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The Coverage of Classroom Management in Teacher Evaluation Rubrics
Abstract
Many teachers struggle with the classroom management skills necessary to support students with disabilities. Teacher evaluation is a potential method for supporting teachers’ use of classroom management strategies. The authors evaluate the extent to which classroom management was included in state teacher evaluation rubrics and the types of classroom management topics that were included in the rubrics. They find that while one fifth of standards and indicators were related to classroom management, there was large variability across states. Rubrics that included classroom management focused on proactive strategies, but often did not include specific evidence-based practices that could help teachers improve their classroom management skills. Very few rubrics included any focus on how to address student misbehavior. In light of these findings, the authors provide a discussion of the importance of including high-quality standards and indicators about classroom management to support teachers of students with disabilities.
... En la última década, varias fuentes destacan el uso de rúbricas como un recurso que orienta formativamente la calidad de la retroalimentación y aumenta el nivel de reflexión docente (Gilmour et al., 2018;Tigelaar y Janssen, 2012). De igual forma, la rúbrica favorece la autorregulación de la práctica pedagógica en función de criterios de calidad pertinentes y compartidos (Menéndez y Gregori, 2016). ...
... Asimismo, se puede concluir que la retroalimentación sólo cobra sentido cuando proporciona al docente una visión crítica que le permita reflexionar y resignificar sus prácticas en el aula, con el propósito de tomar decisiones pedagógicas conscientes que apunten deliberadamente a mejorar el aprendizaje de los estudiantes. En atención a estos resultados, algunos autores argumentan que la reflexión sistemática sobre la práctica puede ayudar a desarrollar profesionales más críticos y a corregir paulatinamente sus errores y transformarlos en aprendizajes (Gilmour et al., 2018;Montanero y Madeira, 2019;Osorio y López, 2014;Rincón-Gallardo et al., 2019;Winstone et al., 2017). ...
... El uso de rúbrica durante el proceso de aprendizaje regula los niveles de subjetividad de la retroalimentación, enmarcando la discusión en aspectos consensuados y teóricamente sólidos sobre el desempeño docente (Contreras y Zúñiga, 2019;Fraile et al., 2017;Gilmour, et al., 2018). En consecuencia, creemos que es primordial que los centros escolares avancen en la calidad de la retroalimentación del desempeño docente como una práctica sistemática que pueda potenciar la reflexión crítica y cultura colaborativa como principal estrategia para reestructurar creencias pedagógicas arraigadas sobre el proceso de enseñanza aprendizaje (Anijovich y Cappelletti, 2017;Fullan, 2019;Mellado et al., 2017;Tan et al., 2020). ...
La retroalimentación de las prácticas pedagógicas es un componente esencial para favorecer el desarrollo profesional del profesorado. El objetivo del artículo es evaluar la incidencia del uso de rúbricas en el mejoramiento de la calidad de la retroalimentación del desempeño docente en aula. La muestra del estudio se compone de 32 participantes distribuidos aleatoriamente en grupo experimental y control. El grupo experimental diseñó colaborativamente su rúbrica para acompañar y retroalimentar el desempeño docente en aula, en tanto, a los participantes del grupo control se les asignó una rúbrica estandarizada. Los resultados indican diferencias significativas en la calidad de la retroalimentación a favor del grupo experimental, quienes evidenciaron mayor presencia de retroalimentación de carácter orientadora y formativa. Se concluye que el diseño colaborativo de rúbricas favorece la calidad de la retroalimentación porque orienta la reflexión de la práctica pedagógica, promueve el desarrollo profesional docente y la transformación del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje.
... Research has examined the mechanisms of teacher PD on classroom practices and student educational outcomes for some time (Simonsen et al., 2008;Desimone, 2009;Gilmour et al., 2019). However, the vast majority of investigations have been focused on workshopbased training and limited job-embedded feedback overtime. ...
... At the same time, coaches have few empirically supported tools which support the identification and monitoring of change in teacher instructional and behavioral management practices over time (Reddy et al., 2017;Poulou et al., 2020). Classroom observational assessments are one commonly used approach school administrators and other school personnel (e.g., instructional coaches, peer mentors) use to identify teacher practice strengths and areas in need of improvement (Reddy et al., 2013a;Gilmour et al., 2019). ...
To support teachers’ evaluation and professional development valid assessments that measure teachers’ classroom practices and capture teachers’ strengths and areas in need of improvement are needed. The current study examined school administrators’ and teachers’ experiences of Professional Development (PD), with the use of the Classroom Strategies Assessment System (CSAS), a classroom observational assessment that measures universal classroom instructional and behavioral practices, and their perceptions of the usability of CSAS for supporting PD. The study also examined school administrators’ ratings of elementary school teachers’ use of evidence-based instructional and behavior management practices, as an illustrative example of how performance feedback was implemented. Three school administrators observed 31 elementary school teachers three times each using the CSAS Greek version. Following each observation, teachers received brief performance feedback based on CSAS scores from their school administrator. School administrators and teachers completed the System Usability Scale to assess the usability of the CSAS administration. Semi-structured interviews with 19 of the participating teachers were conducted to further explore teachers’ professional development experiences. Overall, teacher interviews expressed their need for professional development in the areas of instructional and behavior management practices and perceived CSAS feedback helpful for instructional improvement. Findings also suggest some improvements in the frequency and quality of teacher instructional and behavior management practices as measured by the CSAS. Implications for practices and research are discussed.
... The classroom observation form was developed in three stages: the literature review, expert opinion, and pilot study. The first stage examined the literature on classroom management and adaptations for students with special needs (Gilmour et al., 2019;Jones & Brownell, 2014;Pua et al., 2021). In the second stage, two special education and two classroom teacher education field experts evaluated the created observation form. ...
... Unfortunately, it is seen that classroom teachers do not perform their classroom management and behavior control skills adequately in the classrooms where inclusive practices are carried out (Güner, 2011;Sazak-Pınar & Güner-Yıldız, 2017;Sucuoğlu & Demirtaşlı, 2009). These findings may be because classroom teachers do not have sufficient knowledge about classroom management, and adequate training on classroom management and behavior control is not included in general education teacher training programs (Gilmour et al., 2019). At the same time, it is another important finding of this study that primary school teachers are quite inadequate in adapting the physical adaptation, the content of the course, and the assessment. ...
As a result of the nature and outcomes of classroom education, questions concerning what constitutes successful teaching persist. This study intends to characterize, from the perspective of primary school teacher candidates, the practices of primary school teachers in terms of effective instruction in inclusive classrooms. Observations of nonparticipants were used to collect qualitative data for this study. The research study group consists of the final-year primary school teaching students and the teachers at the schools where these students do their internships. Students' observations yielded qualitative data that was examined using content analysis. The study revealed that classroom teachers are deficient in their use of teaching tactics, particularly in adjusting instruction, classroom management, and behavior management. The acquired results were reviewed within the context of the issues encountered by classroom teachers in terms of successful teaching in inclusive classrooms and the suitability of undergraduate programs that prepare teachers for general education.
... Experts originally developed teaching standards during the movement to professionalize teaching (Milanowski, 2011). Teaching standards typically describe general aspects of quality instruction and professional practice with associated indicators to provide specificity for each standard (Gilmour et al., 2019). When used for teacher evaluation, professional standards are often operationalized in rubrics that outline observable teacher or student behaviors within three to five levels of effectiveness (Milanowski, 2011). ...
... Researchers raised concerns that rubrics mischaracterized some research-supported techniques for instructing young children and students with disabilities as typifying lower levels of teacher proficiency (Morris-Mathews, 2021; Patrick et al., 2020). A study focused on classroom management and found few rubrics addressed teacher responses to student misbehavior (Gilmour et al., 2019). Despite their differing foci, these studies share the conclusion that teacher evaluation rubrics overlook key aspects of effective teaching. ...
Federal legislation in the United States granted states freedom to alter formerly test-based teacher evaluation systems and situate family engagement as a key component in school improvement efforts. Concurrently, theorizing on family engagement has moved away from deficit characterizations and school-based involvement to an asset-based approach focused on equitable stakeholder collaborations committed to driving systemic change. Seeking to understand how states are characterizing exemplary teaching in terms of family and community engagement, the current study uses directed qualitative content analysis to examine 15 teacher evaluation rubrics or standards. The findings indicate that many evaluation systems were narrowly focused on the procedural aspects of teaching and teacher engagement with families was too often viewed merely as a mechanism to yield academic gains and meet legal requirements. The rubrics that explicitly stated that teachers should be culturally responsive provided a semblance of hope for pushing evaluative practices through the engagement barrier and into a space of collaboration that departs from dominant school-based approaches. These results have implications for the design of teacher evaluation policy and the furthering of equity-centered partnerships with families and communities.
... En los últimos años, el asesoramiento pedagógico se ha orientado desde un enfoque formativo(Mineduc, 2019), no obstante, recientes estudios advierten que la implementación del asesoramiento no ha estado exenta de tensiones, en especial por la dificultad de consensuar un propósito compartido entre los actores involucrados(Díaz-Terrero et al., 2018; Izarra, 2019;Zeballos, 2020). Se ha mostrado también que la responsabilidad de brindar asesoramiento pedagógico recae casi exclusivamente en expertos, integrantes de los equipos directivos, quienes se han centrado en evaluar el desempeño desde una lógica prescriptiva y jerárquica, quedando de nuevo el profesorado postergado a ocupar un rol pasivo en su propio proceso de aprendizaje profesional (Leiva y Vásquez, 2019).En atención a estos desafíos, varios estudios de aprendizaje profesional destacan el uso de rúbricas como una estrategia que permite al profesorado y equipos directivos analizar y reflexionar sistemáticamente sobre su práctica educativa(Gilmour et al., 2019;Panadero et al., 2013;Tobón et al., 2020). De igual forma, se ha demostrado que el uso sistemático de rúbricas impulsa procesos de colaboración y diálogos constructivos en torno a metas específicas de mejora(Panadero y Romero, 2014;Velasco y Tójar, 2018). ...
El objetivo de esta investigación fue comparar la incidencia en la práctica del aula de distintos modelos de asesoramiento pedagógico con el apoyo de rúbricas. Participaron 60 docentes y 20 directivos escolares, seleccionados intencionadamente, emparejados y distribuidos luego al azar en cuatro condiciones: a) asesoramiento experto con rúbrica normativa; b) asesoramiento experto con rúbrica ideográfica; c) asesoramiento entre iguales con rúbrica normativa; d) asesoramiento entre iguales con rúbrica ideográfica. En cada modalidad se desarrollaron seis sesiones de asesoramiento para la mejora de la práctica docente, inmediatamente después de sendas clases. Para recoger la información del desempeño docente se grabaron en video la clase 1 y la 6 (pre y postest) que fueron sometidas después a una evaluación “ciega” por un juez experto. Los resultados evidencian que los docentes de las cuatro condiciones de asesoramiento mejoraron significativamente su desempeño en aula. Los grupos que utilizaron rúbricas ideográficas mostraron diferencias significativas en comparación con los grupos que usaron rúbrica estandarizada, independiente de si el acompañante fue un experto (directivo escolar con experiencia asesora) o un igual (docente del mismo centro). Se concluye que el uso de rúbricas ideográficas, construidas por los propios participantes, podrían favorecer la comprensión compartida del desempeño docente e impactar de modo positivo en la autorregulación de las prácticas en aula.
... This works the same way as an evaluation and assessment material, which determines whether or not students comprehend the topic taught. (Yono, 2021) Dealing with this finding, there are a number of studies discussing the importance of giving feedback (e.g., Dzubinski, 2014;Gilmour et al., 2019;Oliver et al., 2011;Sammaknejad & Marzban, 2016;Stewart, 2008;Wut & Xu, 2021). Dzubinski (2014) argues that students are able to persevere because of positive feedback from their teachers and classmates, which encourages them to attempt new things and gradually gain confidence. ...
Due to the scarcity of studies on online EFL classroom management in the Indonesian context, this study attempts to explore online EFL classroom management from the viewpoints of Indonesian EFL teachers in terms of its processes, strategies, and challenges. This study employed a qualitative case study approach involving 6 EFL teachers. Within three months, data were gathered through interviews with EFL teachers, which were then evaluated in a narrative way. The findings reveal that (1) in management process, teachers must make an appointment with students, prepare the content and task for online learning, deliver materials and tasks through online media, and give feedback to students’ works directly or indirectly for their evaluation or assessment; It takes a lot of processes to complete online learning management from the preparation, implementation, and evaluation stages; (2) teachers may use different strategies in managing online EFL classrooms; however, the most important points are using clear instructions in organizing the students (e.g., in doing tasks) to minimize students’ confusion, using a balance portion in using a variety of assignment methods (individual, pair, and group), and choosing interesting learning activities to engage students; and (3) the challenges faced by Indonesian EFL teachers are, among others, developing online learning materials and tasks, building a strong online learning community, and integrating teacher-student-parent relationships in online learning. This study may have implications to several parties, such as EFL teachers, students, and parents.
... In view of this, it is necessitated to support education leaders and policy makers at varied levels of educational governance in public, private and semi-governmental educational institutions; in formulating adaptive, coherent, effective and equitable education responses to a crisis situation that will significantly disrupt educational opportunities. In this scenario it is noted that online learning and evaluation provides the greatest versatility and opportunity for interaction for students and children simultaneously (Gilmour et al., 2019). Kahoot, Quizizz, Google Forms and such other interactive contemporary academic applications are learning technology that opens vistas for novel ways of teaching in the modern classroom environment. ...
The Covid-19 pandemic has a significant impact on Indonesia's education today. Students from both junior and senior batches of universities must experience changes in learning systems and models. Demands for change are felt not only by students but also by teachers. The teacher must meet the demands of distance learning. This also impacts on the use of appropriate tools in evaluating student learning outcomes. The Quizizz website is one of the teacher's tools for evaluating. However, it is not yet known whether Quizizz is the right tool for evaluating. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of using Quizizz as an evaluation tool. The research method is quantitative with quasi-experimental design. There are control and experiment classes, each with a sample of 37 students of Elementary School Teacher Education Study Program. Data obtained in the form of test score figures will be analyzed using independent t-test to find out whether the two data groups have significant mean differences. The "t-test for Equality of Means" column shows the results of the independent t-test. Sig. Value from the t-test is 0.138. If α = 0.05, then Sig.> 0.05. This shows that there is no significant difference between the experimental class and the control class. The results of the data analysis showed that there were no significant differences between the experimental and control classes. This shows that the use of the Quizizz website is less effective as a means of evaluating learning outcomes.The use of the quizizz website as a means of evaluating student learning outcomes needs to be further examined
... As the scale of education continues to expand and the number of students increases, the quality of teaching and learning becomes an increasing concern for society. e quality of education is crucial to the survival and development of the school and is the centrepiece and constant theme of all schoolwork [7]. ...
In recent years, China’s economic strength has been developing rapidly. At the same time, people’s daily living standards have also been increasingly rising. In this context, the authorities are paying more and more attention to the training of students as well as talents. As a result, the quality of classroom teaching in universities has become a major concern. As an essential evaluation tool for teaching quality, evaluation of classroom teaching has been widely recognised and implemented. With the rapid development of computer technology and information technology, teaching evaluation based on various algorithms has been widely used, thus becoming an increasingly important teaching evaluation method. Thus, classroom teaching assessment has become one of the hot issues discussed in the field of education both at home and abroad. A great number of universities are now fully aware that the effectiveness of teachers is central to their survival and development and can have a direct impact on the training of students. The criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of teaching are highly subjective, but at the same time, there is a considerable degree of objectivity. As a result, the application of more scientific methods and computational data can make the results of classroom assessment more reliable. However, there is a lack of reliable reference data for evaluating the quality of classroom teaching in higher education. In addition, it is difficult to develop an evaluation data management and evaluation management model based on multiple data sources, which may cause a negative effect on the impartiality and objectivity of evaluation results. What is worse, many teachers do not have enough time to interact with their students. After all, most teachers in universities now have a heavy teaching load, and much of their time is spent on lesson preparation. Hence, they usually lack active interaction with their students. In the current education system, the objectives of higher education are mainly test-taking, and practical application is lacking. Therefore, based on the existing teaching basis, how to improve the effectiveness of university classroom teaching and improve the overall quality of students on the basis of test-taking objectives will be a key issue in teaching research. In order to solve this problem, this paper mainly researches the evaluation of classroom teaching quality in universities based on the interval intuitionistic fuzzy theory. This study is based on a detailed analysis of the needs of teaching quality assessment management, in terms of comprehensiveness of assessment and data sources. Then, the teaching evaluation system is designed and developed based on an analysis of the roles of students and teachers. This system can be applied to speed up the efficiency and fairness of teaching evaluation in universities, thereby greatly improving the management of teaching in universities.
The effects of imposing accountability pressures on public school teachers are empirically indeterminate. In this paper, we study the effects of accountability in the context of teacher responses to student behavioral infractions in the aftermath of teacher evaluation reforms. We leverage cross-state variation in the timing of state policy implementation to estimate whether teachers change the rate at which they remove students from their classrooms. We find that higher-stakes teacher evaluation had no causal effect on the rates of disciplinary referrals, and we find no evidence of heterogeneous effects for grades subject to greater accountability pressures or in schools facing differing levels of disciplinary infractions. Our results are precisely estimated and robust to a battery of assumption and specification checks.
The study aims to find out the classroom management interactivity among high school students. Teachers are responsible
for orchestrating the attention towards learning, of the various students in a limited space. Therefore, regardless of how well
a teacher understands the students' needs, the teacher should create a positive, emotional and academic climate.
Implementing instructional approach that assists optimum acquisition by responding to the academic needs of individual
students and the course of study as a group is the need of the hour. Teachers need to use organizational and group
management methods that maximize on-task student behaviour. Teachers get an opportunity to be with the students for a
longer period of time and can actually influence students. Teachers seeking to establish a learning community amidst the
troublesome classrooms will still need the familiar classroom management strategies of articulating clear expectations,
adopting preventive and corrective discipline procedures, modeling and providing instruction in the desired practices. The
research was a survey type which consists of simple random sampling of 800 High school teachers in Dindigul and Madurai
districts. The investigator developed the classroom management scale and used the following statistical techniques for
analyzing and interpreting the data.
Keywords: Classroom Management, High School Teachers, Teaching-Learning, Student Behavior.
Effective classroom instructional and behavior management is essential to ensure student academic and social success. Foundational strategies such as clear expectations and routines, specific feedback, and high rates of opportunities to respond have strong empirical support, yet are often missing from educator repertoires. In this article, the authors provide a brief rationale for the inclusion of evidence-based practices accompanied with recommended resources to identify current and future practices. In addition, they also provide an overview of effective in-service educator professional development, to ensure evidence-based practices are implemented with fidelity, and recommended systemic strategies that schools and school districts can adopt to support teacher learning. Implications for teacher preparation programs also are discussed.
Academics and behavior are inextricably linked, and as such, management of behavior should be considered not as an addition to the teacher’s repertoire of skills but as an integral foundational component of effective instruction. Paradoxically, teachers report that students with challenging behavior are both their greatest challenge and that behavior management is the skill with which they are least prepared in their teacher preparation programs. In this article, the authors first review a rationale for considering high probability practices as those that provide the best probability for student success. Next, they present a set of key teacher-implemented management strategies as an essential part of the curriculum for any prospective teacher.
Many children with behavior problems perform poorly academically and can disrupt regular classroom instruction. Although good classroom management strategies can benefit children with behavior problems, it is not clear whether these students need consistently good classroom management across the early elementary school years to improve their academic performance. The current study examined the quality of classroom management from kindergarten through third grade experienced by children who were rated as exhibiting symptoms of emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) in the classroom to understand the cumulative effects in relationship to third-grade reading performance. Results indicated that higher-quality classroom management in the first 4 years of school was significantly related to higher scores on standardized measures of reading achievement in third grade for boys exhibiting EBD, but girls exhibiting EBD appeared unaffected by the quality of teachers’ classroom management during this same time. Practitioner implications and future research needs are discussed.
In the past five years, teacher evaluation has become a preferred policy lever at the federal, state, and local levels. Revisions to teacher evaluation systems have made teachers individually accountable for student achievement to a greater extent than ever before. We describe and analyze the components, processes, and consequences embedded in new teacher evaluation policies in all fifty states, the twenty-five largest school districts, and Washington, DC. We contextualize these policies by basing our analysis in prior research on teacher evaluation, and examining key comparisons between state and district policies, including their treatment of teachers in tested and untested subjects with career and beginning teachers. We find notable differences in how states and the largest districts have structured evaluation policies for all teachers and, in particular, for early career teachers compared with their more veteran counterparts, and for teachers in nontested grades and subjects compared with those in tested grades and subjects.
Purpose:
New teacher evaluation systems have expanded the role of principals as instructional leaders, but little is known about principals' ability to promote teacher development through the evaluation process. We conducted a case study of principals' perspectives on evaluation and their experiences implementing observation and feedback cycles to better understand whether principals feel as though they are able to promote teacher development as evaluators.
Research methods:
We conducted interviews with a stratified random sample of 24 principals in an urban district that recently implemented major reforms to its teacher evaluation system. We analyzed these interviews by drafting thematic summaries, coding interview transcripts, creating data-analytic matrices, and writing analytic memos.
Findings:
We found that the evaluation reforms provided a common framework and language that helped facilitate principals' feedback conversations with teachers. However, we also found that tasking principals with primary responsibility for conducting evaluations resulted in a variety of unintended consequences which undercut the quality of evaluation feedback they provided. We analyze five broad solutions to these challenges: strategically targeting evaluations, reducing operational responsibilities, providing principal training, hiring instructional coaches, and developing peer evaluation systems.
Implications:
The quality of feedback teachers receive through the evaluation process depends critically on the time and training evaluators have to provide individualized and actionable feedback. Districts that task principals with primary responsibility for conducting observation and feedback cycles must attend to the many implementation challenges associated with this approach in order for next-generation evaluation systems to successfully promote teacher development.
Measures that can be used to identify malleable, dynamic indicators of teacher practices that lead to or are associated with student outcomes are needed to inform classroom interventions and consultation practices with teachers. The purpose of this study was to evaluate and validate the Brief Student–Teacher Classroom Interaction Observation in elementary classrooms (Grades K–3). A universal sample of 896 students was observed during classroom instruction. The measure was utilized to gather information on how teachers interacted with students with regard to their use of positive versus negative feedback during a 5-min window at the start of the school year. Findings indicate that students who received more negative feedback than positive feedback from their teacher were rated at the end of the year as having a significant increase in problems with emotion regulation, concentration problems, and observed disruptive behavior, whereas students who received more positive feedback demonstrated significant increases in prosocial behaviors. Implications for how this brief 5-min observation can be used to inform teacher practice and identify students at the start of the year in need of additional supports are discussed.
Chicago Public Schools initiated the Excellence in Teaching Project, a teacher evaluation program designed to increase student learning by improving classroom instruction through structured principal-teacher dialogue. The pilot began in forty-four elementary schools in 2008–09 (cohort 1) and scaled up to include an additional forty-eight elementary schools in 2009–10 (cohort 2). Leveraging the experimental design of the rollout, cohort 1 schools performed better in reading and math than cohort 2 schools at the end of the first year, though the math effects are not statistically significant. We find the initial improvement for cohort 1 schools remains even after cohort 2 schools adopted the program.Moreover, the pilot differentially impacted schools with different characteristics. Higher-achieving and lower-poverty schools were the primary beneficiaries, suggesting the intervention wasmost successful in more advantaged schools. These findings are relevant for policy makers and school leaders who are implementing evaluation systems that incorporate classroom observations.
Much of the recent focus of educational policymakers has been on improving the measurement of teacher effectiveness. Linking student growth to teacher effects has been a large part of reform efforts. To date, neither researchers nor practitioners have arrived at a consensus on how to treat test scores from students with disabilities in growth-based teacher effectiveness indicators, despite the fact that these students make up approximately 13% of the K-12 student population. In this study, we leverage longitudinal data from the population of teachers in one state to explore practical questions related to including general assessment scores from students with disabilities in teacher evaluation. Findings suggest that including test scores from students with disabilities allows more teachers to be evaluated and does not substantially affect teachers’ scores. Moreover, including disability-related covariates can allow for fairer evaluations for teachers with many students with disabilities in their class.
In this article, John Papay argues that teacher evaluation tools should be assessed not only on their ability to measure teacher performance accurately, but also on how well they inform and support ongoing teacher development. He looks at two major approaches to teacher evaluation reform: value-added measures and standards-based evaluations. Papay analyzes these two approaches both as measurement tools and as professional development tools, illuminating the advantages, drawbacks, and untapped potential of each. In the process, attention is refocused towards a broader conception of the purpose of teacher evaluation.
In this article, Heather C. Hill and Pam Grossman discuss the current focus on using teacher observation instruments as part of new teacher evaluation systems being considered and implemented by states and districts. They argue that if these teacher observation instruments are to achieve the goal of supporting teachers in improving instructional practice, they must be subject-specific, involve content experts in the process of observation, and provide information that is both accurate and useful for teachers. They discuss the instruments themselves, raters and system design, and timing of and feedback from the observations. They conclude by outlining the challenges that policy makers face in designing observation systems that will work to improve instructional practice at scale.