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Imagining stereotypes away: The moderation of implicit stereotypes through mental imagery
Abstract
Research on implicit stereotypes has raised important questions about an individual's ability to moderate and control stereotypic responses. With few strategies shown to be effective in moderating implicit effects, the present research investigates a new strategy based on focused mental imagery. Across 5 experiments, participants who engaged in counterstereotypic mental imagery produced substantially weaker implicit stereotypes compared with participants who engaged in neutral, stereotypic, or no mental imagery. This reduction was demonstrated with a variety of measures, eliminating explanations based on response suppression or shifts in response criterion. Instead, the results suggest that implicit stereotypes are malleable, and that controlled processes, such as mental imagery, may influence the stereotyping process at its early as well as later stages.
... Exersarea. Mai mulţi autori au arătat că exersarea sau anumite forme de antrenament mental (imagerie, acceptare, meditaţie) facilitează inhibarea stereotipurilor (ex.: Kawakami et al., 2000;Blair, Ma & Lenton, 2001;Blair, 2002;Wegner, 2011). Conform rezultatelor obţinute de Kawakami şi colaboratorii (2000), un antrenament mental de negare a stereotipurilor (rasiale sau referitoare la categoria "skinhead", în studiul citat) mediază activarea automată ulterioară a acestora. ...
... Influenţa unor variabile moderatoare asupra activării şi aplicării stereotipurilor a fost studiată mai mult în literatură, comparativ cu influenţa unor astfel de variabile asupra capacităţii indivizilor de a suprima (de a controla conştient) stereotipurile activate. Dintre factorii care ar putea asigura succesul suprimării informaţiei stereotipice, studiile existente au evidenţiat: utilizarea unor strategii de comutare şi concentrare a atenţiei (Wenzlaff & Bates, 2000), imageria mentală (Blair, Ma & Lenton, 2001), exersarea controlului mental (Kawakami et al., 2000;Blair, 2002), respectiv formularea precisă a intenţiilor (Gollwitzer & Schaal, 1998). ...
... Inhibiţia voluntară a stereotipurilor ( § 6.2, § 6.4) este solicitantă sub aspectul efortului şi a resurselor cognitive, iar conform unui număr important de studii, devine ineficientă şi conduce la erori contraintenţionale în condiţii de stres, presiune a timpului sau în condiţiile unor resurse de prelucrare limitate (Wegner & Wenzlaff, 1996;Wyer, Sherman & Stroessner, 1998;Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2007). Cu toate acestea, există o serie de condiţii în care inhibiţia voluntară a stereotipurilor poate deveni eficientă: disponibilitatea resurselor cognitive şi integritatea funcţiilor executive (von Hippel, Silver & Lynch, 2000;Payne 2005), atitudini adverse reduse sau motivaţie de evitare a prejudecăţilor ridicată (Monteith, Sherman & Devine, 1998;Monteith, Spicer & Tooman, 1998;Wyer, Sherman & Stroessner, 1998;Gordijn et al., 2004;Wyer, 2007), utilizarea unor strategii mentale cum ar fi formularea precisă a intenţiilor sau focalizarea deliberată a atenţiei asupra unor stimuli alternativi (Gollwitzer & Schaal, 1998;Wegner et al., 1987;Wenzlaff & Bates, 2000;Lin & Wicker, 2007;Wegner, 2011), repetiţia selectivă (Dunn & Spellman, 2003) exersarea sau anumite forme de antrenament mental (imagerie, acceptare, meditaţie) (Kawakami et al., 2000;Blair, Ma & Lenton, 2001;Blair, 2002;Gailliot et al., 2007;Wegner, 2011). ...
... Pour notre discipline, cet espace recouvre d'autant plus d'intérêt que la déconstruction des stéréotypes figure désormais comme cheval de bataille . En parallèle, la psychologie sociale accorde une attention particulière aux contre-stéréotypes : construits en miroir des stéréotypes, ils incarneraient leur antidote (Blair et al., 2001). Bien que le contre-stéréotype ne jouisse pas de la renommée du stéréotype dans la pensée sociale, il a su s'immiscer de façon anonyme dans le champ de l'éducation. ...
... This area is even more interesting for our discipline since deconstructing stereotypes is a war horse . At the same time, social psychology pays attention to counter-stereotypes: constructed as a mirror of stereotypes, they are said to act as their cure (Blair et al., 2001). Although counter-stereotype does not hold the same reputation as stereotype in social thinking, it has anonymously penetrated the educational system. ...
... Enfin, les recherches qui se sont attachées à saisir les effets des contre-stéréotypes rappellent la liaison qu'ils entretiennent avec les stéréotypes. Le fait de penser à un contre-stéréotype augmenterait les associations contre-stéréotypiques en mémoire et inhiberait, dans le même temps, les stéréotypes (Blair et al., 2001). Il est cependant d'autant plus intéressant de voir que les stéréotypes et contre-stéréotypes ne s'annulent pas, mais partagent un espace commun. ...
En se situant au croisement des sphères scientifique, politique et sociale, la formation initiale des professeur.es des écoles (PE) à l’égalité des sexes est un objet de recherche prolifique. Pour notre discipline, cet espace recouvre d’autant plus d’intérêt que la déconstruction des stéréotypes figure désormais comme cheval de bataille (Morin-Messabel et al., 2018). En parallèle, la psychologie sociale accorde une attention particulière aux contre-stéréotypes : construits en miroir des stéréotypes, ils incarneraient leur antidote (Blair et al., 2001). Bien que le contre-stéréotype ne jouisse pas de la renommée du stéréotype dans la pensée sociale, il a su s’immiscer de façon anonyme dans le champ de l’éducation. L’objectif de notre thèse est de saisir la manière dont ces concepts psychosociaux, ainsi que la notion d’égalité, sont représentés dans la formation des futur.es PE, notamment par les formé.es. Dans cette perspective, notre protocole de recherche s’inscrit dans une stratégie de triangulation (Kalampalikis & Apostolidis, 2021). En premier lieu, nous avons mené des entretiens individuels semi-directifs auprès de futur.es PE (n=43), de manière sérielle (i.e. pendant le M1, le M2, et la 1ère année de stage). Puis, nous avons appréhendé les savoirs collectifs des formé.es en conduisant 3 focus groups (i.e. M1, M2, mixte). L’observation des séances de formation à l’égalité des sexes (n=4) constitue notre troisième étape de recherche. Celle-ci nous invitait à interroger les interactions formateur.trice.s-masterant.es, en nous focalisant plus particulièrement sur les connaissances dispensées par les enseignant.es-chercheur.es en charge de ces enseignements. En dernier lieu, l’analyse des textes officiels produits par les politiques éducatives, de 1984 à 2019, sur les questions d’égalité filles-garçons (n=7) nous permettait d’approcher un langage politique. Les résultats obtenus révèlent la prépondérance des notions d’égalité et de stéréotype, les deux fonctionnant ensemble dans les différents discours recueillis. Nous notons des définitions consensuelles à leur égard. Néanmoins, le concept de différence vient flouter les deux termes et fait dissensus. Le contre-stéréotype, quant à lui, n’est que peu nommé en tant que tel, et demeure marginal. C’est la liaison qu’il entretient avec le stéréotype qui lui permet d’être reconnu et conceptualisé. Enfin, lorsque les stéréotypes et contre-stéréotypes sont théorisés, les discours portent l’empreinte d’un vocabulaire psychosocial.
... Reducing systematic structural injustice against the relevant groups could facilitate and encourage the entry of a representative number of members of certain groups into boardrooms and creative disciplines alike. If more people from such groups were present in these spaces, hiring committees and art prize judges would continually be exposed to counter-stereotypical exemplars (something that has been shown to reduce bias; see, e.g., Blair et al., 2001) that could have long-term effects on the relevant biases. ...
... When we turn to mitigation strategies, in the photography case, but not the sculpture case, we might need neutral spaces. Judges of photography might engage in general mental imagery exercises concerning strong women (as Blair et al., 2001, found to be effective), while judges of sculpture might engage in virtual reality environments that abound with female sculptors. Before recommending a given kind of mitigation technique ahead of aesthetic evaluation in the service of art prize awarding, work is needed on stereotypes in the artworld, and the effects of placement in a stereotyped context on successful mitigation. ...
We have higher-order evidence that aesthetic judgements in the context of awarding art prizes may be affected by implicit bias, to the detriment of artists from marginalized groups. Epistemologists have suggested how to respond to higher-order evidence by appeal to bracketing or suspending judgement. We explain why these approaches do not help in this context. We turn to three ways of addressing the operation of implicit bias: (i) anonymization, (ii) the production of objective criteria, (iii) direct implicit bias mitigation techniques. We show that, in the art prize case, strategy (i) is sometimes counterproductive and any benefits are partial, and strategy (ii) is difficult or impossible to implement. This means that the need for (iii) (direct implicit bias mitigation techniques) is more pressing here than elsewhere. The art prize context is one where mitigation of a particular kind is all we are left with. However, domain-specific problems arise for this strategy too, which call for further empirical work on the operation of implicit bias in the artworld. We conclude that the problem of implicit bias as it arises in the specific context of awarding prizes in the artworld is especially challenging and, given the unavailability of alternative mitigations in this context, the need for direct bias mitigation is even more pressing here than in society in general.
... Exposure to counterstereotypes lowers the use of stereotypical traits in the formation of target impression, leading to a greater tendency to use emerging attributes to describe the target (Hutter & Crisp, 2005). Blair et al. (2001) found, across five studies, that male and female participants engaging in counter-stereotypical (vs. stereotypical, neutral, none) mental imagery revealed weaker (implicit) gender stereotypes (see also Dasgupta & Asgari, 2004). ...
... These findings are in line with literature on the effectiveness of exposure to counter-stereotypical exemplars. We showed that such media exposure is not only associated with constructs like gender stereotypes (Blair et al., 2001), stereotyped emotions (Prati et al., 2015), or beliefs, and attitudes, and or aspirations (Simon & Hoyt, 2012); it is also associated with enhanced perceptions of women's ability to engage in counterstereotypical occupations, which is at the core of the gender gap. Adding novelty, we also showed that these effects are mediated by greater perceived female agency. ...
By relying on literature on counter-stereotypes and media contact, we investigated whether media exposure is associated with counter-stereotypical gender perceptions. Focusing on the 2019 FIFA Women’s World Cup, we recruited samples ( N = 2,228) from eight competing countries (China, France, Germany, Italy, Scotland, Spain, England, US) across three continents. We hypothesized that exposure to media coverage of the competition’s counter-stereotypical female exemplars would be associated with increased counter-stereotypical perceptions of women. Results revealed that media exposure was associated with greater communion and agency attributed to women. In turn, communion and agency were associated (negatively and positively, respectively) with attribution of stereotypically male abilities (abilities to engage in stereotypically male academic disciplines and jobs) to women compared to men. No effects emerged for perceptions of stereotypically female characteristics. Gender moderated these effects, with associations being stronger among male than among female respondents. Theoretical and practical implications of findings are discussed.
... In the broader implicit bias intervention literature, a recent metaanalysis identified nearly 500 studies that tested efforts to change implicit bias and found that implicit bias typically yielded with small to moderate effect sizes [18]. Consistent with findings from other recent studies, the meta-analysis found that the most effective strategies include those that (1) promote anti-bias goal setting (e.g., priming egalitarian norms and setting intentions to reduce biased responding) and proactive responding [22], (2) increase empathy (e.g., perspective taking and seeking commonality) [23,24], and (3) directly address the cognitive process of stereotyping (e.g., counter-stereotyping) [25][26][27][28]. However, the predominant majority of these interventions were decontextualized, one-time laboratory procedures with time-limited effects [29]. ...
... Half of the participants (n = 6) were from the Midwest, 3 were from the South, 2 from the Northeast, and 1 from the West Coast. They ranged in age (75% identified as between [25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44], years of experience in school mental health (75% indicated they were within their 2nd to 8th year). One participant dropped out after completing the post-training assessment. ...
Clinician bias has been identified as a potential contributor to persistent healthcare disparities across many medical specialties and service settings. Few studies have examined strategies to reduce clinician bias, especially in mental healthcare, despite decades of research evidencing service and outcome disparities in adult and pediatric populations. This manuscript describes an intervention development study and a pilot feasibility trial of the Virtual Implicit Bias Reduction and Neutralization Training (VIBRANT) for mental health clinicians in schools—where most youth in the U.S. access mental healthcare. Clinicians (N = 12) in the feasibility study—a non-randomized open trial—rated VIBRANT as highly usable, appropriate, acceptable, and feasible for their school-based practice. Preliminarily, clinicians appeared to demonstrate improvements in implicit bias knowledge, use of bias-management strategies, and implicit biases (as measured by the Implicit Association Test [IAT]) post-training. Moreover, putative mediators (e.g., clinicians’ VIBRANT strategies use, IAT D scores) and outcome variables (e.g., clinician-rated quality of rapport) generally demonstrated correlations in the expected directions. These pilot results suggest that brief and highly scalable online interventions such as VIBRANT are feasible and promising for addressing implicit bias among healthcare providers (e.g., mental health clinicians) and can have potential downstream impacts on minoritized youth’s care experience.
... In contrast to our multifaceted video primes (i.e. featuring more than just drug addict exemplars), Dasgupta and Greenwald's (2001) use of well-known counter-stereotypical exemplars served as unambiguous targets that elicited strongly positive affect and evaluations, in the same way that self-created mental imageries focused specifically on the intended target (Blair et al., 2001). ...
... Another limitation of this study is that the type of media portrayals of drug addicts may not have provided a robust mental representation to influence implicit and pre-existing attitudes consistently. It is important that the nature and content of the primes themselves should be given great attention due to the specificity required of the depicted exemplar and elicited mental imagery to have an appreciable effect on attitude change (Blair et al., 2001;Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001). ...
Drug addicts as a stigmatized group became important to study due to the public sentiments, media discourses, and government actions they have stirred within the country. This research explored how information received through broadcast media (i.e. through priming) influences attitudes toward drug addicts. In this research, priming was accomplished through the exposure of the research participants to media stimuli on drug addicts. Through a 2×3 mixed design experiment, participants’ perceptions of drug addicts were measured using an explicit attitude scale and implicit attitudes measurement using the Single Target-Implicit Association Test (ST-IAT). The baseline explicit and implicit attitudes were initially measured, then re-measured after each presentation of a news report about drug addicts who have either recovered from their condition or committed a heinous crime (within-subjects). Order effects on ST-IAT scores were also accounted for by counterbalancing the order of primes presented (between-subjects). Results showed that the order of prime presentation did not result in significant differences in change of attitude. Furthermore, recovery (positive) primes result in less negative to neutral but not positive attitudes, whereas criminal (negative) primes simply return participants to almost baseline negative attitudes. Therefore, although media representations can influence public attitudes toward drug addicts, such effects are nuanced and crucially dependent on the features of media information, what representations or attributes are made salient, and what domain of attitudes is being investigated.
... In addition, it is reasonable to expect that in deliberation, people may be led to consider examples and scenarios that contradict their negative stereotypes and prejudices about such groups. And as empirical findings show, this is a technique which has also proven effective at mitigating implicit biases (Blair et al. 2001). Furthermore, deliberation also provides the conditions for people to take on different perspectives and focus on individual (rather than stereotypical) features of members 17 For a thorough discussion of work on debiasing, as well as replies to critiques to this literature, see Madva (2017). of social groups. ...
Research on the normative ideal of democracy has taken a sharp deliberative and epistemic turn. It is now increasingly common for claims about the putative cognitive benefits of political deliberation to play central roles in normative arguments for democracy. In this paper, I argue that the most prominent epistemic defences of deliberative democracy fail. Relying on empirical findings on the workings of implicit bias, I show that they overstate the epistemic virtues of political deliberation. I also argue that findings in cognitive and social psychology can aid in the development of a new and improved generation of epistemic arguments for deliberative democracy.
... Furthermore, using a shorter SOA also allowed us to rule out the influence of controlled processes, which might have counteracted stereotype activation effects in Experiments 1 and 2. Although such an influence is unlikely, we still cannot rule out that participants may want to counteract stereotype activation to appear as being unbiased (Blair & Banaji, 1996;Blair et al., 2001;Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001). We adopted the same design as in the first experiment that focused only on the difference between matching and mismatching prime-target conditions, which guarantees a maximum number of trials entering into the matching and mismatching conditions. ...
The current study investigated category-based activation of stereotypes when processing of the category primes is mandatory. In three high-powered pre-registered experiments (total n = 211), we compared responses to age-stereotypic traits (e.g., lonely) after presenting matching versus mismatching category primes (old vs. young faces) of which the age information had to be remembered. Experiments varied in stimulus-onset asynchronies (SOA; 250 ms vs. 500 ms) and in the inclusion of neutral conditions of prime and target factors. Consistently across all experiments, no facilitation of matching category primes was observed, indicating that category information alone does not facilitate processing of matching stereotypes even if it is attended. The theoretical and practical implications for activation and representation of stereotypes are discussed.
... Note that creativity was also found to be linked to stereotyping and prejudice in studies that demonstrated an improvement in creativity following counter-stereotypic interventions. These interventions were found to reduce stereotypes and prejudice [84] and to require thinking contrary to stereotypic expectations [81,85]. For example, Gocłowska and Crisp [85] showed participants either a stereotypic target, such as a male mechanic, or a counter-stereotypic target, such as a female mechanic. ...
Conflicts between groups are difficult to resolve, partly because humans tend to be biased in judging outgroup members. The aim of the current article is to review findings on the link between creativity and conflict-related biases and to offer a model that views creative cognition as an ability that may contribute to overcoming conflict-related biases. Our proposed model conforms to the twofold model of creativity. According to this model, creativity involves a generation phase and an evaluation phase, and these phases correspond to the neural mechanisms that underlie conflict-related biases. Specifically, we contend that the generation phase of creativity affects conflict-related biases by exerting an influence on stereotypes and prejudice, outgroup-targeted emotions, and ingroup empathy biases, all of which rely on the default mode network. Conversely, the evaluation phase of creativity, which is usually associated with activation in the executive control network and action-observation system, may be related to herding behaviors. Building on the shared mechanisms of creativity and conflicts, we propose that studies examining creativity-based interventions may be effective in promoting reconciliation.
... There are various stereotype avoidance approaches. For instance, researchers provided counter-stereotypical exemplars (Blair et al., 2001) and formed counter-stereotypic intentions (Blair & Banaji, 1996) to decrease stereotypes. They also trained people to reject stereotypic targets after a social category prime (Kawakami et al., 2000) and taught the low stereotype consensus among people (Sechrist & Stangor, 2001). ...
Creative thinking is the psychological mechanism underlying the descriptive process that produces real-life creative outcomes. However, the connection between individual creative thinking and real-life creativity remains unclear. For example, the widely employed psychometric tools for creative thinking showed limited predictive power towards real-life creativity. In addition, empirical evidence for the social psychology of creativity is inconsistent. Also, the links between creative thinking and social cognitive process are rarely validated in the field. Besides, some domains that require creativity lack guiding theories and empirical evidence. Therefore, this research project aimed to advance the understanding of creative thinking and its role in real-life situations. To address the knowledge gap and fulfil the central purpose, we conducted four pilot and seven main studies using quantitative research methods. Accordingly, we created an integrative-thinking-based psychometric tool - Function Synthesis Task and validated its discriminate validity and predictive ability towards engineering students' creative product design. To understand the link between social comparison and creativity, we produced a new experimental paradigm that addressed existing methodological issues. We employed the paradigm and found that competition and star rating feedback altered speed or performance in creative thinking tasks. Besides, we produced a new product design task based on a hot topic at the time and found that ranking feedback benefited engineering students' creative performance in the task. Moreover, we designed a new un-stereotype intervention and found its effectiveness in improving marketers' divergent thinking. We also found that advertising stereotypes increased audiences' perceived creativity. Our research shows that integrative thinking and social cognition might play essential roles in developing the theory of creative thinking and offers novel research tools for future studies. We also form practical advice to guide educators, organisational leaders, and policymakers to promote creativity, diversity, and inclusion in real-life situations.
... Thus, asking people explicitly to think of arguments for or against the use of condoms can generate favorable or unfavorable attitudes, respectively, within a task that explicitly asks people to dedicate cognitive effort. This simple manipulation has been used successfully to control the direction of the thoughts that people have in relation to various subjects such as the body itself [46], anti-stereotypical figures [47], the consumption of vegetables [48] and even about inhabiting other planets [49]. In all this research, the key is to think for or against a certain object to lead to consistent evaluations in that direction. ...
The ubiquity of mobile devices and access to the internet has changed our daily life and, in some cases, promoted and facilitated social and sexual interrelationships. There are many applications of technology and campaigns promoting healthy behaviors and prevention of sexually transmitted infections. Can we develop a strategy for the same purpose using mobile devices, based on the theory of attitude change? We developed an app and tested it with 105 undergraduate students, where they had to actively think in favor of condom use with a high amount of elaboration, leading to attitudes and behavioral intention (BI) in concordance with contemporary theories about attitudes and behavioral change. PROCESS macro models were used to analyze potential mediations. Results show a significant correlation between thoughts and attitudes, and attitudes partially mediated the association between thoughts and condom use. Individuals with positive thoughts tended to positively correlate their thoughts with their attitudes, and, consequently, these attitudes with their BI. In this study, we showed that (1) it was possible to develop and test an app based on the elaboration likelihood model (ELM); (2) consistent with previous studies, attitudes partially mediated the association between thoughts and condom use (BI) in a mobile environment; and (3) applications of this strategy can be used to build new approaches for prevention in health care.
... Par exemple, des personnes qui prennent quelques minutes pour imaginer une personne contrestéréotypique (e.g. une femme décrite comme « forte »), rapportent moins de stéréotypes implicites face à l'exogroupe que les participants du groupe contrôle ayant imaginé un paysage (Blair et al., 2001). Dans cette continuité, Turner et al. (2007a) sont les premiers à proposer une intervention de contact imaginé. ...
Réduire la stigmatisation des personnes en situation de handicap est un enjeu de société important mais complexe, qui nécessite des interventions efficaces. Cette question de la stigmatisation préoccupe également les entreprises. Pour favoriser l'accès à l'emploi des personnes en situation de handicap et leur maintien en emploi, il semble nécessaire de réduire leur stigmatisation. Les travaux de recherche sur les relations intergroupes des cinquante dernières années ont montré que les personnes en contact avec des membres exogroupes, réduisent les stéréotypes et préjugés à leur égard, dès les premiers contacts, et face à des groupes variés. Par la suite, d'autres études se sont intéressées au contact indirect comme le contact via une vidéo ou le contact imaginé. Ces contacts indirects seraient également efficaces pour réduire les préjugés face à un exogroupe, mais parfois dans une moindre mesure. Pour renforcer les études sur le contact intergroupe comme moyen de réduire les préjugés face au handicap, nos travaux se sont intéressés aux contacts imaginé, vidéo et incarné, avec comme objectif d'adresser certaines limites existantes dans ce champ de recherche. La thèse principale défendue ici stipule que les effets du contact imaginé, relevant principalement de l'élaboration et de l'imagination, se maintiendraient à long terme. De plus, outre la réduction des préjugés par un changement de perspective cognitive (i.e. contact vidéo et imaginé), le changement de perspective corporelle serait également un moyen efficace de réduire les préjugés (i.e. contact incarné). Ces interventions sont efficaces pour réduire les préjugés face au handicap chez des salariés d'entreprise, et donc généralisables hors du milieu sanitaire et médico-social. Pour soutenir cette thèse, les effets du contact imaginé ont été étudiés en lien avec le niveau d'élaboration cognitive de la tâche d'imagination, afin de comprendre la place de ce processus dans la diminution des attitudes négatives face à la maladie mentale (étude 1). Les effets du contact imaginé ont ensuite été étudiés à moyen terme (étude 2) puis, afin d'en généraliser au maximum les effets, à plus long terme et chez des salariés (étude 3). Le contact vidéo a également été étudié à court, moyen et long terme chez des salariés (étude 3). Par la suite, une action de sensibilisation proposée en entreprise, visant à permettre aux salariés de changer de perspective à un niveau corporel, en réalisant un atelier de cuisine en situation de handicap, a été testée (étude 4). Enfin, de façon plus exploratoire et fondamentale, le contact incarné a été étudié par la mise en situation de handicap dans une tâche d'immobilisation, chez des étudiants (étude 5).Nos résultats ont permis de renforcer la validité du contact imaginé, comme relevant principalement de l'imagination et de l'élaboration dans la tâche, et de fait pas d'un effet de demande expérimentale. Les effets du contact imaginé sur la réduction de la stigmatisation de la maladie mentale ont également été montrés à long terme, sur plus de six mois, et ont été généralisés à des salariés d'une grande entreprise du secteur de l'énergie (i.e. hors du secteur sanitaire et médico-social). Toutefois, le contact imaginé n'a pas permis de réduire les biais implicites face à la maladie mentale dans notre étude et les effets du contact vidéo semblent faibles. En outre, le contact incarné semble une piste prometteuse pour réduire les attitudes implicites face au handicap. Cette thèse CIFRE avait également pour objectif de proposer le contenu d'un outil de formation en ligne, à destination de tous les salariés de l'entreprise (GRDF). Ce cahier des charges a été rédigé au regard des résultats de ces travaux, et plus largement des avancées scientifiques dans le champ des relations intergroupes. Finalement, l'ensemble de ces résultats est discuté et des pistes de recherches futures sont proposées.
... As they gain experience and knowledge, medical professionals may experience less cognitive strain and thus have more mental resources to devote to ensuring equal treatment of patients. It is possible that exposure to counterstereotipic exemplars that contradict an implicit stereotype can lessen it [25]. ...
Background:
Implicit prejudice can lead to disparities in treatment. The effects of specialty and experience on implicit obesity and mental illness prejudice had not been explored. The main objective was to examine how specializing in psychiatry/general medicine and years of experience moderated implicit obesity and mental illness prejudice among Swiss physicians. Secondary outcomes included examining the malleability of implicit bias via two video interventions and a condition of cognitive load, correlations of implicit bias with responses to a clinical vignette, and correlations with explicit prejudice.
Methods:
In stage 1, participants completed an online questionnaire including a clinical vignette. In stage 2, implicit prejudice pre- and post- intervention was tested using a 4 × 4 between-subject design including a control group. In stage 3, explicit prejudice was tested with feeling thermometers and participants were debriefed. Participants were 133 psychiatrists and internists working in Geneva, hospital-based and private practice. Implicit prejudice was assessed using a Weight IAT (Implicit Association Test) and a Mental Illness IAT. Explicit feelings towards the obese and the mentally ill were measured using Feeling Thermometers. A clinical vignette assessed the level of concern felt for a fictional patient under four conditions: control, obese, depression, obese and depression. Linear regression was conducted to test for association of gender, experience, and specialty with responses to vignettes, pre-intervention IATs and explicit attitudes, and to test for association of interventions (or control) with post-intervention IATs and explicit attitudes. Reported effect sizes were computed using Cohen's d. Two-tailed p < 0.05 was selected as the significance threshold.
Results:
Compared to internists, psychiatrists showed significantly less implicit bias against mentally vs. physically ill people than internists and warmer explicit feelings towards the mentally ill. More experienced physicians displayed warmer explicit feelings towards the mentally ill and a greater level of concern for the fictional patients in the vignette than the less experienced, except when the patient was described as obese.
Conclusions:
Specialty moderates both implicit and explicit mental illness prejudice. Experience moderates explicit mental illness bias and concern for patients. The effect of specialty on implicit prejudice seems to be based principally on self-selection.
... Although the capacity to capture unintentional responses is shared by all instruments listed in Table 1, it is worth noting that this capacity does not permit the reverse inference that responses on implicit measures are unaffected by intentional processes. There is an abundance of research showing that intentional processes (e.g., intentional retrieval of specific memories) can influence responses on implicit measures (e.g., Blair et al., 2001;Peters & Gawronski, 2011), which poses a challenge to the idea that responses on implicit measures can be interpreted as uncontaminated indicators of unintentional processes. ...
Various areas in psychology are interested in whether specific processes underlying judgments and behavior operate in an automatic or non-automatic fashion. In social psychology, valuable insights can be gained from evidence on whether and how judgments and behavior under suboptimal processing conditions differ from judgments and behavior under optimal processing conditions. In personality psychology, valuable insights can be gained from individual differences in behavioral tendencies under optimal and suboptimal processing conditions. The current chapter provides a method-focused overview of different features of automaticity (i.e., unintentionality, efficiency, uncontrollability, unconsciousness), how these features can be studied empirically, and pragmatic issues in research on automaticity. Expanding on this overview, the chapter describes the procedures of extant implicit measures and the value of implicit measures for studying automatic processes in judgments and behavior. The chapter concludes with a discussion of pragmatic issues in research using implicit measures.
... Both forms of bias require an external target or attitude object, often a person. This person, as a representation of a group, becomes the stimulus that activates the feelings and experiences that form attitudes (judgment or evaluation; Banaji & Heiphetz, 2010), stereotypes (assignment or association with traits; Blair et al., 2001), and prejudices (negative attitude or ideation; Dasgupta et al., 2009) based on race (Eberhardt et al., 2004), gender (Ridgeway, 2009), or sexual orientation (Mahaffey et al., 2005), among other forms of societal categorizations. ...
... This conclusion, however, would be mistaken. Performance on the IAT can be faked (Fiedler & Bluemke, 2010), it is sensitive to mental imagery (e.g., counter-stereotyping imagery; Blair, Ma & Lenton, 2001), and perhaps even more importantly, it is sensitive to variations in situational context (Wittenbrink et al., Demand characteristics -36 2001). As this example shows, the development of more automatic behavioral measures is no guarantee that effects are uncontaminated by demand characteristics. ...
Study participants form beliefs based on cues present in a testing situation (demand characteristics). These beliefs can alter study outcomes (demand effects). Neglecting demand effects can threaten the internal and external validity of studies (including their replication). While demand characteristics garnered much attention following Orne's introduction of this notion, consideration of their effects has become sparse in experimental reports. Moreover, the concept remains confusing. Here, we introduce a conceptual framework for subjective experiences elicited by demand characteristics. The model distinguishes between participants' awareness of the hypothesis, their motivation to comply with it, and the strategy they use to meet situational requirements. We stress that demand characteristics can give rise to genuine experiences. To illustrate, we apply the model to Evaluative Conditioning and the Rubber Hand Illusion. In the General Discussion, we discuss risk and opportunities associated with demand characteristics, and we explain that they remain highly relevant to current research.
... It is possible that exposure to counterstereotipic exemplars that contradict an implicit stereotype can lessen it. (24). ...
Background
Implicit prejudice can lead to disparities in treatment. The effects of specialty and experience on implicit obesity and mental illness prejudice had not been explored. The main objective was to examine how specializing in psychiatry/general medicine and years of experience moderated implicit obesity and mental illness prejudice among Swiss physicians. Secondary outcomes included examining the malleability of implicit bias via two video interventions and a condition of cognitive load, correlations of implicit bias with responses to a clinical vignette, and correlations with explicit prejudice.
Methods
In stage 1, participants completed an online questionnaire including a clinical vignette. In stage 2, implicit prejudice pre- and post- intervention was tested using a 4 x 4 between-subject design including a control group. In stage 3, explicit prejudice was tested with feeling thermometers and participants were debriefed. Participants were 133 psychiatrists and internists working in Geneva, hospital-based and private practice. Implicit prejudice was assessed using a Weight IAT (Implicit Association Test) and a Mental Illness IAT. Explicit feelings towards the obese and the mentally ill were measured using Feeling Thermometers. A clinical vignette assessed the level of concern felt for a fictional patient under four conditions: control, obese, depression, obese and depression. Linear regression was conducted to test for association of gender, experience, and specialty with responses to vignettes, pre-intervention IATs and explicit attitudes, and to test for association of interventions (or control) with post-intervention IATs and explicit attitudes. Reported effect sizes were computed using Cohen’s d. Two-tailed p < 0.05 was selected as the significance threshold.
Results
Compared to internists, psychiatrists showed significantly less implicit bias against mentally vs. physically ill people than internists and warmer explicit feelings towards the mentally ill. More experienced physicians displayed warmer explicit feelings towards the mentally ill and a greater level of concern for the fictional patients in the vignette than the less experienced, except when the patient was described as obese.
Conclusions
Specialty moderates both implicit and explicit mental illness prejudice. Experience moderates explicit mental illness bias and concern for patients. The effect of specialty on implicit prejudice seems to be based principally on self-selection.
... Studies using priming suggest that the effect is typically short (e.g., Higgins, Bargh & Lombardi, 1985;Pedersen, Vasquez, Bartholow, Grosvenor & Truong, 2014), and it does not change the overall orientation of the primed target. Some experiments on attitudes and social cognition showed that when a likeable exemplar of a social group was made accessible to participants, the participants reported more favorable responses to that social group (e.g., Blair, Ma & Lenton, 2001). But it was suggested that attitudes in fact remained unchanged, and priming was merely altering which representations came to mind when participants were thinking about the social group as a whole (see Devine, 2001, for a more detailed discussion). ...
The mass media portrayal of a muscular body type ideal has been increasingly tied to men's body image dissatisfaction. We examined the role of self-determination theory's intrinsic life goals within this body image ideal and its potential as a moderator of this dissatisfaction. We first tested the moderating effect of intrinsic life goals on the link between magazine consumption and body image dissatisfaction via an online questionnaire (Study 1; N = 826), then experimentally manipulated these goals and exposure to images of muscular male models (Study 2; N = 150). A robust protective effect of intrinsic goals on body image satisfaction was observed - the relationship between magazine consumption and body image dissatisfaction was only significant among individuals with a lower level of intrinsic life goal orientation. When participants' intrinsic goals were momentarily heightened, they reported significantly less body image dissatisfaction, compared to those not receiving a strengthening of these goals. The results are the first to find a protective effect of intrinsic life goals on men's body image, and have important implications for intervention.
... This literature has recognized that the experiences, constructions, and representations of stakeholders in disability sport are predominantly influenced by the regularity of ableism, masculinity, and heteronormativity notions (Sparkes et al., 2014;Weaving & Samson, 2018;Zipp & Nauright, 2018). Having a disability is often associated with stereotypical perceptions of being frail, weak, or passive (Huang & Brittain, 2006); while being a woman or a nonheterosexual man is commonly associated with stereotypical feminine traits such as being passive, dainty, or quiet (Blair et al., 2001); these discourses are perpetuated in the media (i.e., coverage of athletes with disability in print, newspaper, textbooks, magazines; Cherney et al., 2015). Such phenomena have favored the participation and representation of able-bodied, heterosexual, masculinity-expressing men, and the underrepresentation or marginalization of those not fitting these criteria. ...
Aim : A scoping review was conducted to map the literature related to gender equity in disability sport. Design : Six databases relevant to the sport sciences were searched, yielding an initial 1,543 records; after two phases of screening and data extraction, 61 records were selected for synthesis. Descriptive statistics were generated on information related to the record contexts, approaches, and results. Qualitative descriptive analyses were used to group data inductively into themes in line with addressing the research question. Results : Most records examined the experiences, participation, and representation of adults in elite contexts. Insights across records pointed to gender inequities in participation and experience, often influenced by the intersection of ableist and masculinity notions. Limited research also pointed to strategies that can contribute to advancing gender equity. Conclusions : Implications were discussed to advance understandings of disability sport and enhance participation across levels (e.g., coaching, athletic) and contexts (e.g., elite/Paralympic, recreational).
... However, more research is required before these techniques are recommended. In current literature, there are some recent attempts to change implicit associations in consumers' minds through corrective image-based information (Trendel et al., 2018), mental imagery and counterstereotype associations (Blair et al., 2001), self-referencing tasks (Mattavelli et al., 2017), and other intervention strategies (Carnevale et al., 2015). However, this research domain is also at its infancy, specifically for online behaviors. ...
Drawing on dual‐system theories, this study shows that excessive social media users demonstrate a psychological imbalance between the impulsive and reflective systems in their minds. We provide empirical evidence of an inconsistency between conscious attitudes and the actual behavior towards social media. The findings show that excessive users are driven more by their implicit attitudes rather than explicit beliefs in consuming social media. Although a high level of self‐control indicates healthy social media use, the findings suggest that self‐control has no significant influence on excessive users with a positive implicit attitude and high impulsive social media use. This duality of self‐control dispels beliefs about its ability to regulate excessive online behaviors. Therefore, this study (1) theorizes what constitutes excessive social media use, (2) outlines how implicit measurements are incorporated in consumer research, and (3) offers practical implications for managing unhealthy online behaviors. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... 59 IAT and MRS test order was randomly assigned in order to account for the possibility of an implicit bias priming effect of the MRS. 60,61 Participants were also asked questions to test knowledge of the social determinants of health, perceived discrimination, explicit and implicit bias, the effects of stress on interpersonal interaction, and the benefits of mindfulness and empathy in interpersonal interactions in the healthcare system. Additionally, participant self-assessments of skills and understanding related to managing stress, interacting with patients from racial and ethnic minority groups, providing patient-centered and culturally sensitive care, controlling one's own biases, and showing empathy were conducted. ...
Background:
Real or perceived discrimination contributes to lower quality of care for Black compared to white patients. Some forms of discrimination come from non-physician and non-nursing (non-MD/RN) staff members (e.g., receptionists).
Methods:
Utilizing the Burgess Model as a framework for racial bias intervention development, we developed an online intervention with five, 30-min modules: (1) history and effects of discrimination and racial disparities in healthcare, (2) implicit bias and how it may influence interactions with patients, (3) strategies to handle stress at work, (4) strategies to improve communication and interactions with patients, and (5) personal biases. Modules were designed to increase understanding of bias, enhance internal motivation to overcome bias, enhance emotional regulation skills, and increase empathy in patient interactions. Participants were non-MD/RN staff in nine primary care clinics. Effectiveness of the intervention was assessed using Implicit Association Test and Symbolic Racism Scale, to measure implicit and explicit racial bias, respectively, before and after the intervention. Acceptability was assessed through quantitative and qualitative feedback.
Results:
Fifty-eight non-MD/RN staff enrolled. Out of these, 24 completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and were included. Among participants who reported characteristics, most were Black, with less than college education and average age of 43.2 years. The baseline implicit bias d-score was 0.22, indicating slight pro-white bias. After the intervention, the implicit bias score decreased to -0.06 (p=0.01), a neutral score indicating no pro-white or Black bias. Participant rating of the intervention, scored from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), for questions including whether "it was made clear how to apply the presented content in practice" and "this module was worth the time spent" was ≥4.1 for all modules.
Conclusions:
There was a decrease in implicit pro-white bias after, compared with before, the intervention. Intervention materials were highly rated.
... Unconscious bias describes the associations that we hold when we automatically respond to others, such as men and women or people from different racial or ethnic groups, in different ways (Blair & Lenton, 2001). This means that we are all at risk of categorizing people in ways that reproduce discriminatory and sexist behavior (Abrams, 2010;Hardin & Banaji, 2013). ...
This book is the result of the hundreds of brave employees at Danish higher education institutions who dared to step forward, either with their names or with their stories about sexism and sexual harassment through the initiative concerning Sexism in Danish academia, which we started by launching a petition in early October 2020. As the initiator group—16 individuals from six different research institutions—we are forever grateful for their courage and solidarity with each other and with us. Their many voices and stories show the surprising pervasiveness of sexism, with its many facets and types. They reveal how sexism traps our human flourishing and constrains what we can become individually, collectively, institutionally, and as a society. This book is a revolutionary exposition of the many voices, the transformation from “I have suffered” to “We have suffered.” The awakening of the us is in itself a political action toward change, assuring that we won’t forget or hide away the suffering that gendered and sexual harassment courses this day today. We dedicate this book to the change that is necessary in our society and institutions and hope that we hereby provide some justice to all those who have suffered wrongs rooted in sexism.
This book is structured in four parts. First, we introduce the nature and issues of sexism in the chapter “Understanding,” which provides information that will help readers understand what sexism is, how it operates, and how it is performed. Secondly, this is followed by the chapter “Exploring,” which presents a “methodological mix” including both qualitative and quantitative data to explore the multiple ways in which sexism operates. In the first part, we present an array of vignettes, developed from the accounts and testimonials submitted to our petition, which are divided into different categories of sexism. Each story is part of a category and presents questions that invite readers to work with the complexity of sexism. In the second part, we present our quantitative study—a survey questionnaire—which we sent out following our petition to capture the extent of sexism. The next chapter, “Acting,” includes practical knowledge and exercises for staff and managers to examine how they can approach local efforts to fight sexism, including tangible tips and tools for handling sexism in the workplace. Lastly, the book offers a collection of knowledge resources and references to learn more about the complexity and action possibilities to deal with sexism.
... Kawakami and colleagues [13] found that students who practiced responding in nonstereotypical ways to members of other groups became better able to avoid activating their negative stereotypes on future occasions. Moreover, when people are exposed to or are invited to think about counterstereotypic persons, for instance strong women [14] or Black role models [15], they became less prejudicial towards that social group. ...
The present study used EEG/ERPs to detect the activation of implicit stereotypical representations associated to other-race (OR) people and the modulation of such activation through the previous presentation of positive vs. neutral social information. Electrophysiological signals were recorded in 40 Italian Caucasian participants, unaware of the overall study’s purpose. They were presented with 285 sentences that could either violate, non-violate (e.g., “the Roma girl was involved in a robbery) or be neutral with regard to stereotypical concepts concerning other-race people (e.g. Asians, Africans, Arabic). ERPs were time-locked to the terminal words. Prior to the sentence reading task, participants were exposed to a 10 minutes colourful video documentary. While the experimental group was presented a video containing images picturing other-race characters involved in “prestigious” activities that violated stereotypical negative assumptions (e.g. a black neurosurgeon leading a surgery team), the control group viewed a neutral documentary about flora and fauna. EEG signals were then recorded during the sentence reading task to explore whether the previous exposure to the experimental video could modulate the detection of incongruence in the sentences violating stereotypes, as marked by the N400 response. A fictitious task was adopted, consisted in detecting rare animal names. Indeed, only the control group showed a greater N400 response (350–550 ms) to words incongruent with ethnic stereotypes compared to congruent and neutral ones, thus suggesting the presence of a racial bias. No N400 response was found for the experimental group, suggesting a lack of negative expectation for OR individuals. The swLORETA inverse solution, performed on the prejudice-related N400 showed that the Inferior Temporal and the Superior and Middle Frontal Gyri were the strongest N400 intra-cortical sources. Regardless of the experimental manipulation, Congruent terminal words evoked a greater P300 response (500–600 ms) compared to incongruent and neutral ones and a late frontal positivity (650–800 ms) was found to be larger to sentences involving OR than own-race characters (either congruent or incongruent with the prejudice) thus possibly indicating bias-free perceptual in-group/out-group categorization processes. The data showed how it is possible to modulate a pre-existing racial prejudice (as reflected by N400 effect) through exposure to positive media-driven information about OR people. Further follow-up studies should determine the duration in time, and across contexts, of this modulatory effect.
... While old assumptions about changing visual associations implied that stereotypes and prejudice are automatic processes beyond the control of the individual (Bargh 1992;Brewer 1988), other research suggests that these automatic processes can be changed or adapted with practice (Bargh 1999;Kawakami et al. 2000). Strategies that might be helpful in changing automatic processes of stereotyping and prejudice include focusing on counter-stereotypical images and perspectives (Blair, Ma, and Lenton 2001) and participating in a semester-long diversity course (Rudman, Ashmore, and Gary 2001). ...
The Implicit Association Test (IAT) developed by Harvard University has been utilized in teacher preparation for cultural competence. Various versions of the IAT including race and gender based versions are used to raise awareness of student bias and its influences on teaching practice. Through a qualitative exploratory case study, this article introduces the Skin Tone IAT as another meaningful tool for guiding student teachers through an exploration of colorism and implicit skin tone bias. Results demonstrate participants’ increased awareness of their own implicit bias. Implications for teaching practice and other helping professions, research, and pedagogy are explored.
... In support of the hypothesis that the IAT score is related to judgment, some studies have found that manipulations that are thought to influence judgment influence the IAT score (e.g., Blair et al., 2001;Lowery et al., 2001;Mann & Ferguson, 2015;Olson & Fazio, 2001;Smith et al., 2013;Whitfield & Jordan, 2009). Further, many studies have found positive correlations between people's reported attitudes and their performance in the IAT, especially on topics that do not motivate people to hide or reconsider their attitudes (Bar-Anan & Nosek, 2014;Hofmann et al., 2005;Nosek, 2005). ...
People's automatic (unintentional, uncontrollable, and efficient) preference between social groups often determines their automatic preference between unknown individual members of these groups, a prominent example for automatic prejudice. What happens when the person making the judgment has long known the target individuals? Practice might automatize the deliberate judgment of the individuals. Then, if deliberate judgment is nonprejudiced, automatic prejudice might decrease. In 29 studies (total N = 4,907), we compared preferences between a famous member of a dominant social group and a famous member of a stigmatized social group on indirect measures of evaluation that were developed to measure automatic preference and on self-report measures. In most studies, we chose pairs based on prior self-reported preference for the member of the stigmatized group. The measures showed discrepancy, with indirect measures suggesting an automatic preference for the member of the dominant group. We replicated these results with various target individuals, two pairs of social groups (Black/White, old/young), two indirect measures, and in two countries (Studies 1-23). The indirectly measured prodominant preference was stronger when visual characteristics of the group were present rather than absent (Studies 24 and 25), suggesting a stronger effect of group characteristics on automatic than on deliberate preference between the individuals. On self-report and indirect measures, the preferences between individuals were related to the preferences between their groups (Studies 26 and 27) yet also to individuating information (Studies 28 and 29). Our results suggest that group evaluation plays a central role in the automatic evaluation of familiar (and not only novel) members of stigmatized groups. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
... A comunicação publicitária contraintuitiva pode ser considerada como uma proposta do campo profissional publicitário que, estrategicamente, faz uso em suas narrativas de "outros/novos" conteúdos acerca de estereótipos dirigidos às minorias sociais, isto é, de "moderadores contraestereótipos" (Blair & Benaji, 1996;Blair & Lenton, 2001, Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001, com o objetivo principal de inovar e promover as suas tentativas de apelo para o consumo mercadológico, "violando expectativas intuitivas" (Boyer, 2001;Leite, 2014;Upal; Por conseguinte, da triagem dos artigos seguiu-se uma leitura guiada que considerou inicialmente aqueles trabalhos que apresentassem os seguintes termos, ou nos títulos, ou nos resumos, ou nas palavras-chave: ...
... Through presenting supportive information counter to negative stereotypes about women, previous research has reduced gender stereotypes and prejudice behaviors across genders (Blair, Ma, & Lenton, 2001;Power et al., 1996). Thus, replicating previous studies, I also expect that providing supportive contextual cues regarding women (compared to stereotypically stigmatizing and neutral information) will reduce sexism among men. ...
http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/134383/1/gingellm.pdf
... Not all research reflects this lack of malleability. Some evidence points to implicit attitudes being susceptible to change after a single exposure to stimuli (Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park 2001;Blair, Ma, & Lenton 2001;Blair 2002;Rydell & McConnell 2006 Experiment 5). Lowery, Curtis, and Sinclair (2001) demonstrate that implicit attitudes are susceptible to shifts depending on social context by showing differences in implicit evaluations depending upon the race of the experimenter. ...
Sociolinguists often assume that media influences language attitudes, but that assumption has not been tested using a methodology that can attribute cause. This dissertation examines implicit and explicit attitudes about American Southern English (ASE) and the influence television has upon them. Adapting methodologies and constructs from sociolinguistics, social psychology, and communications studies, I test listener attitudes before and after exposure to stereotypically unintelligent and counterstereotypically intelligent representations of Southern-accented speakers in scripted fictional television. The first attitudes experiment tests implicit attitudes through an Implicit Association Test (IAT). This experiment also serves to test sociolinguistic use of the IAT with a more holistic accent as opposed to single linguistic features. The second attitudes experiment tests the effect of television exposure on explicit attitudes towards an ASE-accented research assistant (RA). The experiments also investigate the influence of listener knowledge of regional origin of actors (speaker information), listener perception of how closely television represents the world around them (perceived realism), listener exposure to the South, and listener identity. The hypothesis is that those who hear counterstereotypically intelligent Southern characters will rate a Southern-accented research assistant higher in intelligence than those who hear stereotypically unintelligent Southern characters. The same pattern will hold in the auditory-based IAT. Accents in both the implicit and explicit attitudes experiments are viewed holistically, including multiple features rather than focusing on the most salient features. To clarify results related to the speaker information and perceived realism variables, a separate experiment tests how successful listeners are at differentiating natives from performers of regionally accented American English. Results indicate that televised representations of Southern accents affect explicit, but not implicit attitudes. Participants who heard intelligent Southern characters rated an ASE-accented RA higher in competence than those who heard unintelligent Southern characters. Several demographic variables influenced results regardless of the stereotypicality of the speakers that the listener heard in the television clips, including self-identified race and exposure to Southern television. While implicit attitudes were not affected by television in this case, the IAT was successfully adapted for use with a holistic accent rather than a single feature and also captures associations between an L1 regional accent and a specific stereotype of that accent. I discuss these results in regard to language attitudes at large as well as their implications for an indirect language change model, the Associative-Propositional Evaluation (APE) model of attitudes, and cultivation theory. The dissertation argues that scripted television does influence language attitudes, but in more complex ways than a simple cause-and-effect relationship. While television can affect explicit attitudes towards individual speakers, implicit attitude shift is more difficult and may need more time and/or need a direct cause for a shift to occur. Regardless of media influence, language attitudes are affected by identity and demographic features listeners bring into the interaction with speakers.
... Reading, then, is capable of building empathy for a larger range of characters and identities than readers normally interact with in life (Oatley, 2016), and this has the potential to to reduce bias against those with whom we do not share characteristics (Oatley, 2016). Critical reading prompts individuals to consider alternative perspectives and to engage in perspectivetaking, both of which are effective strategies that have been found to reduce bias (Blair et al., 2001;Lilienfeld et al., 2009). These outcomes are supported in a study by Henderson et al. ...
Book clubs are a well-known form of social engagement and are beneficial for those who take part, yet book clubs are not fully realized within management as a site for learning. This is unfortunate because book clubs that read fiction can foster social processes and help employees in search of more critical and emancipatory forms of learning. We theoretically synthesize the literature to advance current thinking with regard to book clubs as critical public pedagogy in organizations. We begin by introducing book clubs as non-formal adult learning. Then, book clubs that employ fiction as a cultural artifact are presented as a way for members to build relationships, learn together, and to engage in cultural change work. Next, the traditional notions of book clubs are made pedagogically complex through the lens of critical public pedagogy. Finally, we offer two implications: (1) as public pedagogy, book clubs can act as an alternative to traditional learning structures in organizations; and (2) book clubs, when valued as public pedagogy, can be fostered by those in management learning and HRD for consciousness raising and challenging existing mental models in their organizations.
... Simple changes to the language used (e.g., explicitly asking students to be aware of their biases) had a positive impact on the assessment of women professors (Peterson et al., 2019). Prefacing SETs with counter-stereotype content could further decrease bias that is evident during the evaluation itself (Blair et al., 2001). ...
Despite increased awareness of the lack of gender equity in academia and a growing number of initiatives to address issues of diversity, change is slow, and inequalities remain. A major source of inequity is gender bias, which has a substantial negative impact on the careers, work-life balance, and mental health of underrepresented groups in science. Here, we argue that gender bias is not a single problem but manifests as a collection of distinct issues that impact researchers’ lives. We disentangle these facets and propose concrete solutions that can be adopted by individuals, academic institutions, and society.
A number of studies have investigated how immersion in a virtual reality environment can affect participants’ implicit biases. These studies presume associationism about implicit bias. Recently philosophers have argued that associationism is inadequate and have made a case for understanding implicit biases propositionally. However, no propositionalist has considered the empirical work on virtual reality and how to integrate it into their theories. I examine this work against a propositionalist background, in particular, looking at the belief and patchy endorsement models. I argue that the results therein can only be accommodated by a model which recognizes structural heterogeneity, that is, one which allows for implicit biases being both associatively and non-associatively structured. My preferred view – that implicit biases are constituted by unconscious imaginings – allows for this, as well as for heterogeneity at the level of content (propositional and imagistic), a feature which also earn its explanatory keep in this context. I conclude that empirical work on virtual reality and implicit bias gives us a reason to prefer a pluralist model of bias, and that my unconscious imagination model, in its recognizing wide-ranging heterogeneity, is uniquely placed to accommodate the results of work on virtual reality and bias mitigation.
Presently, most mental health practitioners in the United States are educated, trained, and employed in a system focused on curing or changing autistic people. As a result, mental health practitioners may exhibit anti-autistic bias—any form of bias that degrades, devalues, or others autistic people or traits —when engaged with autistic clients. Since the collaborative relationship between therapist and client, termed the “therapeutic alliance,” is often viewed as the most influential element of therapeutic effectiveness, our phenomenological study examined 14 autistic adults’ experiences with anti-autistic bias in the therapeutic alliance and the relationship they perceive it has on their self-esteem. Findings, determined through thematic analysis, reveal implicit, unintentional bias was manifested through clinical assumptions about autism, explicit, overt bias was expressed through feelings of intentional harm, and repair of self-esteem was shown through positive alliances. Based on the findings of this study, we offer recommendations to help mental health practitioners and mental health practitioner training programs better serve autistic clients. This study addresses a significant gap in current research on anti-autistic bias in the mental health field and the overall well-being of autistic individuals.
Lay Abstract
Many mental health practitioners in the United States are trained to cure or change autistic people. Some of these mental health practitioners may show anti-autistic bias when working with autistic clients. Anti-autistic bias is any kind of bias that degrades, devalues, or others autistic people or autistic traits. Anti-autistic bias is especially problematic when mental health practitioners and clients are engaged in the therapeutic alliance, which is the collaborative relationship between a therapist and client. The therapeutic alliance is one of most important parts of an effective therapeutic relationship. Our interview-based study examined 14 autistic adults’ experiences with anti-autistic bias in the therapeutic alliance and the relationship they felt it has on their self-esteem. Results from this research showed that some mental health practitioners expressed hidden and unrealized bias when working with autistic clients, such as making assumptions about what it means to be autistic. Results also showed that some mental health practitioners were intentionally biased and openly harmful to their autistic clients. Both forms of bias negatively affected participant self-esteem. Based on the findings of this study, we offer recommendations to help mental health practitioners and mental health practitioner training programs better serve autistic clients. This study addresses a significant gap in current research on anti-autistic bias in the mental health field and the overall well-being of autistic individuals.
This article examines the idea development process within the UK television industry and raises the question of who has power and agency within it. Recently, there has been much discussion within the television industry about the commercial and social imperative for greater diversity, inclusion and risk taking in programme making, in order to both represent and appeal to contemporary audiences. However, our research suggests that there is at the same time a sense of disempowerment, a feeling that television culture itself is inhibiting this change and that individuals can do little to influence it. Building on existing research in the creative industries, this case study draws on observations, interviews and surveys carried out within the context of a talent development scheme and wider consultation with television development professionals. We will discuss the reasons for these contradictory currents of feeling, including the ways in which unconscious bias may operate to perpetuate inequalities and exclusions. Our article proposes that recognising and addressing unconscious bias within the idea development process is an important element in the wider process of tackling structural inequality in the television industry through collective action and institutional change.
Even with increased efforts to close the academic gap by providing appropriate services to students with disabilities, there is still a gap in outcomes that requires identification of possible contributing factors. One often hypothesized mechanism for these continued disparities is the stigma associated with disability categorization or “labeling bias.” However, there is paucity of scholarship that addresses effective ways to reduce labeling bias within the classroom. This study draws from the dual-process model to experimentally investigate if a short video clip moves participants from System 1 implicit thinking to System 2 deliberate thinking resulting in reduced biases in expectations of behavior. This study utilized an experimental, between-subjects, vignette factorial design to measure pre-service educator perceptions of inappropriate behaviors between students with and without an identified disability label. The results of analysis of covariance and post hoc testing indicate significant interaction effects between the label of the student and the video clip. Specifically, biased responses by disability label were dependent on whether the participant was assigned to the video clip condition. Participants in the video condition indicated an expectation of reduced behaviors for the positively associated label condition and increased behaviors for the negatively associated label condition. Practical implications and limitations are discussed.
This chapter discusses recruiting and hiring diverse undergraduate researchers, with an emphasis on “recruiting for potential.” Even a relatively short undergraduate research experience can make an enormous difference to a student who has a lot of potential but still has not settled on a career path. Each student doesn’t present or express their interests, potentials, or abilities in the same way. Thus, the importance of setting priorities, successful outreach strategies for reaching a broad and diverse applicant pool, and understanding and reducing implicit bias in the selection of participants is emphasized. Best practices for reviewing applications and conducting interviews fairly also are presented. These concepts and ideas apply both individual students and to entire cohorts of formal undergraduate research programs.
Study participants form beliefs based on cues present in a testing situation (demand characteristics). These beliefs can alter study outcomes (demand effects). Neglecting demand effects can threaten the internal and external validity of studies (including their replication). While demand characteristics garnered much attention following Orne’s introduction of this notion, consideration of their effects has become sparse in experimental reports. Moreover, the concept remains confusing. Here, we introduce a conceptual framework for subjective experiences elicited by demand characteristics. The model distinguishes between participants’ awareness of the hypothesis, their motivation to comply with it, and the strategy they use to meet situational requirements. We stress that demand characteristics can give rise to genuine experiences. To illustrate, we apply the model to Evaluative Conditioning and the Rubber Hand Illusion. In the General Discussion, we discuss risks and opportunities associated with demand characteristics, and we explain that they remain highly relevant to current research.
Outdated teaching methods amount to discrimination.
We propose a theory of (a) reliance on stereotypes and individuating information in implicit person perception and (b) the relationship between individuation in implicit person perception and shifts in implicit group stereotypes. The present research preliminarily tested this theory by assessing whether individuating information or stereotypes take primacy in implicit judgments of individuals under circumstances specified by our model and then testing the malleability of implicit group stereotypes in the presence of the same (or additional) counterstereotypic individuating information. Studies 1 and 2 conceptually replicated previous research by examining the effects of stereotype-inconsistent and stereotype-consistent individuating information on implicit stereotype-relevant judgments of individuals. Both studies showed that stereotypic implicit judgments of individuals made in the absence of individuating information were reversed when the individuals were portrayed as stereotype-inconsistent and were strengthened when targets were portrayed as stereotype-consistent (though in Study 2 this strengthening was descriptive rather than inferential). Studies 3 and 4 examined whether the strong effects of individuating information found in Studies 1 and 2 extended to the social groups to which the individuals belonged. Even in the presence of up to eight counterstereotypic exemplars, there was no evidence of significant shifts in group stereotypes. Thus, the data showed that the shifts in implicit judgments that were caused by individuating information did not generalize to stereotypes of the social groups to which the individuals belong. Finally, we propose modifications to our theory that include potential reasons for this lack of generalization that we invite future research to explore.
Implicit gender bias has costly and complex consequences for women in the workplace, with many women reporting gender microaggressions which result in them being overlooked or disrespected. We present an online desktop virtual environment that follows the story of a male or female self-avatar from the first-person perspective, who either experiences a positive or negative workplace scenario. The negative scenario included many examples from the taxonomy of gender microaggressions. Participants who experienced negative workplace experiences with a female self-avatar had significantly decreased levels of implicit gender bias compared to those who had a male self-avatar. There was evidence of empathy and perspective taking in the negative condition for the female self-avatar. Experiences of a positive workplace scenario showed no significant decreases in implicit gender bias regardless of self-avatar gender. We discuss the implications of these findings and make recommendations for virtual environment technologies and scenarios with respect to the reduction of implicit biases.
We examined a training program for developing cognitive complexity (cognitive complexity training [CCT]) for reducing gender harassment using data of workers in an actual work environment. CCT was conducted with 20 Japanese employees. The participants were administered the Gender Harassment Scale consisting of two subscales: the Commission (e.g., marginal role expectations of women, such as serving coffee and making photocopies) and the Omission (e.g., exclusion of women from essential jobs and core roles). The participants responded to the Gender Harassment Scale before CCT, right after CCT, and at the 2‐week follow‐up assessment. The results indicated that participants' post‐CCT and follow‐up Commission scores significantly improved compared to their pre‐CCT scores.
Associative processing is central for human cognition, perception and memory. But while associations often facilitate performance, processing irrelevant associations can interfere with performance, for example when learning new information. The aim of this study was to explore whether associative interference is influenced by contextual factors such as resources availability. Experiments 1–3 show that associative interference increases under high cognitive load. This result generalized to both long-term and short-term memory associations, and to both explicitly learned as well as incidentally learned associations in the linguistic and pictorial domains. Experiment 4 further revealed that attention to associative information can delay one’s perceptual processing when lacking resources. Taken together, when resources diminish associative interference increases, and additionally, processing novel and ambiguous information is hindered. These findings bare relevance to other domains as well (e.g., social, educational), in which increased load or stress may prompt an undesirable bias towards prior, misleading information.
The social construction of gender has profound implications on how individuals of different gender identities perceive health and formulate health-related decisions. An online survey experiment (N = 262) was conducted using implicit association test (IAT) to examine gender stereotypes on two preventative health behaviors—lung cancer screening and family planning—and how these stereotypes interact with gender identity to impact information-seeking intentions. Lung cancer screening was viewed to be significantly more related to men, while family planning was more linked to women. Female participants showed stronger stereotypical perceptions regarding the two preventive behaviors than their male counterparts. While both male and female participants who believed more in the gender stereotype on lung cancer screening reported decreased intention to seek relevant health information, gender stereotypes interacted with participant gender identity in influencing intention to seek information on family planning. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
Sensory evaluation can be influenced by semantic information such as gender descriptions. Gender categories are associated with tactile information (e.g., female = soft/smooth, while male = hard/rough). Feminine scents (e.g., floral) are typically perceived as soft and smooth. Thus, semantic labels of gender (feminine/masculine qualities) may influence congruent sensory evaluation (i.e., female = soft/smooth, male = hard/rough). This study examined how semantically labeled scent-gender associations influence the evaluation of scent and texture. Specifically, we examined whether “feminine” and “masculine” labels applied to neutral scents that have not been associated with gender influence scent and haptic evaluation. Participants sniffed a feminine-labeled or masculine-labeled scent embedded on soft and rough papers. They then evaluated the scent (e.g., gender perception) and texture (e.g., hedonic evaluation). The results demonstrated that participants who sniffed a feminine-labeled (vs. masculine-labeled) scent perceived it as more feminine. However, contrary to our expectations, gender labeling of scent did not influence haptic evaluation. These findings indicate that semantic labeling of scents (i.e., feminine/masculine) may alter the gender perception of a scent but not the tactile evaluation. Practical implications for (online) sensory marketing are discussed.
A rich body of research throughout the social sciences demonstrates that bias—people’s tendency to display group-based preferences—is a major obstacle in the way of promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion in the workplace. The current article moves beyond the single-level focus of prior theories of workplace bias to propose a novel theoretical model that conceptualizes workplace bias as a multilevel cycle. First, we discuss the theoretical foundations of our bias cycle theory and describe why understanding the nature of workplace bias—and effectively reducing it—requires considering the reciprocal influences of both individual and organizational levels of the cycle. Specifically, we describe how workplace bias operates as a cycle and then propose that successfully reducing workplace bias requires multilevel interventions that interrupt bias across both the individual and organizational levels of the cycle. Second, because workplace bias is reproduced through both of these levels, we review and bring together literatures that are often considered separately: psychology research on reducing bias at the individual level and sociology and management research on reducing bias at the organizational level. Third, we use our bias cycle theory to formulate general principles for determining how to begin and how to pair interventions across levels. Finally, we conclude by discussing our theoretical contributions and outlining directions for future research.
Patient-clinician interactions require an interpersonal exchange of information, preferences, expectations, values, and priorities. Given the brief interaction patients and clinicians are allowed, many barriers to effective communication exist, resulting in patients and clinicians leaving an interaction with discordant perceptions of what has occurred and what is to come. We review literature on concordance and lack thereof, between patient and clinician perceptions, reasons why discordance may occur, as well as how it impacts patient care and outcomes.
With the increasing diversity of our clients or potential clients it is important for us as veterinary professionals to recognize the opportunities this affords us to serve a larger demographic. However, along with this opportunity comes the challenges of serving clients for whom English may be a second language as well as clients who may have very different understanding of health care options for their animal. By seeking to become more culturally aware, we can have significant impact on the care of our patients. This article focuses on both awareness and skills to aid this process.
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