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New insights on Final Epigravettian funerary behavior at Arene Candide Cave (Western Liguria, Italy)

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We gained new insights on Epigravettian funerary behavior at the Arene Candide cave through the osteological and spatial analysis of the burials and human bone accumulations found in the cave during past excavations. Archaeothanathological information on the human skeletal remains was recovered from diaries, field pictures and notes, and data from recent excavations was integrated. The secondary deposits have traditionally been interpreted as older burials that were disturbed to make space for new inhumations. Our results suggest that those disturbances were not casual: older burials were intentionally displaced to bury younger inhumations. Subsequently, some skeletal elements, especially crania, were arranged around the new burial; these were often placed within stone niches. Based on the composition of some clusters, which contain the bones of two individuals displaced together, it is possible that a double burial composed of two adults was originally present at the site. This would be a burial type that had not been recognized at Arene Candide until now. Strikingly, this potential double burial contained an individual showing pathological bowing of the limbs, a finding which is not infrequent in skeletons from Gravettian and Epigravettian multiple burials. In addition, the crania and other skeletal elements derived from this burial were intentionally placed around a new inhumation, whose skeleton possibly shows a milder form of the same disease (possibly hereditary rickets). This and other observations suggest that the five individuals belonging to the second phase of this "cemetery" (AMS dates spanning 12,030-11,180 cal BP) might have been buried over a relatively brief time span. Our study demonstrated similar behaviors in the first phase of mortuary use of the cave (12,820-12,420 cal BP), indicating a remarkable persistence in Final Epigravettian funerary models despite their archaeologically apparent rarity and intermittent nature.
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JASs Reports
Journal of Anthropological Sciences
Vol. 96 (2018), pp. 1-24
the JASs is published by the Istituto Italiano di Antropologia www.isita-org.com
New insights on Final Epigravettian funerary behavior at
Arene Candide Cave (Western Liguria, Italy)
Vitale Stefano Sparacello1, 2, Stefano Rossi3, 4, Paul Pettitt2, Charlotte
Roberts2, Julien Riel-Salvatore5 & Vincenzo Formicola6
1) Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, PACEA, UMR 5199, Batiment B8, Allée Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, CS 50023,
33615 Pessac cedex
e-mail: vitale.sparacello@u-bordeaux.fr
2) Department of Archaeology, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
3) Soprintendenza Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio per la città metropolitana di Genova e le
province di Imperia, La Spezia e Savona, Via Balbi, 10, 16126 Genova, Italy
4) DISTAV, Università di Genova, Corso Europa, 26, 16132 Genova, Italy
5) Département d’Anthropologie, Université de Montréal, Pavillon Lionel-Groulx, 3150 rue
Jean-Brillant, H3T 1N8 Montréal (QC), Canada
6) Department of Biology, Università di Pisa, Via Derna 1, 56126 Pisa, Italy
Summary - We gained new insights on Epigravettian funerary behavior at the Arene Candide cave through
the osteological and spatial analysis of the burials and human bone accumulations found in the cave during
past excavations. Archaeothanathological information on the human skeletal remains was recovered from
diaries, field pictures and notes, and data from recent excavations was integrated. e secondary deposits
have traditionally been interpreted as older burials that were disturbed to make space for new inhumations.
Our results suggest that those disturbances were not casual: older burials were intentionally displaced to bury
younger inhumations. Subsequently, some skeletal elements, especially crania, were arranged around the new
burial; these were often placed within stone niches. Based on the composition of some clusters, which contain
the bones of two individuals displaced together, it is possible that a double burial composed of two adults was
originally present at the site. is would be a burial type that had not been recognized at Arene Candide until
now. Strikingly, this potential double burial contained an individual showing pathological bowing of the
limbs, a finding which is not infrequent in skeletons from Gravettian and Epigravettian multiple burials. In
addition, the crania and other skeletal elements derived from this burial were intentionally placed around a
new inhumation, whose skeleton possibly shows a milder form of the same disease (possibly hereditary rickets).
is and other observations suggest that the five individuals belonging to the second phase of this “cemetery”
(AMS dates spanning 12,030 – 11,180 cal BP) might have been buried over a relatively brief time span.
Our study demonstrated similar behaviors in the first phase of mortuary use of the cave (12,820 – 12,420 cal
BP), indicating a remarkable persistence in Final Epigravettian funerary models despite their archaeologically
apparent rarity and intermittent nature.
Keywords - Mortuary program, Late Upper Paleolithic, Archaeothanatology.
doi: 10.4436/jass.89003
e-pub ahead of print
e-pub ahead of print
doi 10.4436/jass.96003
2Arene Candide Epigravettian funerary behavior
Introduction
Arene Candide is a large cave system accessed
90 m above current sea level on the slopes of
Monte Caprazoppa, Finale Ligure, Italy (Fig. 1).
Its name (White Sands) derives from a large white
sand dune that rose from the sea up to the entrance
of the cave, now quarried away. The site has been
renowned since the latter half of the 19th century
for the archaeological richness of its Holocene
layers (Issel, 1864, 1908; Maggi 1997a,b; Rossi
et al., 2011), but it was only from the 1940s that
its Pleistocene sequence came under investiga-
tion. Under the direction of Luigi Cardini and
Luigi Bernabò Brea, several excavations occurred
during 1940-42, 1948-50, and 1970-72. More
recently, a series of excavation campaigns took
place between 2008 and 2011 under the direc-
tion of J. Riel-Salvatore and R. Maggi. Thanks
to the rigorous work of those earlier researchers,
and to subsequent comprehensive multidiscipli-
nary studies (Cardini, 1980; Bietti, 1994; Maggi,
1997a,b), Arene Candide now represents one
of the most important sites for the understand-
ing of the peopling of the Mediterranean in the
Pleistocene and early Holocene.
During the 1940-1942 excavation, several
Late Upper Paleolithic burials and second-
ary deposits of human bones were unearthed
(see below). An additional burial was found in
1970, and, in 2011, a human bone (a talus) was
found (Riel-Salvatore et al., 2018). We aim here
to gain new insights into Late Upper Paleolithic
funerary behavior through the osteological and
spatial analysis of those skeletal elements. The
“Mesolithic necropolis”, as it became known (the
cultural attribution is actually Final Epigravettian;
Bietti, 1987, 1994; Bietti & Molari, 1994), was
unearthed in the lower portion of a sequence of
five layers constituting a 70-100 cm deep stra-
tigraphy (Bietti & Molari, 1994; Rellini et al.,
2013). The deposit is chronologically bracketed
between layers dating to 12,000 and 10,000 cal
BP (Alassio et al., 1966; Bietti, 1987; Bietti &
Molari, 1994; Macphail et al., 1994). Figure
2 places the necropolis in the cave and shows
the relative position of the burials (modified
from Figure 2 in Cardini, 1980, p.12; see also
Formicola et al., 2005, Fig. 1); the position and
orientation of the burial of an adolescent exca-
vated in 1970-72 (Lamberti, 1971; Formicola &
Toscani, 2014) has been added (Fig. 2b) based
on field pictures and paint markers in the cave.
In his site plan, Cardini identified the primary
burials with Roman numerals (Fig. 2a), includ-
ing clusters of bones that he recognized as dis-
turbed burials. Based on this work, the “necropo-
lis” comprises nine undisturbed primary burials
(II, VA, VB, VII, VIII, IX, XI, XV, and AC 16),
three disturbed but in part primary burials (VIA,
VIB, and X), and five disturbed burials (I, III,
XII, XIII, XIV). The disturbed burials would
amount to six if we were to include cluster X,
bones of which clearly derive from the primary
inhumation X (Fig. 2a).
Cardini suggested that the individuals were in
all probability buried at different times during the
whole extent of cave’s use by Final Epigravettian
groups. However, he was unable to establish any
specific chronological or detailed stratigraphic
relationships between the burials (Cardini,
1980). More recently, Formicola et al. (2005)
and Formicola & Toscani (2014) sampled bone
from eleven individuals, and obtained AMS 14C
dates on seven of these. Five (burials VIB, VIII,
XII, XIV, and AC16) span the period 12,820 to
12,420 cal BP (10,585 ± 55 and 10,810 ± 65
BP; all dates calibrated at 2σ using OxCal 4.3.2,
Bronk Ramsey (2017): Intacal13 atmospheric
curve, Reimer et al., 2013). These were there-
fore interred at least four centuries earlier than
burials III and VB (10,065 ± 55 and 9,925 ± 50
BP respectively; 11,940 – 11,330 and 11,600
– 11,230 cal BP). Based on these direct dates,
Formicola et al. (2005) suggested that funerary
use of the cave occurred over at least two main
phases: an early phase (henceforth referred to as
“Phase I”), that coincided with the formation of
layers 1-2 (Bietti & Molari, 1994); and a later
phase (henceforth referred to as “Phase II”) at the
end (i.e., layers 3-5) of the Final Epigravettian
occupation of the site. Burial X-XI – although
the study could not test the available date with
a large error (GX-16960-A 11,605 ± 445 BP;
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3
V. S. Sparacello et al.
14,970 – 12,700 cal BP) – appeared more com-
patible with Phase I, also considering the results
obtained for cluster XII (GX-16964-K: 11,510
± 385 BP; OxA-11002: 10,720 ± 55 BP respec-
tively; 14,540 – 12,670 and 12,730 – 12,570 cal
BP; Formicola et al., 2005).
Formicola et al. (2005) also made inferences
on the funerary behavior based on the dates and
the relative position of the skeletal elements.
Cardini suggested that all of the bone clusters
resulted from disturbances caused by subsequent
interments, and that only in a few cases (clusters
I and IV) did he observe an intentional place-
ment, almost a secondary deposition of groups
of bones coming from previous disturbed inhu-
mations (translated from Cardini, 1980, p.13).
Since the date obtained from cluster III belongs
to the later phase, and no subsequent inhuma-
tions were placed nearby, Formicola et al. (2005)
suggested that this cluster also constitutes a sec-
ondary deposition. The view that bone accu-
mulations at Arene Candide are not the result
of the need to make space for new inhumations,
but signal secondary manipulation of burials, has
Fig. 1 – a) Geographic collocation of the Arene Candide cave in western Liguria, Italy; b) a view of
the eastern portion of the cave, where the Epigravettian “necropolis” was unearthed; c) a plan of
the cave, with indicated the area where the Pleistocene layers were reached and at least partially
excavated. The small red square represents the area where excavations took place in 1974 and
1997-2002; those excavations did not yield human remains. The large red square encloses the areas
where the excavations took place in 1940-42, 1948-50, 1970-72, and 2008-11; most burials were
found during the 1940-42 campaigns, one during the 1970-72 excavations, and one human bone in
2011. The colour version of this gure is available at the JASs website.
4Arene Candide Epigravettian funerary behavior
previously been proposed by Mussi (1989) and,
as we will see, our results support her suggestion.
Formicola and co-workers (2005) further-
more noted that the interment of a Phase II
double burial (burial VA-B) may have disturbed
the skeletons of a Phase I double burial (burial
VIA-B). Striking similarities in funerary behav-
ior observable between the two phases include
the fact that both double burials of each phase
(VA-B and VIA-B) comprise an adult with a
child lying to its left, and that the subsequent dis-
turbance left in place only the lower limb bones,
as in burial X-XI (Figure 2). Overall, it appears
that the two phases of funerary use of the Arene
Candide cave were modelled on similar mortu-
ary patterns despite being separated by at least
half a millennium (Formicola et al., 2005). In the
absence of a more detailed archaeological record,
this suggests the cultural persistence of traditions
of specific funerary activities (see below).
We build here upon these previous studies
and conclusions, aiming to gain further insights
into funerary behavior and its persistence over
time through the osteological analysis of the skel-
etal elements deriving from the accumulation of
disturbed burials I, III, IV, XII, XIII, XIV and
their relationships to the primary burials. These
bone clusters are described as disturbed buri-
als; for cluster III it is even suggested that bones
were retained in the depression which must
have initially contained the body in articulation
(translated from Cardini, 1980, p.13). In the
same monograph, however, Paoli et al. (1980)
presented the first catalogue of the osteological
material, and attribute these remains to an indi-
vidual (Arene Candide 3) “on the basis of mor-
phological and metric analogies, some bones in
secondary deposition, which occupied a limited
area indicated as Tomb III and Tomb IV (trans-
lated from Paoli et al., 1980, p.49). A similar
conclusion was reached for the individual Arene
Candide 4 (Paoli et al., 1980, p.51), suggesting
that bone clusters III and IV each actually con-
tained skeletal elements of two individuals. In
Fig. 2 – The Epigravettian necropolis in the eastern portion of the Arene Candide Cave: a) excava-
tions 1940-42 and 1948-50, with the numbering of the burials and clusters of bones in second-
ary deposition attributed by Cardini (modied from Figure 1 in Cardini, 1980); b) the individual
unearthed during excavations 1970-72 (modied from Formicola & Toscani, 2014) The colour ver-
sion of this gure is available at the JASs website.
www.isita-org.com
5
V. S. Sparacello et al.
addition, the bones from cluster I (a cranium and
a right humerus) are attributed to an individual
from cluster III (Arene Candide 3) by Formicola
(1995), based on shared bowing deformities
and abnormal tendon and ligament calcification
(see also Formicola et al., 1990). Cluster I laid
close to the head area of the Arene Candide 2
burial, while cluster III was laid close to its feet.
If the attribution of skeletal elements can be con-
firmed, cluster III would not be a secondary dep-
osition made in the absence of any subsequent
interment, but would be clearly associated with
the interment of Arene Candide 2.
It therefore is necessary now to present a
detailed and thorough assessment of which skel-
etal elements belong to which individual, and in
which cluster of bone accumulations they were
found. Only by doing so can we better recognize
whether there was an “accidental”, if respectful,
displacement of bones in order to make space for a
new burial, a “reduction of the skeleton” in archae-
othanatological terms (Duday, 2006; Knüsel,
2014), or an intentional secondary manipulation
of primary interments to deliberately associate
their skeletal elements with a new inhumation.
Numerous prior anthropological studies have
included data from the Arene Candide skeletal
material (e.g. Parenti, 1947; Paoli et al., 1980;
Formicola, 1986a, 1987, 1995; Francalacci,
1989; Churchill, 1994; Holliday, 1995, 1999,
2002; Formicola & Franceschi, 1996; Holt,
1999, 2003; Churchill et al., 2000; Holt et al.,
2000; Faerman et al., 2006; Tarsi et al., 2006;
Formicola & Holt, 2007; Shackelford, 2007;
Cowgill, 2008, 2010; Holt & Formicola, 2008;
Villotte, 2008, 2009; Marchi et al., 2006, 2011;
Villotte et al., 2010; Trinkaus & Ruff, 2012;
Brewster et al., 2014; Sparacello et al., 2014,
2017; Villotte & Knüsel, 2014), or on single
individuals from the necropolis (Formicola,
1986b, 1995; Formicola & Scarsini, 1987;
Formicola et al., 1990; Formicola & Toscani,
2014). However, the uncertainty about the attri-
bution of elements from the secondary deposi-
tions often limited the sample size included in
these studies, especially considering that access
to the original publications in Italian may have
been an important obstacle in a number of stud-
ies. The only anthropological database follow-
ing that of Paoli et al. (1980) in Italian was the
recent database of skeletal material from Italian
Paleolithic and Mesolithic sites (Alciati et al.,
2005). However, the publication did not attempt
an attribution of the skeletal elements from the
secondary depositions, effectively reducing the
available sample size. Here, we revise the origi-
nal attributions by Paoli et al. (1980) and pro-
vide the first complete anthropological database
of the Arene Candide necropolis, including 3D
surface models of all the skeletal material in the
analysis. We hope that this work will contribute
to our understanding of evolving funerary com-
plexity at the end of the Pleistocene, as well as
constitute a useful tool for researchers and a base-
line for future targeted analyses of this unique
assemblage from the Late Upper Paleolithic.
Materials and methods
The Arene Candide skeletal assemblage is
curated in four Italian museums (Alciati et al.,
2005). The majority is housed at the Museo
di Archeologia Ligure (Genova Pegli), which
includes most of the primary burials as well as
skeletal elements pertaining to the clusters of
secondary burials. Two individuals from primary
burials (Formicola, 1995; Formicola & Toscani,
2014) are curated at the Museo Archeologico del
Finale (Finale Ligure). The cranium of one indi-
vidual (Formicola & Scarsini, 1987) and partial
remains of at least another four are curated in
the Museo di Storia Naturale dell’Università di
Firenze, Sezione di Antropologia e Etnologia
(Florence). One human bone fragment possibly
associated with the Gravettian “Principe” (Arene
Candide 1), as well as some skeletal elements
belonging to disturbed Epigravettian burials are
curated at the Istituto Italiano di Paleontologia
Umana in Rome (Alhaique & Molari, 2006).
In order to catalogue the entire assemblage,
and to determine the minimum number of indi-
viduals, we directly examined all the skeletal mate-
rial housed in Genova Pegli, Finale Ligure, and
6Arene Candide Epigravettian funerary behavior
Florence. We attributed a unique ID code to each
bone found in a secondary deposit, based on the
skeletal element, side, and the presence of mark-
ings made by Cardini during excavation (“painted
dots” of various colors and numbers). We then
assessed which elements might belong to the same
individual based on direct articulation, measure-
ments of the bone dimensions, estimated age at
death, morphology, and in some cases color, pres-
ervation and cluster of provenience. The attribu-
tions based on articulation, size and morphology
of the skeletal elements in secondary depositions
were also verified through the analysis of 3D sur-
face scans, as well as pictures. Surface scans were
taken using the structured light scanner DAVID®
SLS-2 (DAVID Group 2007-2015).
In addition to direct analysis, we collected all
the available published and unpublished infor-
mation on the spatial properties of the elements
of the primary burials and of those in second-
ary deposits. We made use of unpublished infor-
mation deriving from the transcription of the
excavation diaries of Luigi Cardini and field
pictures (Campaign II: April 25 – June 4, 1941;
Campaign III: November 17 – December 13,
1941; Campaign IV: March 20 – May 22, 1942;
archives of the Soprintendenza Archeologia,
Belle Arti e Paesaggio per la città metropolitana
di Genova e le province di Imperia, La Spezia e
Savona) and from Cardini’s hand-written notes
associated with the skeletal material in the muse-
ums of Genova Pegli and Florence. These notes
list the skeletal elements from clusters I, III, IV,
XII, XIII, XIV, and indicate from which spe-
cific cluster they derive. We also cross-referenced
numerous published sources containing partial
lists of burials and skeletal elements in second-
ary deposits (Cardini, 1980; Paoli et al., 1980;
Alciati et al., 2005; Alhaique & Molari, 2006;
Moggi-Cecchi, 2014) and incorporated revisions
by Formicola (1995) and Villotte (2009, and
personal communication).
We also used numerous published sources: the
main monograph on the Arene Candide necrop-
olis was published in 1980, and the chapters by
Cardini (1980) on the burial composition and by
Paoli et al (1980) on skeletal measurements and
morphology formed the basis for this study. Earlier
publications by Cardini were also consulted (e.g.,
Cardini, 1942, 1946), as were partial publica-
tions of the original excavation diaries (Cilli et
al., 2000). Notes on the composition of the few
skeletal elements preserved in Florence (Museo di
Storia Naturale dell’Università di Firenze, Sezione
di Antropologia e Etnologia) and Rome (Istituto
Italiano di Paleontologia Umana) are presented
in Moggi Cecchi (2014) and Alhaique & Molari
(2006). The recent catalogue of the Italian fos-
sil human remains from the Paleolithic to the
Mesolithic (Alciati et al., 2005) was also con-
sulted. However, Paoli et al. (1980) work formed
the starting point for the attribution of skeletal
elements to an individual, although revisions of
their attributions, especially regarding the individ-
ual catalogued here as Arene Candide 3, had been
made already by Formicola (1995) and Villotte
(2008, 2009, and personal communications).
Skeletal measurements were transcribed from
Paoli et al. (1980) for most of the Epigravettian
skeletal material (excavations 1940-42 and
48-50), and from subsequent studies on the
material which was excavated between 1970 and
72, or was not included in the original mono-
graph (Messeri, 1980; Formicola & Scarsini,
1987; Scarsini, 1987; Formicola & Toscani,
2014). Measurements taken for other anthro-
pological studies were included when they did
not overlap with previous data (Parenti, 1947;
Paoli, 1976; Pearson, 1997; Sparacello et al.,
2014), and new measurements were taken on the
talus (AC 29) discovered in 2011 (Riel-Salvatore
et al., in press). For the Gravettian “Principe”,
data from Sergi et al. (1974), Paoli (1974), and
Pearson (1997) were included.
Results
Note on the raw data and Supplementary Information
The work of revising the anthropologi-
cal remains and the archaeotanathology of the
Epigravettian of Arene Candide Cave employed,
produced and/or organized a large amount
of raw data (excavation diaries, field pictures,
www.isita-org.com
7
V. S. Sparacello et al.
measurements, 3D surface scans). In addition,
some of the skeletal attributions or archaeothana-
tological deliberations are based on the cross-ref-
erencing of different sources, and result in lengthy
and detailed considerations. In order to improve
the legibility of the paper, and to adhere to the
editorial limits of the journal, we report here
the results of the analysis in a condensed form.
However, our intention was to make as much as
possible of the raw data available to the scientific
community, and to provide all the elements for an
independent verification of our conclusions. We
therefore included as Supplementary Information
of this paper several resources listed below.
1) S1_Database: this folder includes the com-
plete database of the skeletal elements in sec-
ondary deposit, the attribution of each bone
ID to an individual and to a cluster, a picture
of each element, and a list of the weblink
where the 3D surface scan can be download-
ed (obj les with textures, and stl les) from
the website www.morphosource.org under
“e Arene Candide 3D Database”.
2) S2_Osteometrics: a table containing all the
available osteometric measurements for the
Upper Palaeolithic skeletal series of Arene
Candide.
3) S3_Details on secondary depositions: con-
tains a more detailed report on how the ar-
chaeothanatological result were obtained,
including a map listing each bone ID for
each cluster, and some key eld pictures.
is Supplementary Information enriches
the evidence provided in Section 3.3 below.
4) S4_Detailed Tables: two tables further de-
tailing the information available in Table 1,
including the osteological composition of
each catalogue entry.
In order to avoid breaking the flow of this
manuscript, we avoided to continuously ref-
erencing the Supplementary Information for
further details and justification of the results
presented below. However, they are fundamen-
tal tools for the reader that intends to verify our
results and conclusions.
Database composition
Appendix presents a new labeling of the Arene
Candide Paleolithic skeletal series that is distinct
from that used in earlier catalogues and publica-
tions. We included the available AMS 14C dates,
and the estimates of age at death and sex of the
individual (mostly based on previous studies, e.g.
Paoli et al., 1980; Cowgill, 2008; Villotte, 2008,
2009). We attempted to construct a numbering
that was consistent with earlier denominations,
but also incorporated some changes proposed in
the catalogue of Italian Paleolithic burials (Alciati
et al., 2005). In particular, the cranium of the
first cluster “Tomba I” now belongs to “Arene
Candide 3”, and the label “Arene Candide 1”
is reserved for the Gravettian “Principe”. As in
Alciati et al. (2005), the entry “Arene Candide
12” includes the cranium previously identified as
number 19 (Formicola & Scarsini, 1987).
Figure 3 shows the numbering and position
of the catalogue entries corresponding to primary
burials in the plan of the Epigravettian necropo-
lis, based on the figures of Cardini (1980) and
Formicola et al. (2005), with the addition of
the burial AC 16 (drawing from Formicola &
Toscani, 2014). Figure 4 shows the numbering
and position of the catalogue entries correspond-
ing to secondary clusters of skeletal elements.
The catalogue includes 31 entries, which con-
sist of complete burials, isolated bone elements,
and groups of elements that most likely belong
to the same individual. One entry, “AC 3 or
4”, includes skeletal elements that could belong
to one of those two individuals. In some cases,
we cannot exclude the possibility that different
entries might belong to the same individual.
Therefore, the minimum number of individuals,
obtained by considering the attributions in S1, is
20. The minimum number of individuals calcu-
lated using a simpler approach would be 18, i.e.
by considering primary burials and the number,
laterality, and ontogenetic phase of the humeri in
secondary deposition (n = 9).
Primary burials (and disturbed primary buri-
als) consist of 12 individuals (AC 2, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 19, and 20), two of which (7
and 9) were fetal or perinatal individuals whose
8Arene Candide Epigravettian funerary behavior
remains were not retrievable (Paoli et al., 1980;
Alciati et al., 2005). Secondary depositions com-
prise the partial skeletons of 5 individuals (AC
3, 4, 12, 13, 14). In addition, one ulna (AC 23)
does not articulate with any humerus, suggest-
ing the presence of an additional individual.
Remains from two additional juvenile individu-
als (AC 24 and 30) do not seem to match with
any other burial or partial inhumation.
The rest of the entries may belong to indi-
viduals that have already been counted. Plausible
associations, based on morphology, size, and color,
can be made in the case of the catalogue entry AC
29 with the partial individual AC 13 (the talus
articulates with the corresponding calcaneus,
see 3D reconstruction and virtual articulation
at the weblink https://doi.org/10.17602/M2/
M10765 http://www.morphosource.org/Detail/
MediaDetail/Show/media_id/8544), or AC 14
and 25. The young adult fragmentary remains AC
21 and 22 may belong to the young adult AC 19,
which is a disturbed burial close by. The remains
catalogued as AC 17, 18, 31 (cranial fragments
and mandibula) and AC 26 (both ossa coxae) may
belong to any individual missing those elements
(AC 13, 14, 19, 23). The phalanx catalogued as
AC 27 was found in the AC 5 burial (according to
the note associated with the skeletal element), but
possibly belongs to cluster IV, and therefore to AC
3 or 4 (Appendix).
Fig. 3 – The spatial collocation and catalogue numbering attributed in this paper of the individuals
in primary deposition at Arene Candide Cave. Roman numerals indicate the burials and clusters of
bones in secondary deposition attributed by Cardini. The colour version of this gure is available at
the JASs website.
www.isita-org.com
9
V. S. Sparacello et al.
In addition to the Epigravettian “necropolis”,
the database contains an entry for the Gravettian
“Principe” (AC 1) and for the other human
bone found in its Gravettian layers (AC 28), an
acetabular fragment of a juvenile right os coxae.
According to Alhaique and Molari (2006), a note
accompanying this bone fragment attributes it to
the feet area of AC 1.
Spatial distribution of skeletal elements in
secondary deposition
Clusters III, XII, XIII, and XIV. e main clus-
ter of disarticulated skeletal elements (about
130), which is the focus of this study, lay west
of the feet of burials AC 5-6 and AC2, and was
delimited by the burials of AC 15 in the north,
and AC 10-11 in the south (Figs. 3 and 4). It
was subdivided into four sub-clusters by Cardini
(1980): III, XII, XIII, and XIV (Fig. 2). Our
analysis suggests that three clusters each contain
mainly the bones of a single individual (XII: AC
12; XIII: AC 13; XIV: AC 14), and one contains
the remains of two individuals (III: AC 3 and
AC 4). e eight skeletal elements catalogued as
AC 23, 24, 25, and 30 were found in the larger
main cluster, but could not be attributed with
certainty to any sub-cluster (Fig. 4).
Clusters I and IV. e other two clusters of
skeletal elements in secondary deposits that
could be documented in detail are in strict
Fig. 4 – The spatial collocation and catalogue numbering attributed in this paper of the individuals
in secondary deposition at Arene Candide Cave. Roman numerals indicate the burials and clusters
of bones in secondary deposition attributed by Cardini. The colour version of this gure is available
at the JASs website.
10 Arene Candide Epigravettian funerary behavior
relationship with burial AC 2 (Fig. 3): cluster
IV lay to the north of the feet of this burial,
and cluster I was close to its head (Fig. 4). We
were able to assess that cluster IV contained the
bones of three individuals: the vast majority of
these belonged to AC 3 and AC 4, including the
cranium of AC 4. However, as already noted by
Paoli et al. (1980), two tarsal bones from this
cluster articulate with elements from AC 13
(Fig. 4). Cluster I consists of the cranium of
AC3 and skeletal elements of the same individ-
ual. A few additional skeletal elements belong-
ing to this cluster were noted in the excavation
diaries, but could not be found in any of the
museums (the presence of skeletal elements that
were not catalogued and could not be retrieved
is indicated with the acronym “NONCAT” in
Figure 4).
Elements associated to burial VA-VB. It appears
that also the burial VA-VB (AC 5 and 6) had
associated clusters of skeletal elements in sec-
ondary deposits. We catalogued those skeletal
elements as AC 19, 20 (the catalogue entries
also include the corresponding portions found
in primary deposition, Figures 3 and 4), 21, 22
(which might belong to AC 20 as well, but this
could not be veried). e existence and colloca-
tion of those skeletal elements is based on the
details provided in the excavation diaries and pic-
tures, but they could not be catalogued and ana-
lyzed in detail because they were not rigorously
listed, and in some cases could not be retrieved
(“NONCAT” in Figure 4). It is interesting to
notice, however, that the diaries report elements
that appear clearly stacked next to the right
shoulder of AC 5. e cranial fragments and
maxilla catalogued as AC 21 were embedded in
the same mass of ochre that covers all the burial
(from the diaries of the 1940-41 campaigns).
Some cranial fragments cover, while others are
covered by, the grave goods of AC 5 suggesting
that these skeletal elements were intentionally
included in the burial. e rest of the skeletal
fragments seem to have been either transferred
above the burial with its covering soil, or were
surfacing from the ground when the double
burial AC 5-6 was emplaced.
Elements that could not be positioned. Other
skeletal elements that could not be positioned
accurately (Fig. 4) include: 1) two ossa coxae
belonging to the same individual (AC 26) which,
according to a eld picture may have been found
north of burial VA-VB together with other skel-
etal elements which could not be retrieved; 2)
a hand phalanx (AC 27) which was probably
found in the area of AC 5; 3) a rib fragment from
cluster I, III, or IV; 3) the mandibles of AC 3 and
AC 4; 4) the ulna AC 23. Finally, the fragment
of frontal bone AC 17 and the mandible AC 18
were unearthed in the “Zona A” during the 1970
excavation, close to burial AC 16 (Fig. 2), but a
more precise spatial collocation is not possible.
Discussion
We make here new inferences on the funer-
ary behavior of Final Epigravettian people at
Arene Candide through the complete catalogu-
ing and spatial analysis of the clusters of bones
in secondary deposits, and from analyzing the
relationship of these clusters to primary buri-
als. Cardini’s excavations were rigorous for their
time, and although the concept of taphonomy
and archaeothanatology (Duday, 2009) had not
yet developed, the excavation diaries contain val-
uable notes on the distribution and deposition
of these “disturbed burials”. An extensive work
of cross-referencing between bone morphology,
excavation diaries, pictures, and previous attri-
bution (Cardini, 1980; Paoli et al., 1980) still
had to be performed to make the Arene Candide
assemblage fully available to the scientific com-
munity. The anthropological database presented
here is the first step in this process and, while
it confirms most of the excellent work under-
taken in those earlier studies and incorporates
some recent revisions (Formicola, 1995; Villotte,
2008, 2009), it also enables some significant
advances to be made in interpretations.
The minor mismatches between the attribu-
tions proposed in this paper and those previously
established (Paoli et al., 1980) are detailed in
S1. The attribution of some additional skeletal
www.isita-org.com
11
V. S. Sparacello et al.
elements to individuals already recognized (e.g.
phalanges added to AC 12, a juvenile metacarpal
added to AC 13, or the juvenile ribs to AC 24;
number 16 in Paoli et al., 1980), or the changing
of some elements from one individual to another
(e.g. most of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae
from cluster III were attributed to AC 3, while
here they are attributed to AC 4) can be verified
by analyzing the 3D models as well as the evi-
dence provided in S1 and S3 and, we believe, do
not require a detailed discussion in this section.
The same is true for the creation of additional
database entries for skeletal elements that had
been overlooked in previous studies (e.g. AC 25,
26, and 30).
One major difference between this study
and previous analyses concerns the demographic
composition of the adults buried in the necropo-
lis (Tab. 1). There is no evidence based on pelvic
or cranial morphology that any of the individu-
als buried in primary or secondary deposits are
female. The pair of ossa coxae that could not be
positioned or assigned to any individual (AC 26)
are male. The individuals recognized as females
in Paoli et al. (1980) are, in fact, either male or
of undetermined sex. More specifically, Paoli et
al. (1980) attributed the ossa coxae of AC 3 to a
female, but subsequent analyses suggested a male
determination (Villotte, 2008, 2009). Moreover,
Paoli et al.s work was probably influenced by the
perceived gracility of the left humerus attributed
to this individual. However, he attributed the
cranium and a robust right humerus found in
cluster I to a male (Paoli et al., 1980, pp. 39-43).
We demonstrated here that those elements
belonged to AC 3 as well, therefore the sex of this
individual is male. The same bias towards attrib-
uting gracile skeletal elements to females can be
noted for AC 13 and 14: no associated os coxae
or cranium was available for those individuals,
and their sex is therefore indeterminable. Even if
we assume that sexual dimorphism in diaphyseal
robusticity (sensu lato) was high during the Late
Upper Paleolithic (Sládek et al., 2016; but see
Churchill et al., 2000), AC 13 is a late adolescent
while the humerus of AC 14 is from the left side.
Marked gracility in left humeri is seen in virtually
all Upper Paleolithic individuals, including those
from Arene Candide (Sparacello et al., 2017;
see the 3D scans, including those of AC 5 and
AC 10 humeri; note that AC 10 was probably
left handed). Therefore, the attribution of those
skeletal elements to female individuals does not
appear justified. Inferences based on differing
funerary treatments of males and females in the
Final Epigravettian of Arene Candide should, we
suggest, be revised based on the absence of evi-
dence for female burials in the excavated area of
the cave (e.g., Mussi, 2001, p. 348).
Another major difference between the attri-
butions made by Paoli et al. (1980) and those
proposed here has an important bearing on our
understanding of funerary practices, in particu-
lar for Phase II interments. Osteological analysis
confirms that the skeletal elements from cluster
I belong to AC 3, as already implied in previous
studies (Formicola, 1995). We were also able to
confirm that clusters III and IV contained the
bones of two individuals: AC 3 and AC 4 (almost
exclusively, see discussion about AC 13 below).
Both clusters I and IV contained a cranium (I
from AC 3; IV from AC 4) and were closely asso-
ciated with a more recent deposition, AC 2. As
noted by Cardini (1980), these were most likely
intentional secondary manipulations: the bones
of AC 3 and 4 were clearly stacked in cluster IV,
protected by the stone slabs arranged around AC
2, and the cranium was placed above the stack
(details and pictures in S3). In cluster I, the cra-
nium of AC 3 was almost touching the cranium
of AC 2 (details and pictures in S3). Cluster III
was less than a meter west of the feet of AC 2
and contained the remaining skeletal elements of
AC 3 and 4. Cardini interpreted this last cluster
as a disturbed burial that, although no longer in
anatomical connection, was still located in the
original burial pit (Cardini, 1980). Cardini,
however, most likely did not know that cluster
III contained the same individual as I and IV:
the 1980 monograph, which includes the work
of Paoli et al (1980), is posthumous. Subsequent
studies considered that cluster III (together with
XII, XIII, and XIV) was located in a part of the
cave that revealed no evidence of subsequent
12 Arene Candide Epigravettian funerary behavior
interments and therefore it was considered a sec-
ondary burial (Mussi et al., 1989; Formicola et
al., 2005).
Based on the evidence presented here it can
be hypothesized that AC 3 and AC 4 were origi-
nally buried together as a double burial, which
was subsequently re-arranged in order to facili-
tate the interment of Arene Candide 2, and most
likely to put the newly interred in close spatial
association with the bones of AC 3 and AC 4.
This was possibly done on the basis of shared
congenital pathological conditions and/or relat-
edness between individuals involved in the crea-
tion of this funerary treatment context. In fact,
both AC 2 and AC 3 show skeletal traits sug-
gesting a congenital form of rickets (Formicola,
1995; see discussion below).
The original position of the presumed dou-
ble burial is impossible to determine, but could
have been in the center of the excavated area of
the necropolis, where AC 2 was subsequently
interred. We suggest that the bones of AC 3 and
4 were initially moved aside, towards clusters
XII-XIV (belonging to Phase I of the necropolis,
Formicola et al., 2005), in order to make space
for the new inhumation, in a fashion similar to
that observed in burial X-XI. This action resulted
in the mixing of the skeletal elements of the two
individuals AC 3 and 4 in the newly formed
cluster III which, according to Cardini (1980),
was found slightly higher than the more recent
AC 2. The fact that bones of AC 3 and AC 4
were completely mixed in cluster III suggests
that the displacement of the two skeletons was
performed in a single action, and that therefore
the two individuals were either very close to one
another or even interred together in a double
burial. Subsequently, a number of skeletal ele-
ments, including the crania of AC 3 and 4, were
removed from cluster III and arranged around
AC 2, forming clusters I and IV. During this
stage of the mortuary activity, two tarsal bones
that were most likely part of cluster XIII (they
perfectly articulate with elements belonging to
AC 13) were moved, we think unintentionally,
to cluster IV. The presence of skeletal elements
from cluster XIII in cluster IV supports the
reconstruction of two stages of movement (mov-
ing aside bones, and then selecting elements to
place around the new inhumation) during the
funerary rite: if the bones of AC 3 and 4 had
been moved in three different directions to make
space for AC 2, the skeletal elements belonging
to AC 13 would have not ended in cluster IV. In
addition, this suggests that the bones in cluster
XIII, and probably the ones in clusters XII and
XIV, lay on (or close to) the surface at the time
of the burial of AC 2 (as suggested previously by
Henry-Gambier, 2001: 132).
Unfortunately, AC 13 has not yet been
directly dated, but two considerations suggest
that it belongs to Phase I. First, as with AC 12
and AC 14 (dated to Phase I, Table 2), the bones
of AC 13 were found at the margins of the large
scatter of skeletal elements initially referred to as
“Tomba 3” by Cardini (which then was divided
into clusters III, XII, XIII, XIV). Second, as with
AC 14, AC 13 comprises only a few skeletal ele-
ments. Dating AC 13 would contribute to deter-
mining whether or not the secondary depositions
at Arene Candide had remained close to the sur-
face for several centuries.
Another result of our work related to AC 13
is the intriguing finding that one skeletal element
(AC 29) found in 2011 about 8 meters east of
cluster XIII (Fig. S3-7) and thus well outside of the
known perimeter of the Epigravettian necropolis,
very likely belongs to individual AC 13. The bone
is a left talus that perfectly articulates with the left
calcaneus of AC 13 from cluster XIII, and could
be contralateral of the right talus (the articulated
tali and calcanei 3D file is available at the weblink
https://doi.org/10.17602/M2/M10765 http://
www.morphosource.org/Detail/MediaDetail/
Show/media_id/8544). Micromorphological
studies of the M1-M2 levels provide evidence of
an in-situ occupational floor without significant
post-depositional disturbances (Macphail et al.,
1994). Given that skeletal elements belonging to
AC 13 had already been displaced during the for-
mation of cluster IV (see above), the position of
this talus so far from the necropolis proper may
be due to other as yet undefined mortuary activi-
ties at the site (e.g., Gravel-Miguel et al. 2017;
www.isita-org.com
13
V. S. Sparacello et al.
Riel-Salvatore et al., 2018), and may hint at the
presence of additional burials in the unexplored
Epigravettian deposits in the eastern part of the
cave, next to the area explored during the 2008-
2011 excavations.
Based on our considerations on the funer-
ary processes that led to the arrangement of AC
3 and 4 around AC 2, we can hypothesize that
individuals put in connection by means of the
funerary rite belonged to the same phase of use
of the necropolis (Phase I: 12,820 – 12,420 cal
BP; Phase II 12,030 – 11,180 cal BP; Formicola
et al., 2005). If this is true, we could extend the
AMS 14C date for AC 3 (10,065±55 BP; 11,940
– 11,330 cal BP) to AC 4, which has not been
directly dated (Formicola et al., 2005). In addi-
tion, we can extrapolate a date for AC 2, which,
based on results published to date (Formicola et
al., 2005) failed to yield sufficient collagen for
AMS 14C dating. The excavation diaries clearly
state that cluster IV lay above another undis-
turbed double burial (AC 5-6; Cardini, 1980; see
also pictures in S3) which was dated to 11,600
– 11,230 cal BP (9,925±50 BP; Formicola et al.,
2005). Given that the formation of clusters I and
IV is contemporary with the deposition of AC
2, this date provides a terminus post quem for the
burial. Regarding a terminus ante quem, the top
of layer 1 of the Epigravettian sequence is dated
to 12,030 – 11,180 cal BP (9,980±140 BP;
Bietti et al., 1994). Based on the above evidence,
we propose that Arene Candide 2, 3, 4, 5, and
6 are roughly contemporaneous to one another,
dating to somewhere between 12,030-11,180
cal BP, based on the radiocarbon age ranges for
Phase II of the Epigravettian occupation of the
cave (Fig. 5).
Another burial that could not be dated in
previous attempts due to lack of preserved colla-
gen (Formicola et al., 2005; Tab. 2) is burial XV
(AC 15), named “Burial of the Antlers” due to the
nearby deposition of moose antlers. In this study
(Supplementary Material S3), we confirmed that
the cranium of AC 12 was found above burial
XV (e.g., Formicola & Scarsini, 1987). Indeed,
it was deposited in a stone niche formed by the
slabs covering burial XV. Postcranial remains of
AC 12 have been dated to 12,730- 12,570 cal
BP (10,720±55 BP), and lay in cluster XII, in the
same general area of cluster III (Figure 2). This
suggests a similar behavior to that seen in AC 2, 3,
4, i.e. the initial displacement of a burial and the
subsequent selection of skeletal elements from it –
particularly crania – to link to the new burial. If
AC 12 cranium was deposited intentionally above
burial XV, as it seems, the date of this individual
does not constitute the terminus ante quem for the
deposition. However, if individuals put in connec-
tion by means of the funerary rite did belong to
the same phase, burial XV would belong to the
Phase I of the necropolis. It should be noted that
this extension of the dates based on funerary rela-
tionships is rather speculative, and that new direct
dates would be integral to our understanding of
the funerary processes at this site.
Interestingly, cranial elements (AC 17 and 18)
– as well as moose antlers – were found also in the
“Zona A”, close to the burial of AC 16. However,
the lack of documentation makes their associa-
tion with the burial tentative at best. Nevertheless,
the similarities in funerary behavior between the
two phases of funerary activity at the site, which
appear separated by at least four centuries, appear
even more striking than previously recognized
(Cardini, 1980; Formicola et al., 2005).
At this stage of research, we would suggest
that there is evidence – in both phases – of inten-
tional disturbance and repositioning of skeletal
elements to link burials belonging to the same
phase, i.e. AC 12 and 15 for Phase I, and AC
2, 3, and 4 for Phase II. Unfortunately, due to
lack of clear documentation, it was not possible
to determine whether AC 19-20 (Phase I) was
rearranged for the interment of AC 5-6 (Phase
II), or whether AC 19-20 had been displaced
during another funerary intervention of Phase I,
of which further traces have been lost.
Nevertheless, our new analysis provides evi-
dence of a remarkably long persistence of Upper
Paleolithic cultural traditions in the funerary
realm, and additionally suggests that burial
activity specifically at Arene Candide occurred
within relatively brief periods of time, probably
separated by several centuries. This persistence
14 Arene Candide Epigravettian funerary behavior
reflects an extreme degree of conservatism in
social norms that may be related to behavio-
ral strategies such as intentional place-marking
(Riel-Salvatore and Gravel-Miguel 2013: 335-
336) developed by foragers as a way to cope with
the unpredictable conditions of the Younger
Dryas. The excavation of the remaining Final
Epigravettian deposits in the cave, as well as of
other caves in the Finalese area that contain Late
Upper Paleolithic horizons should in time help
test these ideas and observations.
It is interesting to note how a similar mix
of primary and secondary burials, as well as
the removal and re-deposition of crania in
association with later interments at a num-
ber of Epipalaeolithic (Iberomaurusian) sites
in Morocco and Algeria (Mariotti et al., 2009,
2014). This may suggest that the remarkable
persistence of the funerary behavior observed at
Arene Candide did not extend only in time, but
also in space over vast areas of the Late Upper
Paleolithic Mediterranean littoral. Furthermore,
similarities in the mortuary program can be also
pointed out with Mesolithic cemeteries else-
where in Europe (e.g. Stutz et al., 2013), however
a detailed review of these similarities and their
implications goes beyond the scope of this paper
and will be tackled in future studies.
Fig. 5 – A color representation of the chronological phases of funerary use of the Arene Candide Cave.
Phase I (blue): AMS dates spanning 12,816 – 12,421 cal BP at 2σ; Phase II (red): AMS dates span-
ning 12,028 – 11,181 cal BP at 2σ. The individuals with a lighter tone of the two colors representing
the phases are the ones for which there is no published direct date, but an attribution to a phase can
be proposed (see main text). The colour version of this gure is available at the JASs website.
www.isita-org.com
15
V. S. Sparacello et al.
Palaeopathological considerations related to
funerary behavior
We demonstrated a strong funerary asso-
ciation between AC 2, 3, and 4 exempli-
fied by the arrangement of clusters I and IV.
Palaeopathological data further support the idea
that the displacement of AC 3 was not casual:
this individual displays short stature, bowing of
limbs and abnormal entheseal changes, includ-
ing a disproportionate mental spine, which are
suggestive of hereditary X-linked hypophos-
phatemic rickets (Formicola, 1995). Likewise,
the skeleton of AC 2 shows signs of rickets such
as frontal bossing, enlargement of the metaphy-
ses, and long bone curvature (Formicola, 1995),
as well as the absence of the lesser trochanter of
both femora (Formicola et al., 1990; see also 3D
surface scans of AC 2 at morphosource). While
a traumatic origin of this last trait is possible, it
might be better explained in a context of distur-
bances in bone and cartilage ossification, possi-
bly due to the same X-linked hypophosphatemic
rickets syndrome (Formicola, 1995). Although
the diagnosis is tentative (especially for AC 2)
in the absence of a genetic test, the presence of
such a rare congenital condition in two individu-
als would suggest a shared maternal lineage. The
re-arrangement of the older AC 3 cranium close
to the skull of AC 2 may therefore be a sign of
relatedness, which may have been recognized by
the people who buried both individuals. If this
is true, at least three (AC 2, 3, and 4) of the five
individuals (including also AC 5 and 6) buried in
Phase II of the necropolis could well have been
buried, possibly by the same group, during a time
span perhaps as limited as one or two generations.
Double burials comprising two adults are as
yet unknown at Arene Candide: known double
burials are only comprised of an adult and a child
(AC 5-6, AC 19-20). It should be noted that, if
indeed AC 3 and 4 were in a double burial, it
would be another case of an Upper Palaeolithic
(Gravettian or Epigravettian) multiple burial
containing a pathological individual, and in
particular an individual with skeletal dysplasias
(Formicola, 2007). Similar cases are present
in the double burial from Romito, containing
an acromesomelic dwarf (Mallegni & Fabbri,
1995), the double burial of Sunghir, and the tri-
ple from Dolní Věstonice, containing an individ-
ual with severe bowing of limbs and other dys-
plasias (Trinkaus et al., 2001, 2014; Formicola
& Buzhilova, 2004; Trinkaus & Svoboda, 2006;
Cowgill et al., 2012), the triple burial from
Barma Grande, where the adult shows abnormal
upper limb asymmetry (Churchill & Formicola,
1997), and the double child burial from Grotta
dei Fanciulli/Grotte des Enfants, where one
individual, in addition to a projectile weapon
injury, shows indicators of vitamin D deficiency
(Henry-Gambier et al., 2001). Congenital and
developmental anomalies, as well as perimortem
trauma, have also been reported in other Upper
Palaeolithic funerary contexts, such as single bur-
ials (e.g. Sergi et al., 1974; Villotte et al., 2011,
2015; Trinkaus et al., 2015; Wu et al., 2013).
Based on the above evidence, it has been
suggested that Upper Paleolithic burials repre-
sented a ritual to “contain” and ritualize “bad
deaths” or pathological conditions (Pettitt, 2012;
see also Formicola, 2007). In this scenario, low
genetic diversity and X-linked hereditary diseases
(diagnosed for AC 3, and possible for AC 2, see
above) might at least partially explain the sex bias
observed in the skeletal assemblage. In fact, reces-
sive X-linked mutations are expressed with much
higher frequencies in males (Dobyns et al., 2004):
if the frequency of a particular mutation was f in
males (e.g. 1%), women would have a frequency
of f2 (1%*1% = 0.01%). It is well known that sex
chromosomes are more likely than autosomes to be
affected by drift, bottlenecks, and low population
sizes (Whitlock & Wade, 1995); all phenomena
that were most likely shaping the genetic makeup
of European periglacial hunters. The sex bias in
the burial assemblage would therefore be a by-
product of higher male susceptibility to X-linked
congenital disease due to inbreeding: males would
have been disproportionally subject to those “bad
deaths” for which formal burial was performed
by Upper Paleolithic people. Moreover, if rare
mutations leading to X-linked hypophosphatemic
rickets were present at Arene Candide, it is plau-
sible that other more common X-linked diseases,
16 Arene Candide Epigravettian funerary behavior
which leave no clear traces on the skeleton, such
as haemophilia, were an even greater problem for
Late Upper Paleolithic groups. These considera-
tions are at the moment speculative, and do not
take into account the possibility of female-specific
congenital diseases (e.g. Reijnders et al., 2016);
future aDNA analyses of the skeletal series from
Arene Candide might investigate this hypoth-
esis and shed light on the selective nature of Late
Upper Paleolithic funerary practices. This would
allow the field to move away from simplistic dis-
cussions about emergent sex-based social status
in the Paleolithic that have tended to dominate
analyses of sex ratios in Upper Paleolithic burials
so far (cf. Riel-Salvatore & Gravel-Miguel, 2013).
Conclusions
Through the cataloguing, attribution, and
spatial positioning of the bones in second-
ary deposition, this study sheds new light on
Final Epigravettian funerary behavior at Arene
Candide, and it allows for a better understand-
ing of the tempo and mode of the depositional
processes leading to the creation of the “necropo-
lis”. As noted in previous studies, the “necropo-
lis” accumulated in two phases, separated by a
hiatus of a few centuries. It appears clear that the
two phases of funerary use of the cave were mod-
eled after similar burial practices. Bones were not
simply put aside to make space for a new burial
but, after initial removal into a cluster, some
elements (particularly the crania) were selected
and carefully re-arranged around the new inhu-
mation. We presented evidence supporting this
behavior in both phases; moreover, based on the
available dates and on pathological similarities
between AC 2 and AC 3, we suggest that the
individuals from Phase II might have been bur-
ied, perhaps by the same group, over a relatively
short period of time. Our analysis provides evi-
dence of a remarkably long persistence of Upper
Palaeolithic cultural traditions in the funerary
realm, despite the (actual or perceived) rare and
discontinuous nature of mortuary behavior at
the time. Our study provides a new impulse for
the excavation of the Final Epigravettian layers
in the cave, as well as for the exploration other
caves in the Finalese area to determine whether
this observation of rarity and discontinuity is real
or the result of bias due to insufficient data.
Overall, the re-assessment and catalogu-
ing of the Arene Candide skeletal series, as well
as the careful analysis and cross-referencing of
excavation diaries, notes, and field photographs,
provides a number of insights that improve our
understanding of Final Epigravettian funerary
behavior at the site. We believe that this work pro-
vides the basis for future targeted analyses on the
skeletal assemblage, and we hope it will stimulate
renewed investigations in the Pleistocene depos-
its at Arene Candide and nearby sites. Finally,
the database associated to this study, and the 3D
surface scans made available in the website www.
morphosource.org, constitute an important open-
access tool for future morphological and morpho-
metric studies by the whole scientific community.
Acknowledgements
Research funded by the Marie-Curie European
Union COFUND/Durham Junior Research Fellow-
ship [under EU grant agreement number 267209],
and by the Wolfson Institute for Health and Wellbe-
ing, Durham,UK. is study has also received finan-
cial support from the French State in the framework
of the”Investments for the future” Program, IdEx
Bordeaux, reference ANR-10-IDEX-03-02. e
2008-2011 excavations in the Arene Candide Cave
were conducted by the Soprintendenza Archeologia
della Liguria, with funding from the Ministero dei
Beni e delle Attività Culturali e del Turismo and
Freddy spa Company’s support, and were directed by
Julien Riel-Salvatore and Roberto Maggi with the
collaboration of Stefano Rossi and Chiara Panelli.
e authors thank the Soprintendenza Archeologia
Belle Arti e Paesaggio per la città metropolitana di
Genova e le province di Imperia, La Spezia e Savona
for the permission to conduct this work. For assis-
tance during data collection and collaboration dur-
ing the analysis, we thank the curators and staff of the
Museo di Archeologia Ligure, Museo Archeologico
www.isita-org.com
17
V. S. Sparacello et al.
del Finale, and of the Museo di Storia Naturale
dell’Università di Firenze Sezione di Antropologia
e Etnologia. In particular, we are deeply grateful to
the following people (in alphabetical order): Daniele
Arobba, Erica Ceccarelli, Stefano Costa, Andrea De
Pascale, Angiolo Del Lucchese, Irene Dori, Patrizia
Garibaldi, Tina Jakob, Christopher Knüsel, Roberto
Maggi, Damiano Marchi, Gabriele Martino, Jacopo
Moggi, Irene Molinari, Fabio Negrino, Chiara Pan-
elli, Guido Rossi, Elisabetta Starnini, Antonella Tra-
verso, Giuseppe “Cisque” Vicino e Maria Tagliafico,
Alessandra Varalli, Sébastien Villotte, and Monica
Zavattaro. is work could not have been completed
without your contribution. VSS thanks Dalibor
Ivezic of DAVID Vision System, Kamal Badreshany,
and his great mates James Clement and Nick Mason
of TWP, for assistance during the elaboration of the
3D models. We thank the reviewer and the editor for
their suggestions and corrections, which significantly
improved the quality of the manuscript.
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22 Arene Candide Epigravettian funerary behavior
Tab. 1 – List of individual entries for the Arene Candide catalogue of skeletal elements. AMS dates, when available, derived from: a, Pettitt
et al., 2003; b, Formicola at al., 2005; c, Macphail et al., 1994; d, Formicola & Toscani, 2014.
THIS
CATALOGUE HUMAN REMAINS FROM
CARDINI (1980) BURIALS
ATTRIBUTED TO THE
CATALOGUE ENTRY
NUMBER ISITA
CATALOGUE
(ALCIATI ET AL.,
2005)
AMS DATE SEX ESTIMATED AGE AT DEATH
AC 1 “Il Principe” Arene Candide 1 23,440±190 years BP
Uncal.a
Male (Sergi et al., 1974;
Paoli, 1974).
15 y.o. (Sergi et al., 1974); 14-15 y.o.
(Paoli, 1974); 16.4 y.o. (Cowgill, 2008).
AC 2 II Arene Candide 2 Male (Paoli et al., 1980). Adult.
AC 3 Cranium I; postcranial bones
found in I, III, IV
Arene Candide 3 10,065±55 BP Uncal. b Male (Villotte , 2008, 2009). Adult.
AC 4 Cranium IV; postcranial bones
found in III, IV
Arene Candide 4 Male (Paoli et al., 1980;
Villotte, 2008, 2009).
Adult.
AC 3 or 4 Ribs, hand and foot bones
found in TIII and TIV
Non-attributed.
Belonging to either
TI, III, IV, XII-XIV
Adult.
AC 5 V Arene Candide 5 Male (Paoli et al., 1980). Adult.
AC 6 VB Arene Candide 6 9,925±50 BP Uncal. b Indeterminable (Infans). 4-5 y.o. (Paoli et al., 1980); 2.8 y.o.
(Cowgill, 2008).
AC 7 VII Arene Candide 7 Indeterminable (Infans). Perinatal.
AC 8 VIII Arene Candide 8 10,655±55 BP Uncal. b Indeterminable (Infans). 6-7 y.o. (Paoli et al., 1980); 5.5 y.o.
(Cowgill, 2008).
AC 9 IX Arene Candide 9 Indeterminable (Infans). Perinatal.
AC 10 X Arene Candide 10 11,605±445 BP
Uncal.c
Male (Paoli et al., 1980). Adult.
AC 11 XI Arene Candide 11 Indeterminable (Infans). 3-4 y.o. (Paoli et al., 1980); 2.4 y.o.
(Cowgill, 2008).
www.isita-org.com
23
V. S. Sparacello et al.
THIS
CATALOGUE HUMAN REMAINS FROM
CARDINI (1980) BURIALS
ATTRIBUTED TO THE
CATALOGUE ENTRY
NUMBER ISITA
CATALOGUE
(ALCIATI ET AL.,
2005)
AMS DATE SEX ESTIMATED AGE AT DEATH
AC 12 Poscranium: TXII Arene Candide 12 10,720±55 BP Uncal.
b; 11510±385 BP
Uncal.c
Male (Paoli et al., 1980;
Villotte, 2008).
Adult.
AC 13 XIII and foot bones in III
and IV
Non-attributed.
Belonging to either
TI, III, IV, XII-XIV
Indeterminable (lack of
diagnostic elements).
Young adult.
AC 14 XIV Non-attributed.
Belonging to either
TI, III, IV, XII-XIV
10,735±55 BP Uncal. b Indeterminable (lack of
diagnostic elements).
Adult.
AC 15 XV Arene Candide 13 Indeterminable (lack of
diagnostic elements).
Early adolescent (Infans II) (Alciati et
al., 2005).
AC 16 Adolescent “zona A” Arene Candide 16 10,810±65 BP Uncal.dMale (Formicola & Toscani,
2014).
12-14 y.o. (Formicola & Toscani, 2014);
15.9 y.o. (Cowgill, 2008); 16-17 y.o.
(Paoli et al., 1980).
AC 17 Frontal bone “zona A” Arene Candide 17 Male (Paoli et al., 1980). Adult.
AC 18 Mandible “zona A” Arene Candide 18 Indeterminable (Formicola,
1986b).
Young adult (Formicola, 1986b).
AC 19 VIA, and elements in
secondary deposition probably
belonging to the same adult
individual
Arene Candide 14 Indeterminable (lack of
diagnostic elements).
Adult.
AC 20 VIB, and elements in
secondary deposition probably
belonging to the same
juvenile individual
Arene Candide 15 10,585±55 BP Uncal. b Indeterminable (Infans,
and lack of diagnostic
elements).
Infans I (Alciati et al., 2005).
AC 21 Cranial fragments and
maxillary “Cranio trofeo -
Uomo della Pietra”
Not included Indeterminable
(fragmentary).
Late adolescent 15-20 y.o. (Alhaique &
Molari, 2006).
24 Arene Candide Epigravettian funerary behavior
THIS
CATALOGUE HUMAN REMAINS FROM
CARDINI (1980) BURIALS
ATTRIBUTED TO THE
CATALOGUE ENTRY
NUMBER ISITA
CATALOGUE
(ALCIATI ET AL.,
2005)
AMS DATE SEX ESTIMATED AGE AT DEATH
AC 22 Femur fragments found in V
“Cranio trofeo - Uomo della
Pietra”
Not included Indeterminable (lack of
diagnostic elements).
Late adolescent 15-20 y.o. (Alhaique &
Molari, 2006).
AC 23 Ulna “Xq” Non-attributed.
Belonging to either
TI, III, IV, XII-XIV
Indeterminable (lack of
diagnostic elements).
Adult.
AC 24 Humerus and juvenile ribs
(9-10 years old) found in III
and XII
Non-attributed.
Belonging to either
TI, III, IV, XII-XIV
Indeterminable (Infans,
and lack of diagnostic
elements).
Infans II around 9-10 y.o.
AC 25 Hand bones found in XII Non-attributed.
Belonging to either
TI, III, IV, XII-XIV
Indeterminable (lack of
diagnostic elements).
Adult.
AC 26 Os coxae right and left
belonging to the same
individual of uncertain spatial
collocation
Non-attributed.
Belonging to either
TI, III, IV, XII-XIV
Male. Adult.
AC 27 Adult hand phalanx from
burial V which does not
belong to Arene Candide 5
Not included Indeterminable (lack of
diagnostic elements).
Adult.
AC 28 Juvenile acetabulum found on
Arene Candide 1 feet area
Not included Indeterminable (lack of
diagnostic elements).
13-16 y.o. (Alhaique & Molari, 2006).
AC 29 Talus excavation 2011 Not included Indeterminable (lack of
diagnostic elements).
Young adult (size).
AC 30 Cervical vertebra (C4?) Infans
I (around 4 years old) found
in XII
Non-attributed.
Belonging to either
TI, III, IV, XII-XIV
Indeterminable (lack of
diagnostic elements).
Infans I around 4 y.o.
AC 31 Adult cranial fragments found
“above XV”
Not included Indeterminable
(fragmentary).
Adult.
... This study focuses on the evidence from Arene Candide Cave, a site comprising a well-preserved and complex stratigraphy first exposed in the 1940s that ranges from the Early Upper Palaeolithic to historical times; this makes it a key sequence for Western Mediterranean prehistory (Bernabò Brea, 1946;Bietti and Molari, 1994;Maggi, 1997;Tinè, 1999;Riel-Salvatore et al., 2018, 2023. Twenty primary and secondary burials dated to the last phases of the Final Epigravettian have also been recovered at the site (Cardini, 1980;Formicola et al., 2005;Sparacello et al., 2018;2021); all of these were deposited and covered in red pigment and associated with grindstones and elongated marine pebbles bearing conspicuous ochre traces (Gravel-Miguel et al., 2017;Riel-Salvatore et al., 2018). Arene Candide Cave is also famous for having yielded the Gravettian, ca. ...
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... In Europe, the use of ochre in burial rites is documented from Sicily to Scandinavia (Maviglia 1941;Graziosi 1947;Aldhouse-Green and Pettitt 1998;Aldhouse-Green 2001;Pettitt et al. 2003;Einwögere et al. 2006;Giacobini 2007;Fahlander, 2008Svoboda 2008Zagorska 2008;González-Morales and Straus 2009;Villotte and Henry-Gambier 2010;Straus et al. 2011;Martini et al. 2012aMartini et al. , 2017Riel-Salvatore et al., 2013;Formicola and Holt 2015;Petersen 2015;Reynold et al., 2017;Orschiedt 2018;Sparacello, 2018;Petru, 2018). It was used as is or transformed by heating to obtain the red colour or by grinding to obtain powder. ...
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