 (December)</p
Anthocyanins of eggplant peels was extracted and determination. The level of anthocyanins was 158.00ppm. Aliquots of the concentrated eggplant peels anthocyanins represent 200, 400 and 800ppm and tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) at 200ppm were investigated by 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrozyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging and reducing power assay. These compounds were administered to rats fed on hyperlipidaemic diet daily from 8 weeks by stomach tube. Serum lipid profiles (total cholesterol, triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol) were estimated. The data of the aforementioned measurements indicated that the administration of eggplant peels anthocyanins significantly decreased (P< 0.05) the levels of serum total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, very low-density lipoprotein and triglyceride and increased (P< 0.05) that high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in this model. The ant oxidation experiments showed that displayed potent antioxidant effects against the DPPH radical and reducing power of anthocyanins. Generally, results obtained indicate that eggplant peels may become important as a cheap and noticeable natural source of compounds with health protective potential, which can be used in pharmaceutical and fatty food.
Chlorogenic acid (CGA), an important biologically active dietary polyphenol, is produced by certain plant species and is a major component of coffee. Reduction in the risk of a variety of diseases following CGA consumption has been mentioned in recent basic and clinical research studies. This systematic review discusses in vivo animal and human studies of the physiological and biochemical effects of chlorogenic acids (CGAs) on biomarkers of chronic disease. We searched PubMed, Embase, Amed and Scopus using the following search terms: ("chlorogenic acid" OR "green coffee bean extract") AND (human OR animal) (last performed on April 1st, 2015) for relevant literature on the in vivo effects of CGAs in animal and human models, including clinical trials on cardiovascular, metabolic, cancerogenic, neurological and other functions. After exclusion of editorials and letters, uncontrolled observations, duplicate and not relevant publications the remaining 94 studies have been reviewed. The biological properties of CGA in addition to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects have recently been reported. It is postulated that CGA is able to exert pivotal roles on glucose and lipid metabolism regulation and on the related disorders, e.g. diabetes, cardiovascular disease (CVD), obesity, cancer, and hepatic steatosis. The wide range of potential health benefits of CGA, including its anti-diabetic, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory and anti-obesity impacts, may provide a non-pharmacological and non-invasive approach for treatment or prevention of some chronic diseases. In this study, the effects of CGAs on different aspects of health by reviewing the related literatures have been discussed.
Current study was designed to focus on the proximate, phytochemical and nutrient composition in addition to antioxidant properties of five selected vegetables viz Ipomoea batatas, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Daucus carota, Solanum Melongena and Brassica rapa rapa that are locally available and readily consumed in Pakistan. Nutritional analysis revealed that all the edibles were rich sources of crude protein, carbohydrate, fat and dietary fiber. Micro and macro minerals analysis also exhibited the significant presence of Na, K, Ca, Mg and P. Preliminary phytochemical screening unveiled the extraordinary incidence of alkaloids, saponins, tannins, flavonoids that was also proved by quantitative analysis. The biological assays bared a considerable antioxidant potential of selected green materials. Among vegetables, Trigonella foenum-graecum was proved to be superior while Brassica rapa rapa was considered to be inferior for phenolics and flavonoids content. Trigonella foenum-graecum also presented significant antioxidant activity with maximum reduction capacity and also having least IC50 as a result of inhibition of free radical scavenging by DPPH method. In contrast to α-amylase, a significantly higher inhibition towards α-glucosidase was shown by the selected samples; an impending remedial approach connected to postprandial hyperglycemia. In this scenario, the results of this study suggests that all the selected green materials have very good medicinal potentials, meet the standard requirements for drug formulation and serve as good sources of energy and nutrients. The outcomes of current work also revealed that plant derived foods enriched with phyto-protectants are effective to tailor specific healthy diet for the target population.
In the last years eggplant has received a great interest as functional food, being classified among top ten vegetables with antioxidant capacity because of its high content of phenolics. This vegetable is rich in the content of anthocyanins in the peel and also rich in the content of phenolic acids in the flesh, being delphinidin derivartives and chlorogenic acid isomers the main phenolic compounds in those anatomic parts, respectively. A lot of studies of eggplant phenolics have been published in the last years, which include a great number of genotypes with a wide fruit diversity in shapes, sizes and colors. The content and the chemical structures of the eggplant phenolics are the topics discussed in the present review. (Free Acces Until May 13 2017 at https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1UmAevvMbjUZY)
Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is one of the most consumed vegetables in the world. The eggplant glycoalkaloids (GAs) are toxic secondary metabolites that may have detrimental effects on human health, particularly if the magnitudes of GAs are higher than the recommended food safety level (200 mg per kg of fresh mass). In this study, the content of solasonine compound and the expression patterns of solasodine galactosyltransferase (SGT1) gene were assessed in different tissues (mature leaves, flower buds, young, mature, and physiologically ripe fruits) of two Iranian eggplant genotypes (D1 and J10) under field conditions. The maximum mass fraction of solasonine in D1 was detected in flower buds (135.63 µg/g), followed by leaf (113.29 µg/g), physiologically ripe fruit (74.74 µg/g), young fruit (61.33 µg/g), and mature fruit (21.55 µg/g). Comparing both genotypes, the genotype of bitter fruits (J10) contained higher mass fraction of solasonine, as one of the main factors for producing bitter flavour of the plant. Regarding the expression profiles of SGT1, in both genotypes, the activity of the gene was increased nearly parallel with the concentration of solasonine. In the J10 genotype, transcript level of the gene was significantly higher than the genotype of sweet fruits (D1). Although both D1 and J10 genotypes are possibly recommendable for human food consumption, D1 is more suitable for daily diet.
This study sought to investigate the inhibitory effect of methanolic extract of different species of African eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) and (Solanum macrocarpon) on starch hydrolysing enzymes relevant to type-2 diabetes (α-amylase and α-glucosidase). The phenolic content and antioxidant properties of the eggplant varieties were also assessed. The results revealed that both extracts exhibited mild α-amylase and stronger α-glucosidase inhibitory activities in a dose dependent manner. Furthermore, S. macrocarpon exhibited stronger radicals (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging ability, nitric-oxide (NO·) scavenging ability and ferric reducing antioxidant property (FRAP) than S. melongena, while S. melongena had stronger hydroxyl (OH·) radical ability. The inhibition of starch hydrolysing enzymes and antioxidant activities suggested the potential use of eggplants in the dietary management or control of postprandial hyperglycemia associated with type-2 diabetes.
Key words: Antioxidant activity, diabetes, α-amylase, α-glucosidase, Solanum macrocarpon,Solanum melongena.
Enzymatic browning of makuea poo-ung (cherry eggplant) affects quality loss and demotivates consumers from patronizing. The discolouration has a detrimental impact on taste, texture, odour and nutritional content. The main objective of the study is to evaluate and suggest ways to inhibit enzymatic browning. Experimental research design was used to assess different ways in which red onion and lemon could be used as inhibitors. Results revealed that raw makuea poo-ung with fruit stalk attached can be stored in the fridge for at most one week. Again, raw blended onion, cold boiled blended onion which was boiled at 100 ᵒС for five minutes and lemon juice can be used to curb browning within an inhibition duration of five minutes. Thereafter, products can be stored for at least two weeks without discolouration. Conclusively, inhibition of enzymatic browning of makuea poo-ung should be curbed before storage. Also fruit stalk attached to fruit protects it from early discolouration. It is recommended that fruit stalk should remain attached to makuea poo-ung during inhibition and for sale since that prolongs the occurrence of discolouration.
Keywords: makuea poo-ung, enzymatic, inhibition, browning, lemon, onion.
This review aims to outline the current situation of relations between the main
dietary carotenoids and prevention of CVD.
Polyphenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in eggplants (Solanum melongena L.) seem to depend on cultivar, maturity stage, environmental conditions and the part of the fruit. In this work, the polyphenolic content and antioxidant activity of pulp, whole fruit and peel from fresh dark-purple and white eggplant varieties cultivated in Southern Algeria were measured. Total phenolic content were determined by Folin-Ciocalteu test, and antioxidant activity measured using cyclic voltammetry. Correlations between antioxidant activity and total phenolic content were also examined. Within each cultivar, the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity were highest in the peels, followed by the whole fruit and the pulp. In the peel, whole fruit and pulp the dark-purple eggplant had the highest total phenolic contents and the highest total antioxidant activities.
Background:
Solanum incanum is a close wild relative of S. melongena with high contents of bioactive phenolics and drought tolerance. S. aethiopicum is a cultivated African eggplant cross-compatible with S. melongena. Despite their great interest in S. melongena breeding programs, the genomic resources for these species are scarce.
Results:
RNA-Seq was performed with NGS from pooled RNA of young leaf, floral bud and young fruit tissues, generating more than one hundred millions raw reads per species. The transcriptomes were assembled in 83,905 unigenes for S. incanum and in 87,084 unigenes for S. aethiopicum with an average length of 696 and 722 bp, respectively. The unigenes were structurally and functionally annotated based on comparison with public databases by using bioinformatic tools. The single nucleotide variant calling analysis (SNPs and INDELs) was performed by mapping our S. incanum and S. aethiopicum reads, as well as reads from S. melongena and S. torvum available on NCBI database (National Center for Biotechnology Information), against the eggplant genome. Both intraspecific and interspecific polymorphisms were identified and subsets of molecular markers were created for all species combinations. 36 SNVs were selected for validation in the S. incanum and S. aethiopicum accessions and 96 % were correctly amplified confirming the polymorphisms. In addition, 976 and 1,278 SSRs were identified in S. incanum and S. aethiopicum transcriptomes respectively, and a set of them were validated.
Conclusions:
This work provides a broad insight into gene sequences and allelic variation in S. incanum and S. aethiopicum. This work is a first step toward better understanding of target genes involved in metabolic pathways relevant for eggplant breeding. The molecular markers detected in this study could be used across all the eggplant genepool, which is of interest for breeding programs as well as to perform marker-trait association and QTL analysis studies.
African eggplants (Solanum aethiopicum and S. macrocarpon) are among the most economically important and valuable vegetable and fruit crops. They are a major source of biologically active nutritional substances and metabolites which are essential for plant growth, development, stress adaptation and defense. Among these metabolites are the carotenoids which act as accessory pigments for photosynthesis and precursor to plant hormones. Though African eggplants are known to be resistant to various abiotic stresses, the effect of these stresses on secondary metabolites has not been well defined. The objective of this study was to establish the effect of drought stress on carotenoid profiles of nineteen African eggplant accessions selected based on leaf and fruit morphological traits. Stress was achieved by limiting irrigation and maintaining the wilting state of the crops. Fresh leaves were sampled at different maturity stages; before stress, 2 weeks and 4 weeks after stress for carotenoid analysis. The fresh harvested leaf tissues were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and ground. Analysis was carried out using a Dionex HPLC machine coupled to Photo Array Detector and Chromeleon software package (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA). Major carotenoids viz;. Xanthophylls (neoxanthin, violaxanthin, zeaxanthin and lutein) and carotenes (β–carotene and α–carotene), phytofluene, lycopene, phytoene as well as chlorophylls (chlorophyll‐b and Chlorophyll‐a) were targeted. The carotenoids increased with maturity stage of the crop. Although the stressed crops reported significantly decreased amount of carotenes, chlorophylls, neoxanthin and violaxanthin, the concentration of zeaxanthin increased with stress whereas lutein had no significant change. Chlorophyll‐a was significantly high in all the control accessions. Two accessions reported significantly higher contents of carotenoids as compared to the other accessions. The results of this study indicate that water stress has significant impact on the concentration of some carotenoids and photosynthetic pigments. This will definitely add value to the study of stress tolerance in crops.
Premise of the study:
Crop wild relatives (CWR) provide important traits for plant breeding, including pest, pathogen, and abiotic stress resistance. Therefore, their conservation and future availability are essential for food security. Despite this need, the world's genebanks are currently thought to conserve only a small fraction of the total diversity of CWR.
Methods:
We define the eggplant genepool using the results of recent taxonomic and phylogenetic studies. We identify the gaps in germplasm accessions for eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) CWR by comparing georeferenced herbarium records and germplasm accessions using a gap analysis methodology implementing species distribution models (SDM). Preliminary conservation assessments using IUCN criteria were done for all species and were combined with the gap analysis to pinpoint where under-collected and threatened CWR species coincide with high human disturbance and occur outside of protected areas.
Key results:
We show that many eggplant CWR are poorly represented in genebanks compared to their native ranges. Priority areas for future collecting are concentrated in Africa, especially along the Kenya-Tanzania border. Fourteen species of eggplant CWR are assessed as threatened or near-threatened; these are also concentrated in eastern Africa.
Conclusions:
The knowledge base upon which conservation of wild relative germplasm depends must take into account both taxonomic and phylogenetic advances. Beyond traditional research focus on close relatives of crops, we emphasize the benefits of defining a broad CWR genepool, and the importance of assessing threats to wild species when targeting localities for future collection of CWR to improve crop breeding in the face of environmental change.
Little has been done during the past 100 years to develop new antileishmanial drugs. Most infected individuals live in poor countries and have a low cash income to be attractive targets to pharmaceutical corporations. Two heterosidic steroids, solamargine and solasonine, initially identified as major components of the Brazilian plant
Solanum lycocarpum
were tested for leishmanicidal activity. Both alkaloids killed intracellular and extracellular
L. mexicana
parasites more efficiently than the reference drug sodium stibogluconate. Ten μM of each individual alkaloid significantly reduced parasite counts in infected macrophages and dendritic cells.
In vivo
treatment of C57BL/6 mice with a standardized topical preparation containing solamargine (45.1%) and solasonine (44.4%) gave a significant reduction in lesion sizes and parasite counts recovered from lesions. Alkaloids present different immunochemical pathways in macrophages and dendritic cells. We conclude that this topical preparation is effective and a potential new and inexpensive treatment for cutaneous leishmaniasis.
Physico-chemical parameters, antioxidants and antioxidant activity were evaluated in eggplant fruit (Solanum melongena) before and after domestic cooking methods (frying, griddling and baking). The results showed large differences among the three treatments. After the cooking process, total phenolics and flavonols increased significantly, whereas vitamin C, carotenoid, lycopene and anthocynin contents decreased significantly. The thermal treated samples showed significant increase in their chemical composition (pH, total soluble solids, ash and non enzymatic browning) along with a significant loss in their water and total sugar contents. Results showed that eggplant improved its antioxidant capacity in all cooking methods. Taken together, our results suggest that the various thermal treatments can increase some phytonutrients and antioxidant activity of eggplant.
Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is one of the most popular common major vegetable crops worldwide. This study evaluated the nutritional content of seven commercial eggplant fruits in terms of fatty acid, mineral, sugar, organic acid, amino acid and polyamine contents. The most abundant fatty acid was linoleic acid (range, 39.14-53.81%, ave. 45%), and the most abundant mineral was K (range, 1556.2-3171.6 mg/kg fw, ave. 2331.9). The major organic acid was malic acid (range, 129.87-387.01 mg/g fw, ave. 157.49), and the major sugar was fructose (range, 1242.81- 1379.77 mg/100 g fw, ave. 1350.88). The major polyamine was putrescine (11.54 and 25.70 nmol/g fw, ave. 17.86), and the major amino acid was glutamine (148.4 and 298.75 mg/100 g fw, ave. 219.74). Overall, taking into account the export potential of eggplants, these results may contribute to further studies aiming to improve other nutrient-rich varieties of eggplant in breeding programs.
The present study describes the extraction of total monomeric anthocyanin (TMA) and total phenolic content (TPC) from eggplant peel using ultrasonic treatments and methanol and 2-propanol as extraction solvents. The extraction yields were optimized by varying the solvent concentration, ultrasonic frequency, temperature and time of ultrasonic treatment. Box-Behnken design was used to investigate the effect of process variables on the ultrasound-assisted extraction. The results showed that for TPC extraction the optimal condition were obtained with a methanol concentration of 76.6%, 33.88kHz ultrasonic frequency, a temperature of 69.4°C and 57.5min extraction time. For TMA the optimal condition were the following: 54.4% methanol concentration, 37kHz, 55.1°C and process time of 44.85min.
Thermal processing and production practices used in vegetables can cause changes in their phytochemical contents. Eggplant is characterized by its high antioxidant content. The objective of this work was to determine levels of anthocyanins, polyphenols, and flavonoids and antioxidant capacity in organically and conventionally grown eggplant prepared fresh or subjected to one of three thermal preparation methods: boiling, baking or steaming. The soluble and hydrolyzable polyphenols and flavonoids content were quantified by Folin-Ciocalteu and Aluminum chloride methods, respectively. Anthocyanins were quantified according to the pH differential method. Antioxidant capacity was determined by DPPH and ORAC methods. The results showed differences between organic and conventional eggplant for some variables although cultivation method did not have a consistent effect. Hydrolysable polyphenol content was greater, and soluble and hydrolysable antioxidant capacities were higher in organically grown eggplant, while anthocyanin content was greater in conventionally grown eggplant. Fresh eggplant produced under conventional cultivation had a much greater content of anthocyanins compared to that of other cultivation method-thermal treatment combination. In general, steamed eggplant contained higher total polyphenol and flavonoid levels as well as greater antioxidant capacity. Steamed eggplant from both conventional and organic systems also had high amounts of anthocyanins compared to other thermal treatments. © 2015, Sociedade Brasileira de Ciencia e Tecnologia de Alimentos, SBCTA. All rights reserved.
Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity were measured in the whole fruit of dark-purple eggplant cultivars from five different regions of east Algeria using, respectively, the Folin-Ciocalteu
method, spectrophotometrical and electrochemical assays. Total phenolic contents were highest in sample from Jijel, followed by Skikda cultivars, finally sample from Guelma with the lowest phenolic contents. Total
phenolic content was positively associated with total antioxidant activity in eggplant extracts. These results demonstrate that phenolic compounds have a significant contribution to the total antioxidant activity, which varies considerably depending on the region of the fruit cultivar analyzed. Antioxidant activity was highly correlated with total phenolic contents (R2 = 0.714).
The nutrimental composition and main nutraceutical components were determined in Chinese, Philippine, American, Hindu and Thai eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) types grown in Sinaloa, Mexico. Thai type showed the highest amount of protein (0.90%), crude (1.54%) and dietary (3.93%) fibre and the highest concentrations of total soluble phenolics (2049 mgCAE 100g(-1)) and chlorogenic acid (1700 mg 100g(-1)). Hindu type obtained the highest content of the minerals potassium (191.19 mg 100g(-1)), calcium (59.63 mg 100g(-1)), phosphorus (33.52 mg 100g(-1)), magnesium (28.96 mg 100g(-1)), manganese (0.44 mg 100g(-1)), zinc (0.78 mg 100g(-1)), in addition this eggplant type showed the highest levels of ascorbic acid (22 mg 100g(-1)). Philippine type showed the highest concentration in anthocyanins (161.10 mgC(3)GE 100g(-1)) and the highest levels of radical scavenging activity in DPPH (92.50% of inhibition) and ORAC (538.90 mu molTE g(-1)). Nutrient components with functional properties like biologically essential minerals, dietary fibre, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and soluble phenols were found in higher amounts in the five eggplant types analyzed, as compared with reports from other parts in the world available in the literature.
The eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), also known as aubergine or brinjal, has been cultivated for centuries in the Old World and is currently a crop species of global importance. Despite this, hypotheses of eggplant evolution have been fraught with controversy. Previous conclusions have relied solely on morphological characters or have been based on insufficient taxonomic sampling, leading to conflicting opinions of the number of species, phylogenetic relationships, and patterns of domestication in a group of related taxa termed the S. melongena complex. The S. melongena complex shows a series of morphological intermediates from small‐fruited spiny plants to large‐fruited non‐spiny plants. We use DNA sequence data to show that eggplants arose in Africa and were dispersed throughout the Middle East to Asia. Solanum linnaeanum, a wild species not previously associated with eggplant evolution, is a member of the S. melongena complex. These data provide the most comprehensive evidence to date for the evolution of the cultivated eggplant.
Background: Solanum known as eggplant is a popular vegetable crop grown in the subtropics and tropics. Eggplant is a perennial but grown commercially as an annual crop. The fruits of eggplant is primarily used as a cooking vegetable for various dishes. Eggplant comes in various kinds of species, which are highly variable for its fruit colour, as well as shape and size.Content and Purpose of this study: This study focused on comparing the effect of dietary African eggplants (AP) Solanum kumba,(PG) Solanum gilo (PW) and Solanum aethiopicum (PGW) species. Diabetes was induced experimentally by high fat fed/low dose streptozotocin-diabetic rats (35 mg/kg body wt.) and the diabetic rats were fed diets supplemented with 20–40% supplemented eggplant diet for 14 days. The effect of the diets on the blood glucose level, pancreatic α-amylase, intestinal α-glucosidase and Angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) activities, plasma antioxidant status were determined also quantification of the fruits polyphenols using HPLC/DAD .Results: The results revealed that there was no significant (P < 0.05) difference in the average feed intake and weight changes in all the groups. Supplementation with eggplant diet gradually reduced blood glucose level in diabetic rat compared to diabetic rats and metformin-treated (positive control group). African eggplant showed elevated levels of antioxidant status such as (glutathione peroxidase GPX, glutathione transferase GST,reduced glutathione GSH,Catalase and Ascorbic acid).Conclusions:The results suggest that the eggplant may attenuate hyperglycemia, hypertension and oxidative stress in the type 2 diabetic condition with Solanum kumba having the highest activity which could not be far fetched from its polyphenols as revealed in the HPLC/DAD characterization.Keywords: Solanum spp,polyphenols, diabetes,enzymes
Ovarian cancer (OC) is the sixth and eighth leading cause of cancer mortality among women in developed and developing countries, respectively. Medical therapy is the main method for the treatment of OC. However, drug toxicity and the marked side effects of chemotherapy limit the usage and therapeutic results of the treatments. Therefore, the identification of multi-target agents with few side effects and high effectiveness is required. Traditional Chinese medicine has been used clinically to treat various types of cancer for thousands of years and is considered to possess multiple components and agents, which exert efficient therapeutic functions with few side effects. Although blueberries have previously been used to treat various types of cancer, the effect on OC and precise molecular mechanism of function of the fruit remains unknown. Cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 and COX-2 have been reported to be the biomarkers of OC. Blueberries may affect the progression of OC by affecting COX levels. To investigate the issue, COX-1 and COX-2 were overexpressed or silenced in ovarian cancer SKOV3 cells. The effect of blueberries on SKOV3 cell viability was determined by an MTT assay. Furthermore, a mouse model for OC was established. The results indicated that blueberries inhibited the proliferation of OC cells by downregulating the levels of COX-1 and COX-2. Blueberry (400 mg daily) consumption reduced tumor size significantly in mice with OC compared with the control without blueberry treatment (P<0.05). The results suggest that blueberries should be used to develop a potential non-pharmaceutical therapy for OC.
Solasodine, a naturally occurring aglycone of glycoalkaloid in eggplant, was found to inhibit proliferation in various tumor cells. However, the effect of solasodine on cancer cell metastasis remains unclear. This study investigates the suppression mechanism of solasodine on motility of human lung cancer cell A549 in vitro. Results show that solasodine reduces viability of A549 cells. Treatment with non-toxic doses of solasodine suppresses markedly cell invasion. Solasodine reduces the mRNA level of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), MMP-9 and extracellular inducer of matrix metalloproteinase (EMMPRIN), but increases the expression of reversion-inducing cysteine-rich protein with kazal motifs (RECK), as well as tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) and TIMP-2. Immunoblotting assays indicate that solasodine is effective in suppressing PI3K and Akt phosphorylation. Moreover, solasodine downregulates oncogenic microRNA-21 (miR-21), which has been known to target RECK. Downregulation of miR-21 by miR-21 inhibitor increases RECK expression and decreases cell invasion, suggesting that downregulation of miR-21 by solasodine may contribute to elevate RECK expression and subsequently inhibiting cell invasion. Taken together, the results reveal that inhibition of A549 cell invasion by solasodine may be, at least in part, through blocking MMP expression. Solasodine also reduces PI3K/Akt signaling pathways and downregulates exression of miR-21. These findings demonstrate an attractive therapeutic potential for solasodine in anti-metastatic therapy.
Background:
The natural polysaccharides contain plant polysaccharides, animal polysaccharides and microbial polysaccharides. They are a kind of biological macromolecules with immune regulation, anti-tumor, anti-radiation, anti-inflammation, anti-fatigue and anti-aging effects.
Objective:
These effects are related to their antioxidant properties.
Results:
The action mechanisms of antioxidation and scavenging free radicals for natural polysaccharides were reviewed. The recent research progresses and our work on antioxidant properties of polysaccharides and their derivatives were summarized. At last, the existing problems of antioxidant polysaccharides were analyzed, and the development prospects were also presented.
Conclusion:
It is important to study the antioxidant activities of polysaccharides and their derivatives for the development of natural antioxidants.
Cooking can change the polyphenol contents of eggplant. This study elucidated the effects of grilling on total polyphenol content (TPC), antioxidant capacity, and the inner structures of eggplant. After identical hollowing, cylindrical eggplant samples were prepared and were then grilled until their center temperatures (CT) respectively reached 50, 65, 75, 85, and 95 °C. Chemical assays and observations of the inner structures clarified that TPC and 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity decreased as CT increased when CT was below 65 °C. Results also showed that TPC and DPPH radical scavenging activity increased as CT increased when CT was between 65 °C and 95 °C. For CT 65 °C, the samples retained polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity up to 40% of the raw state activity. The 3 grilled eggplant models, chlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid—sugar and chlorogenic acid—amino acid model, yielded results showing that phenol functional groups on chlorogenic acid were thermally stable and that phenol functional groups on chlorogenic acid reacted neither with sugar nor with amino acids. Results show that PPO activity is a primary reason for the decrease of the 2 indices. Optical microscopic and scanning electron microscopic observations revealed collapsed cells and inter-tissue cracks around the surface area for