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Nutrition & Food Science
Post-harvest malpractices in fresh fruits and vegetables: food safety and health
issues in India
Anil Panghal, D.N. Yadav, Bhupender S. Khatkar, Himanshu Sharma, Vikas Kumar, Navnidhi
Chhikara,
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Anil Panghal, D.N. Yadav, Bhupender S. Khatkar, Himanshu Sharma, Vikas Kumar, Navnidhi
Chhikara, (2018) "Post-harvest malpractices in fresh fruits and vegetables: food safety and health
issues in India", Nutrition & Food Science, https://doi.org/10.1108/NFS-09-2017-0181
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Post-harvest malpractices in fresh
fruits and vegetables: food safety
and health issues in India
Anil Panghal
Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara, India
D.N. Yadav
Division of Food Grains and Oilseeds Processing,
Central Institute of Post-Harvest Engineering and Technology, Ludhiana, India
Bhupender S. Khatkar
Department of Food Technology, Guru Jambheshwar University, Hisar, India
Himanshu Sharma
Division of Food Grains and Oilseeds Processing,
Central Institute of Post-Harvest Engineering and Technology,
Ludhiana, India, and
Vikas Kumar and Navnidhi Chhikara
Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara, India
Abstract
Purpose –Fruits and vegetables, being good source of energy, healthpromoting and protecting compounds
with unique taste and flavor, are attracting consumers since ages. These horticultural produces start
deterioration just after harvest; therefore, their proper storage is must during transportation and storage to
retain maximum quality parameters and for good market value. Best storage conditions are required to
prevent growth of micro flora and to maintain the nutritional values of harvested produce. Retailers and
processors in every corner of world want to move toward the cheaper ways to increase the shelf life and
texture of horticultural crops for better consumer preference. The purpose of this paper is to make consumers
and researchers aware about different post harvest malpractices in fresh fruitsand vegetables.
Design/methodology/approach –Lot of chemicals like colors, artificial ripening agents, sweeteners and
waxes are applied on surface of horticulture produce to siphon off money from consumers, and these have
adverse health effects directly or indirectly. Various regulatory agencies have launched various programs,
acts and laws for monitoring and avoiding such unhealthy ways. Regulatory bodies launched training
programs also for thefood handlers and consumers to ensure the food safety from farm to fork.
Findings –This paper will throw light on different malpractices followed by retailers to manipulate
the quality which causes adverse health effects and to create consumer awareness regarding such
malpractices.
Originality/value –The paper emphasizes on current malpractices followed by retailers to mislead the
consumers about fruits’and vegetable’quality by using sweeteners, colors and other chemical. On prolonged
consumption, such substances lead to major health issues such as attention disorder.
Keywords Quality, Chemicals, Malpractices, Sweeteners, Waxes
Paper type General review
Food safety
and health
issues in India
Received 3 September2017
Revised 9 October2017
11 October 2017
Accepted 11 October2017
Nutrition & Food Science
© Emerald Publishing Limited
0034-6659
DOI 10.1108/NFS-09-2017-0181
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/0034-6659.htm
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Introduction
Fruits and vegetables are big reservoirs of all the dynamic nutrients. These are the
economical source of protective nutrients available in fresh or processed or preserved form
for human consumption throughout the year. These raw horticultural produce are rich in
minerals, vitamins, along with trace elements like copper, manganese and zinc, which are
the integral part of various enzyme cofactors required in different metabolic reactions.
Consistent intake of fruit and vegetables is highly beneficial and has been associated with
reduced chances of cancer, stroke, cardiovascular disease, cataracts, Alzheimer disease and
other dys-functionalities due to aging (Boeing et al.,2012). In India, there is a vast market for
fruits and vegetables, and a variety of them are available in plenty throughout the year due
to favorable agro-climatic situations. Although nutritional composition of fruits and
vegetables varies with the varieties, cultural practices, post-harvest handling, stage of
maturity and storage conditions, there is a huge potential for processing fruits and
vegetables for value addition and divergence for expanding food industry horizons. Fruits
and vegetable processing can create better opportunities for employment and good returns
to growers. World total fruit and vegetable production has been estimated 486 million and
392 million tons, respectively, in year 2013 (Singh et al.,2014). China is the leading producer
of fruits and vegetables followed by India. National Horticulture Board (India) published
horticulture database which reflects 90.18 million metric tonnes of fruits and 169.064 million
metric tonnes of vegetables production in India and area under cultivation is 6.3 and 10.11
million hectares for fruits and vegetables respectively in 2015 (National Horticultural Board
report, 2017) . States leading in fruit production are Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Gujrat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat and Odisha are leading producers of vegetables (Figure 1). Good
amount of nutrients with high moisture content, internal metabolism and microbial
infestation make horticultural produces more susceptible and thus shorten post harvest
shelf life (Dhall, 2016). Being highly perishable, about 20-40 per cent of the total fruits and
vegetables produced goes waste due to lack of processing and efficient supply chain (Singh
et al.,2014). To ensure sufficient food availability for every inhabitant in our planet in
quantity and in quality, reduction of the post-harvest losses is very crucial. It will ensure
that sufficient food availability and ensures about global food security. There is immense
need of preservation and storage methods to extend their shelf life, for throughout the year
availability either in preserved or processed form and to avoid huge losses. Although, the
prime target is still to maintain the quality of the produce which is based on the various
attributes such as chemical composition, nutritive values, mechanical properties like texture,
firmness and sensory properties. Hence, fruits and vegetables require proper post-harvest
management handling and processing to maintain its quality attributes throughout the
supply chain.
Quality evaluation
Produce quality is an important criterion for growers because it determines marketable yield
and can affect the price of the produce. The ideal characteristics for quality grades vary with
commodity, and it is important to be aware of market standards for each commodity. In
fruits and vegetables, these characteristics include maturity, size, shape, color, flavor,
appearance, texture and the absence of damage and spots. Color and flavor are vital
constituents of food, giving it a distinctive behavior. The perception of flavor is a complex
interaction of taste (e.g. sweet, bitter), texture (e.g. smooth, crisp) and aroma (e.g. fruity). The
absence of harmful substances is also an important indicator of quality, especially in
commodity consumed raw like fresh produce. Some methods are developed to study some
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quality attributes which measure senescence, ripeness, etc., which occur more or less
simultaneously. All these quality parameters regulate the produce quality and decide about
its nutritional status, consumer acceptance and economic value.
Adulteration
Adulteration is the noncompliance of food quality with federal, state or regulatory body
standards. The chemical/physical/biological material which should not be present within
other food sample for legal or other reasons is called as adulterant. Adulteration in fruits and
vegetable is a new marketing strategy for many suppliers and producers who increase their
product’s sale by mixing or treating their commodities with adulterants which may be
profitable but impart to risks human health. The chief objectives of adulteration in fruits
and vegetables are:
to increase the weight or volume of the product;
to color the produce making it more pleasing;
to substitute a cheaper form of the product;
to misguide the consumer about the produce/commodity quality;
to alter the physical appearance of the commodity;
to increase the product appeal to consumer; and
every consumer needs good quantity of food commodity at lower price as possible.
Post-harvest malpractices
Fresh horticulture produce respire continuously after harvest and thus are highly
perishable. Commodities picked too early or too late have a shorter storage life
comparatively than those picked at the proper maturity. Fresh fruits and vegetables
comprises with more amount of water (70-95 per cent) and high respiration rates making
such crops highly perishable and thus leads to the estimated loss of 33 per cent of produce
during marketing and until it reaches to the consumer level in 2010 (Salami et al.,2010).
Generally, the consumers observe only the produce appearance for selection. There is
increased risk that these commodities may be either chemically treated or colored to enhance
its appeal and to misguide the consumer about the real quality. These post-harvest
maltreatments are potentially harmful to the produce nutritional quality along with their
dangerous effect on human body.
Fresh fruits and vegetables as per Codex alimentarious should be free from rotting
condition, mineral oil, wax coating and colors. The article emphasizes on consumer
awareness to these chemical treatments and their health hazards. The chemical treatment
after harvesting of produce is quite crucial issue. These chemicals treated fresh commodities
on consumption may cause organ damage, birth defects, cancer, allergic reactions and
hyperactivity. Food dyes are not considered safe to consume due to carcinogenicity,
hypersensitivity, behavioral effects and other toxicological considerations. Emerging
research in analytic chemistry empowered manufacturers to disguise food deterioration in
ways that were tough to detect by the end of the nineteenth century. Heavy metals have
many adverse effects on human health and in metabolic system and can cause heart
problems, skin diseases, etc. Even then these are applied quite often, and the consumers are
still not aware of this offence (Srivastava, 2016).
Consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables loaded with carcinogenic materials and
laden with toxins may not result in immediate health implications, but on prolonged
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consumption, it may lead to severe health ailments such as cancer, ulcers and also cause
other health ailments in major body parts including liver, kidneys, teeth, intestinal tract
and brain (Table I).
Color
Natural colors like chlorophyll, caramel, annatto and other synthetic colors are used in food
industry. Low cost and easy availability of non-permitted colors is increasing by
unscrupulous traders (Diacu, 2016). These artificial coloring ingredients, synthesized from
coal tar and petrochemicals, are dangerous to our health. Synthetic colors are chemically
synthesized, more stable, inexpensive, convenient and possess high tinctorial strength. The
color enhances the appearance; consumer appeal and marketability. The health unconscious
attitude of the consumer along with enhanced marginal benefits intention of traders is
leading to adulterationof foods. Cut fruits, vegetables,spices (like chili powder, turmeric) are
usually adulterated with colors, permitted and non-permitted both, such as rhodamine B,
auramine, metanil yellow, congo red, orange II and malachite green, to attract the consumer.
WHO expert committee on food additives has placed these permitted colors in category C-II,
as the data for long-term effects for these dyes are not available/adequate. Joint FAO/WHO
Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) established in 1955 regulates safety of
artificial food colors and other food additives. These toxic and health hazardous chemicals
Table I.
Common chemical
and hormonal
treatments used in
malpractices in India
with their health
hazards
Ingredient Found in Health hazards
Coloring agents: blue
1, blue 2, yellow 5,
and yellow 6
Cake, candy, macaroni, sport
drinks, soda, cheese, pet food
and medicines
Artificial colors are manufactured from coal tar,
which is carcinogen
Olestra (aka Olean) Fat-free potato chips Depletion of fat-soluble vitamins and carotenoids
Side effects include oily anal leakage
Brominated vegetable
oil (aka BVO)
Citrus-flavored sodas and
Sports drinks
Competes with iodine for receptor sites in the body
resulting in hypothyroidism, cancer and other
autoimmune disease
Central nervous system depressant, growth
problems, hearing loss, birth defects and
schizophrenia
Potassium bromate
(aka brominated
flour)
Rolls, bread crumbs, flatbread,
wraps and bagel chips
Competes with iodine for receptor sites in the body
resulting in hypothyroidism, cancer and other
autoimmune disease
Associated with kidney and nervous system
disorders, gastrointestinal discomfort
Azodicarbonamide Breads, boxed pasta mixes,
packaged baked goods, and
frozen dinners
Prolonged consumption leads to respiratory issues
like asthma
BHA and BHT Cereal, gum, butter, meat,
dehydrated potatoes, nut
mixes and beer
BHA may be cancer-causing agent, BHT leads to
organ system toxicity
Synthetic hormones
rBGH and rBST
Dairy products Associated with breast, colon and prostate cancer
Oxytocin Bottle gourd
Arsenic Poultry “Human carcinogen”
Source: http://knowyourfood.yolasite.com/vegetable-chemical-contamination.php
Food safety
and health
issues in India
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alter the physical appearance of product as well as affect the nutritional and physiological
values.
Horticultural fresh produce are given a dose of artificial color to suit the consumer’seye
(Srivastava, 2016). Artificial colors used in the fresh supply should be avoided, as it
contributes to major health problems; the most critical is attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD), a behavioral pattern (Arnold et al.,2012). Children being fed with these
chemicals in higher amount begin to have nervous system malfunctions, learning
disabilities or violent behavior that ultimately was diagnosed as ADHD. Most commonly
used Yellow 2 food dye and Red 40 in food samples may trigger hyperactivity in children.
Yellow 5 used in candies, cereals and baked goods results in hypersensitivity, hyperactivity
and other behavioral effects in children. Blue 2, used in confectionary, candies, pet foods,
beverages, etc., has been associated to brain tumors.
Margin seeker people are practicing these malpractices of dipping green fruits and
vegetables in artificial colors to provide a fresh, shiny, pleasant and attractive appearance
(Table I). In vegetables malachite green, a potent carcinogen is frequently used to polish
green vegetables such as green chili, green peas, bitter gourd, lady finger and pointed gourd
to show them green and fresh. This accentuates bright, glowing green color of vegetables.
The colored dye has proven to be carcinogenic for humans on prolonged consumption.
Though this can easily be detected by placing sample on the moistened white blotting paper,
colored impression indicates about the presence of adulterant. Copper sulfate had been
reportedly used in green vegetables such as bitter guard and lady fingers. It is pale green in
anhydrous form and bright blue in hydrous form. Vegetables are dipped in copper sulfate
solution to look greener and so more appealable to consumer but prolonged consumption
may cause anemia (www.toxicslink.org/docs/06056_foodadulteration.doc). On consuming
juices from treated vegetables (bottle gourd, bitter gourd) may cause abdominal pain,
vomiting and other serious problems leading to hospitalization (Table II).
Another common example of malpractices is in case of melons and watermelons.
Consumer prefers ripe, bright red melons and asks to vendor to confirm his quality stat at
buying stage. This forced vendor to manipulate the quality by injecting red dye and
sweeteners in fruit to meet the consumer demand. The Mysore city corporation and food
and civil supplies department staff collected samples regularly on consumer complaint and
found watermelons adulterated. The colors used in these foods include methanol yellow,
lead chromate and Sudan red. Methanol yellow may lead to stomach ailments, cancer and
degeneration of the reproductive organs in male, whereas lead chromate causes brain
damage, blindness and anemia and Sudan red can cause stomach problem and is
carcinogenic (Times of India, 2002).
A survey on sweets and savories samples was conducted throughout the country showed
that East zone showed maximum adulteration (80.3 per cent), 72.3 per cent of samples had
permitted colors exceeding the prescribed value and 28.7 per cent samples contained non-
permitted colors as categorized by Food Safety and Standards Authority India (FSSAI) in India
(Dixit et al.,2013). FSSAI prohibits use of such colors in fruits and vegetables also. Horticultural
crops are rich source of phytochemicals. Chemicals like colors and dyes used for horticultural
crops may lead to the deterioration of such phytochemicals. Chemical treatments hinder the
maintained phenolics and causes deterioration of fat soluble vitamins (Table III).
Chemical treatments
Active metabolism and numerous biochemical conversions in fruits and vegetables are
responsible for continuous decline in original composition and various quality parameters
and thus overall profit. In this chain of constant decline in quality, only initial condition is
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Adulterant PubChem ID Foods sample Purpose Health hazards Mechanism of action on humans
Malachite green 11294 Parwal, peas Coloring Allergies, asthma and carcinogenic Hinder the signaling pathways by acting on MAPK
and ERK2 proteins
Mobile oil –Brinjal, tomatoes Shiny appearance Gastrointestinal and respiratory
problems
Obstruction in absorption of nutrients by epithelial
tissues
Copper sulfate
(blue colored)
24462 Lady fingers, Parwal Color Anemia Affects the Fe
2þ
absorption and causes accumulation of lactate in
mitochondria
Carbofuran 2566 Brinjals Fresh purple appearance Developmental defects and cancer Targets NADPH system, hence nucleotide biosynthesis
and fatty acid synthesis (Murty, 1986)
Phosphomidone,
Methyl, Parathin,
Monocrotophos
3032604 Cauliflowers Fresh white appearance Developmental defects and cancer Causes rapid hydrolysis of neurotransmitter
acetylcholine
Formaldehyde 712 Cabbage Freshness Skin irritation, breathing and digestive
problems, carcinogenic
Affects lymphocyte and cytokine expression (Jia et al.,
2014)
Oxytocin
hormone
439302 Bottle gourd Oxytocin hormone Cancer, male impotency, excessive hair Alters the hormonal balance in humans by interacting
with surface receptors
Lead arsenate 24572 Apples Insecticide Dizziness, chills, cramps, paralysis,
death
Affects the cell signaling processes
source:http://knowyourfood.yolasite.com/vegetable-chemical-contamination.php
Table II.
The postharvest
maltreatment/
adulterants in fruits
and vegetables in
India
Food safety
and health
issues in India
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Phytochemicals Subclasses Major source Effect of chemical treatments
Carotenoids
a
and
b
carotene,
b
-cryptoxanthin Sweet potatoes, Carrots, pumpkin, mango, oranges, winter
squash, papaya, cantaloupe, spinach, lettuce, broccoli
Significantly affect the
accumulation of carotenoids
Zeaxantine, Lutein Green leafy vegetables - spinach and kale
Lycopene Tomatoes, watermelons, apricot, pink grapefruits, pink
guavas
Phenolics
Hydroxybenzoic acid Protocatechuic Roselle ( Hibiscus sabdariffa ), Onion Chemicals may react with
phenolic compounds which
may lead to loss in activity of
phenolic compounds
Vanillic Vanilla
Syringic Grapes
Hydroxycinnamic
acid
p-Coumaric Carrots, garlic, tomatoes, peanuts
Caffeic Coffee beans
Ferulic Artichoke, apple, orange, pineapple, peanut
Flavonoids All citrus fruits, parsley, red grapes, berries, onions, dark
chocolate
Flavonols Quercetin Apples, onions (higher concentrations of quercetin occur in
the outermost rings), green and black tea, red grapes, red
wine, broccoli, leafy green vegetables, cherries, raspberries,
cranberries, sweet rowan, rowanberries, bog whortleberries,
sea buckthorn, prickly pear
Myricetin, Galangin, Fisetin Grapes, fruits, onions, berries, broccoli, turnip
Flavones Apigenin, Chrysin, Luteolin Celery, pepper, spinach, rutabagas
Catechins Catechin, Epicatechin, Epigallocatechin Apricot, peach, plums, strawberries, cocoa berries, peas,
broad beans, green tea, black tea, white tea, oolong tea,
grapes and wine
Flavanones Eriodictyol, Hesperetin, Naringenin Citrus fruits
Anthocyanidins Cyanidin, Pelargonidin, Peonidin Blackberries, blueberries, raspberries, elderberries,
loganberries, strawberries cranberries and other berries,
hawthorn, apples, plums, cherry, (fruit skin contains highest
cyanidin concentrations)
Delphinidin Grape, blueberries, cranberries
Isoflavonoids Genistein, Daidzein, Glycitein,
Formonentin
Soybeans and soy products like tofu and textured vegetable
protein
(continued)
Table III.
Effect of
malpractices and
adulterants on
phytochemicals of
fruits and vegetables
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Phytochemicals Subclasses Major source Effect of chemical treatments
Stilbenes Resveratrol Red grapes
Tannins Red grapes, berries (cranberries, strawberries, blueberries),
pomegranates (punicalagins), persimmons
Lignans Carrot, squash, sweet potatoes, green pepper, broccoli, garlic,
asparagus, leek
Alkaloids Potatoes, tomatoes, guarana berries, tea plant, cocoa, kola nut,
mushrooms
Accumulation of alkaloids is
affected, as alkaloid content in
a particular region of produce
may cause health troubles
Nitrogen containing
compounds
Polyamines (spermidine, spermine,
putrescine)
Fruits (except berries) and vegetables (tomatoes, eggplants,
potatoes), cereal germ
They can accumulate as well
as may react with chemicals
Organosulfur
compounds
Isothiocyanates, Indoles Cruciferous vegetables, cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, kale,
turnips, collards, brussels sprouts, radish, watercress
Allylic sulfur compounds Garlic
Vitamin C Citrus fruits (lemon, orange, lime, grapefruit), strawberries,
cranberries, blackcurrants, papaya, kiwifruit, tomatoes,
potatoes, cauliflower, broccoli, spinach, cantaloupe, red
peppers, Brussels sprouts
It can cause loss in activity of
vitamins
Vitamins B Thiamine (B
1
) Green peas, spinach, navy beans, pinto beans, nuts, soybeans,
whole-grain cereals, breads, pulses
Riboflavin (B
2
) Leafy green vegetables, legumes, almonds
Pantothenic acid (B
5
) Whole-grain cereals and pulses
Pyridoxine (B
6
) Lima beans, avocado, bananas, dragon fruit, peanuts, whole-
grain cereals
Folic acid (B
9
) dried beans, peas, Leafy vegetables e.g. spinach and turnip
greens
Cyano-cobalamin (B
12
) Seaweeds (nori), barley grass
Vitamin E
(tocopherol)
Vegetable oils e.g. palm, sunflower, olive, soybean and corn,
nuts, sunflower seeds, sea buckthorn, kiwi fruit, wheat germ
Note: Modified and adapted from Jaganath and Crozier (2009)
Table III.
Food safety
and health
issues in India
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considered as fresh. Traders apply chemical treatments on minimally processed fresh
produce for controlling decay, browning and retaining texture and firmness (Mohapatra
et al.,2013).
Freshness
Most of the vegetables we buy from the markets are treated with a heavy dose of chemicals
to make them look fresh, attractive and pleasant. Times of India (2012) reported about such
case in China. Cabbage sellers were caught spritzing formaldehyde to keep them fresh post-
harvest storage. The head portion of cabbage is cut from the ground and cabbage is dipped
in a formaldehyde solution immediately and then stored/processed. This formaldehyde
application assures freshness for about a week, and this practice was more common in
warmer climate. Formaldehyde irritates skin, may cause breathing and digestive problems
and is reported as carcinogenic.
Fruit ripening
Ripening of fruits is a complex process involving biochemical, physiological and molecular
changes leading to change in color, acidity, sugar content, texture and aroma compounds
(Bouzayen et al.,2010;Prasanna et al., 2007). Ripening provides distinctive characteristics,
i.e. sweetness, flavor, color, softness and palatability to horticulture produce. It may take
several days from harvesting of fruit to reach to consumer’s basket and different metabolic
activities are still going on during transportation and storage deteriorating overall
acceptability of commodity, thus providing fewer benefits to retailers. The profit-based
approach of retailers has drifted toward the stage at which horticultural produces are
ripened at the destination markets just before retailing with the help of artificial ripening to
avoid or restrict these changes. Ethephon/calcium carbide/ethylene and oxytocin are
commonly used in fruit and vegetable markets/farms for size enlargement and ripening
artificially (Table IV). Commonly known as Masala, calcium carbide is a cancer-causing
agent and has been banned under Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSSA, 2006) and
also under Food Safety and Standards (Prohibition and restrictions on Sales) regulations,
2011. People convicted under this act could face three years imprisonment and Rs 1000 fine.
But retailers are still following the same practice due to unawareness of consumer. Union
Health Ministry has given instructions to all state food authorities and FASSI focusing on
need of legal step to person found guilty of violation of regulatory rules (Sinha, 2010).
Calcium carbide reacts with moisture and releases acetylene gas which is analogous to
ethylene and fastens the process of fruit ripening. Besides being synthetic, ripening effect of
acetylene is not comparable to ethylene, as it changes only the surface color of sample; the
inside of the fruit is still un-ripened (Siddiqui and Dhua, 2009). Acetylene being acidic in
nature may lead to ulcer, kidney and liver damage on long run consumption. Calcium
carbide is a cheap and easily available chemical ripening agent with the name Masala and
possesses carcinogenic property. Masala is indiscriminately used for ripening as compared
to other recommended ripening practices in different countries (Siddiqui and Dhua, 2009).
Ethephon’s (2 Chloro ethyl Phosphonic acid) commercial names are Ethrel, Florel and
Cepa; it is acidic in aqueous form and is decomposed into ethylene gas, bi-phosphate ion and
chloride ion (Mursalat et al., 2013;Roberts, 1998;Singal et al., 2012) above pH 5 (neutral to
basic medium). Ethephon has been reported to hasten ripening of several fruits like apples,
cherries, blueberries figs, pineapple, tomatoes, peaches, guava, grapes, citrus and walnut
(Abeles et al.,2012;Gill et al.,2014
). The released ethylene gas increases the rate of ripening
process. Ethephon ripens the fruits faster than calcium carbide and thus considered better.
Ethephon-ripened fruits have better color profile than fruits which are naturally ripened,
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and also have longer shelf life than fruits ripened with calcium carbide. Kathiravan (2012)
suggested that ethephon is an insecticide basically and not recommended as a ripening
agent. There is lack of information regarding usage of chemical for horticultural produce,
and its high cost and scarcity of such chemical has limited further its utilization as a
ripening agent.
Sweetness
Attempts are also made to alter the natural sweetness of horticultural produce specially
fruits. Saccharine mixture was injected into melons and water melons to make them extra
sweet even if they are totally lacking in sweetness. This became evident in those fruits
which turned out to be half sweet and half tasteless. Injector pumps the sweetener mixture
on the one side of fruit presuming its uniform distribution throughout the pulp. Vendors
have started injecting saccharine drops from several points in the fruit to ensure uniform
sweetness. Sasaki et al. (2008) studied effect of saccharin on DNA damage. Exposure to this
sweetener causes increase in the significant risk of damage to genetic material. It also causes
chromosomal aberrations and exchange of sister chromatids (IARC, 1999).
Growth hormones
Chemicals like gibberallic acid, alpha naphthyl acetic acid, oxytocin and copper sulfate are
used by many farmers to ripen and enhance growth and color in vegetable crops. Oxytocin
are mammalian hormones, used as veterinary drug and is not suitable for use in fruits and
vegetables. This is available with various common names like cocin and paani to dawai at
drug stores throughout the country. This hormone is commonly used to plump up
vegetables like bottle gourds, bitter gourds, pumpkins and cucumbers. They inject their
veggies in early stages with oxytocin to enhance size and color in comparison to normal
Table IV.
Artificial ripening
agents for fruits and
vegetables in India
and their food safety
issues
Name
Chemical
formula Possible health effects References
Calcium carbide CaC
2
Alkaline and carcinogen in nature, may lead
to irritation in the mucosal tissue in the
abdominal region
Asif (2012)
Direct consumption of acetylene gas
released by calcium carbide can reduce
oxygen supply to the brain and may results
in prolonged hypoxia
Ur-Rahman et al. (2008)
Arsenic and phosphorous found in
industrial grade calcium carbide are
responsible for frequent thirst, irritation in
mouth and nose, dizziness, weakness,
permanent skin damage, vomiting, skin
ulcer, etc.
Siddiqui and Dhua (2010),
Fattah and Ali (2010)
Ethylene glycol C
2
H
5
O
2
Ethylene glycol consumption results in
kidney failure
Goonatilake (2008)
Ethylene,
Methyl jasmonate
C
2
H
4
,
C
13
H
20
O
3
Less toxic than calcium carbide and
ethylene glycol; but these are comparatively
expensive
Ur-Rahman et al. (2008)
Ethephon C
2
H
6
ClO
3
P No adverse effect on human heath for
limited concentration (maximum residue
limit:1pmm to 50 ppm, varies for fruits)
Asif (2012)
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natural sizes to attract the consumers, said Deputy Director, Horticulture, Nitesh Kumar Rai
(The Times of India, 2016). Oxytocin acts primarily as a neurotransmitter in the brain and
has important role in sexual, emotional behavior and female reproduction. This is available
with different common names cocin, paani and dawai in almost all drug stores.
Unfortunately, this is just impossible to distinguish between a normal vegetable and one
that’s been pumped with oxytocin. Medical experts reports that these hormones may cause
ir-repairable damage to our health, when consumed through fruits and vegetables over a
prolonged time (Asif, 2012). This overlong consumption may result in uterine cancer, male
impotency, excessive hair and early or erratic periods on women, balding for man,
exhaustion and loss of energy.
Waxing
Waxing is an old age art and has been used as preservation technique for fruits in the
beginning of the nineteenth century. Wax is an ester formed with conjugation of high
molecular weight alcohol and fatty acid. Wax coatings offered great resistance to moisture
loss as compared to other coatings (lipid or non-lipid) (Lin and Zhao, 2007). Wax coating
applied on produce is dried properly before further unit operations and handling. Food
grade waxes are used to reduce the water loss, surface abrasion and control internal gas
composition during handling and marketing (Lawrence and Iyengar, 1983;Kester and
Fennema, 1986). Beeswax, wax from Camauba palm tree (Carnauba wax), and shellac
(secretion from the lac beetle) are preferred over petroleum-based waxes, which contain
wood rosins or solvent residues. Examples of fruits on which wax coating is possible are
breadfruit, passion fruit, coconut, carambola, grapefruit, guava, mango, lime, lemons,
orange, papaya, avocado (pear), tangerine, pineapple and vegetables are melon, bitter
cassava, eggplant, peppers, sweet potato, tomato, pumpkins, yam, cucumber, eggplant,
asparagus, turnip, brinjal, okra, parsnip, sweet peppers and tomato (Alleyne and
Hagenmaier, 2000;Hagenmaier, 2000;Mota et al.,2003;Fallika et al., 2005;Porat et al.,2005;
Bai et al.,2002;Bai et al.,2003).
Wax coating is applied to replace natural wax which has been lost during primary
processing and thus reduced water losses further and provides shiny and attractive
appearance (Palou et al., 2015). There is provision for usage of waxes as per Good
Manufacturing Practice (GMP) for use as food additives under proper declarations on label.
Application of wax and post-harvest antimicrobial substances must be indicated on each
shipping container.
Types of wax
Different types of wax used are animal origin waxes (Bee wax, Shellac wax, Chinese insect
wax, Spermaceti wax), vegetable wax (Candelilla wax, Carnauba wax, Sugarcane wax,
Esparto wax, Japan wax, Palm wax, Oricury wax) and synthetic and mineral wax (Montan
wax, Ozocerite, Synthetic wax) (Dhall, 2016).
Major types of wax used in food industry
Carnauba –Carnauba wax, moderate gloss wax obtained from carnauba palm
leaves, a native to Brazil. On heating leaves in water, each leaf can yield 5-10 g of
wax. Shine of product is better than paraffin but poor than shellac.
Shellac –The resinous secretions of the tiny lac insect (Laccifer lacca) are known as
Shellac wax. Insect glandular secretion in form of tiny particles on host tree are
collected, washed, crushed and then purified into food grade wax. Shellac is usually
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hard texture at room temperature but softens with increase in pressure or
temperature. Shellac waxes have good water barrier properties and have shining
appearances. Gas permeability of Shellac wax is lesser than carnauba wax.
Precautions should be taken to avoid higher amount or over-application which may
lead to product fermentation.
Polyethylene –Under high heat and pressure, ethylene polymerizes to form
polyethylene-based waxes. They are generally the least expensive waxes, provide a
reasonable shine to the product and are used on variety of fruits and vegetables.
Candle wax (paraffin) –Candle wax is a petroleum-based solid wax fractioned from
crude oil distillation. Temperature of the liquid wax applied affects the translucence
upon solidification. Paraffin wax can be re-solidified and melted again for later use
and is commonly used on yams, coconut, sweet potatoes, thick-skinned fruits like
breadfruit and cassava for export marketing.
Edible coatings like sodium caseinate or stearic acid are used to modify the water retention
capacity and thus maintain the freshness of products such as carrot. On the contrary, quite
cheap alternatives like wax and mineral oil are used negotiating the produce quality and
health issues. Brinjal has been reported to be coated with edible oil or mobile oil for
increased shininess (Times of India, 2009). After coating, the produce respires by consuming
leftover O
2
and accumulates CO
2
within the produce. The produce eventually shifts to
anaerobic respiration producing more CO
2
, acetaldehyde and ethanol leading to an off-flavor
development. So the types of wax, amount of application and phase of produce are
important regulators in produce quality. The various wax application methods used are as
follows:
Liquid paraffin wax method: The produce is directly dipped in hot paraffin which
may cause over coating of material leading to economic and quality losses.
Slab wax method: The products are pressed against high speed revolving wax
brushes. Efficiency of the process is quite low.
Spray method: Spraying of melted wax is done, and then a film of required thickness
is made by mechanical brushing. The wax is dissolved in suitable solvent in a
concentration decided by wax temperature, volume of wax, distance of produce
form spray nozzle and spray nozzles numbers.
Cold wax or dipping method: Properly cleaned produce is dipped in properly
concentrated wax emulsion and then further dried. Pure wax can be heat sealed, and
it is tasteless, odorless and non-toxic.
Regulatory bodies like Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and FSSAI regulates these
coatings, wax, as food additives approved or GRAS “generally recognized as safe”,for
consumption of mankind. Zero application of wax will be detrimental for the produce to be
transported over long distance. However, some concerns are raised by some consumers
about their use. Concern may be about their vegetarian/non-vegetarian origin animal-based
waxes, such as oleic acid or about pesticides entrapment. European directive, CODEX and
US regulations (FDA) defines edible coatings as coatings made from food origin products,
additives, ingredients, packaging materials or contact substances. All components and
additives used in film formation should be non-toxic and food grade (Han, 2003).
There are a lot of reasons to justify the waxing in fruits and vegetables. Few of them are
discussed below:
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Improved appearance –Wax creates more shine, brilliance, fresh appearance and
retains color by protecting the sample from browning.
Longer post-harvest life –Waxing modifies atmosphere in product leading to
decrease in oxygen content and increase in the carbon dioxide content. This resulted
in the reduction of the product’s respiration rate and increase in shelf life after
harvesting. On an average, the wax extends shelf life by 50 per cent.
Less moisture loss –The tightly adhered coatings of wax close the pores in the outer
layer/cuticle, reduced the rate of water vapor transmission. Wax coating application
can reduce weight loss of product by 30 to 40 per cent.
Better market value –Fresh products payment is done on the bases of weight and
wax will not allow water losses which otherwise will lead to reduction in economic
benefits.
Reduced post-harvest decay –Waxing creates a hydrophobic layer and is pathogen
resistant. Specific antimicrobial compounds may be added to the wax for enhanced
pathogen resistance to avoid losses.
Residue or maximum limits
FSSAI, FDA and other regulatory bodies permitted carnauba or bee wax (white and
yellow) or shellac wax only as per GMP for use of food additives.
Artificial ripening agent carbide gas is strictly prohibited for fruit ripening under
FSSA, 2006, so its residue has no tolerance limit permitted.
Regulatory bodies assign no tolerance limit and not allowed any type of mineral oil
or color on fruits and vegetables.
Heavy metals are allowed up to some tolerable limits and should not exceed the
value assigned by regulatory bodies in fruits and vegetables given under FSSA,
2006.
Crop contaminants presence and presence of naturally occurring toxic substances or
anti-nutrients in fruit and vegetables should not be more than or exceed the
maximum limit as per specifications of FSSAI and FDA.
In India, as per FSSA, 2006, “The fresh fruits and vegetables coated with wax (bees or
carnauba) should have proper declaration on label”. The information should be clear and
clearly states about the origin of wax (animal based or vegetable based wax) used in coating
of the product with food-grade certification like beeswax, petroleum and/or shellac-based
wax or resin to maintain freshness. Additives or ingredients used in coating may contain
allergens such as milk, soybeans, fish, peanuts, nuts and wheat. Therefore, the presence
known allergen either in product or coating on a food must be also clearly mentioned on
label.
Wax coating and other agent used in apples for coating forms an insoluble layer inside
the intestine or alimentary canal, thus reducing nutrient absorption. So, consumers are
advised to wash the fruits thoroughly and wash properly or boil the vegetables for a while
before consumption; however, negative impacts cannot be fully omitted.
Regulation
Various food safety rules have been designed for produce quality, containment, presentation
and safety. These rules either leave a gap or are not implemented strictly. Codex
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alimentarious standard 04.1.1 and 04.2.1 for fresh fruits and vegetables states that fresh
fruit/vegetables are generally free of additives. However, these might be coated or cut or
peeled for presentation to the consumer may contain additives (General Standard for Food
Additives Codex Stan 192-1995, revised in 2015).
Regulatory bodies, FSSAI and FDA permitted usage of carnauba wax or beeswax
(yellow and white) or shellac wax as food additives and ingredients according to GMP.
FSSA, 2006 and CODEX set the tolerance limits of heavy metal present in the food item. No
color and mineral oil has been allowed in fresh fruits and vegetables, still these chemicals
are consistently in use. Food Safety and Standards Act 2006 is not in existence practically,
so the strict implementation of FSSA and Rules by the State Governments should be there.
The concerned health and food safety authorities should keep a keen eye on use of
hazardous post-harvest treatments. There should be provision of some legal actions for
violation of the provisions of act. The FDA and Codex Alimentarius should ban dyes usage
in food, which serve no purpose other than coloring and cosmetic effect, but there are
difficulties in law. In the meantime, companies voluntarily should replace dyes with safer,
natural colorings.
Food inspectors and food safety officers are empowered and educated under FSSA 2006
to inspect and examine food items intended for sale and to send them for further
examination to the Food Quality Laboratory (FSSAI, under section 43[2] of FSS Act, 2006).
FSSAI started training programs for the food handlers in organized and unorganized sectors
regarding food handling and safe food production. Vigilance in wholesale market should be
strengthened, and officials should take steps to curb adulteration. Legal and regulatory
frameworks for product chain management should be there to ensure safe and quality food.
Proper training should be given to fruit traders and sellers, and there should be awareness
about the possible health hazards and imbued with a sense of moral responsibility to the
society. There are no simple solutions to tackle the menace of adulteration: adequate food
testing facilities, complete transparency in the functioning of the department of civil and
food supplies and getting samples of suspected food tested at regular intervals, are just
some answers. Governments should upgrade the infrastructural facilities for proper
handling, storage and marketing the fresh produce. Research should be conducted on
substitutes of these entire chemical which should be environment friendly and non-
hazardous cheap material to protect farmers and retailers from storage losses. This might
involve quality assurance laboratories, e.g. Central Food Laboratory, Kolkata; Food Safety
and Analytical Quality Control Laboratory etc. (FSSAI, 2017) and food safety authorities to
reduce the risk of adulteration and to provide the produce without any hazardous treatment.
Advice for consumer
Food malpractices can occur at various levels such as production, entrepreneurship or sale.
Consumers should preferable buy the locally grown horticultural produce because the
chances of malpractices are minimal in such produce. Consumer should check ISI, GMP,
FPO, Agmark, etc., -labeled food products to ensure best quality of produce. There is need of
awareness programs and campaigns about quality food. FSSAI has taken a step forward
and is organizing training programs for all food handlers. The misbranded/mislabeled
product manufacturer is liable under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 to be
punished with imprisonment and fined.
Conclusion
Malpractices such as coloring, oiling, sweeteners and hormone injections followed by
retailers are mainly profit targeted. The involvement of farmers, retailers, consumers,
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scientists, policy makers and government agencies is highly required to solve this problem.
Neither retailers nor consumers are aware about the sever health issues related to prolonged
consumption of such chemicals. Industries are certified by regulatory agencies to ensure
quality, but certification is highly required for farmers and vendors. Besides the certification
and training, consumer should be aware about these malpractices and legal regulations.
Consumer awareness is must about health hazards of chemicals and hormones used in
malpractices, and consumer must report to regulatory bodies about such altered samples for
further action. Extensive scientific studies are needed on development of detection methods
to easily identify such maltreated samples.
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Further reading
Abeles, F.B., Morgan, P.W. and Saltveit, M.E. (2012), Ethylene in Plant Biology, 2nd ed. Academic Press,
San Diego, CA.
Available at: http://sahararetailworld.in/PDF/AdultrationTabloidPart2.pdf
Available at: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/Dont-be-tempted-by-that-bright-red-
watermelon/articleshow/2894575.cms, Don’t be tempted by that bright red watermelon Manu
Aiyappa| TNN | 5 Mar 2002, 10.35 PM IST.
Available at: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Steroids-hormones-make-veggies-fruits-
harmful/articleshow/52677726.cms
Available at: www.fda.gov/
Available at: http://www.toxicslink.org/docs/06056_foodadulteration.doc
International Agency for Research on Cancer (1999), “Some chemicals that cause renal or urinary
bladder tumours in rodents, and some other substances. Saccharin and its salts”,IARC
Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, Vol. 73,
pp. 517-624.
Mursalat, M., Rony, A.H., Rahman, A.H.M.S., Islam, N. and Khan, M.S., (2013), “A critical analysis of
artificial fruit ripening: scientific, legislative and socio-economic aspects”, No. 6, p. 9.
Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (1954) and rules (1955) of India (2004), Confederation of Indian
Industry, New Delhi, The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act & Rules (as on 1.10. 2004).
Corresponding author
Navnidhi Chhikara can be contacted at: navnidhi24@gmail.com
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