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Current challenges and future potential of 3D concrete printing
Abstract
The emphases on reduction of construction time and production costs have profound
influences on the construction process that has led us to investigate a new
paradigm, known as 3D concrete printing. This technique can fabricate complex 3D
building components directly from computer aided design models without any tooling
and human intervention. However, compatibility of the presently available materials
has impeded its widespread application and commercialization. This paper introduces
an overview of concrete printing processes and its noteworthy potentials
in the building and construction sector. After sketching the potential, a novel fly ash
based inorganic geopolymer is printed and characterized in terms of fresh and
hardened properties with an aim for sustainable built environment.
... 3D Concrete Printing is a form of an Additive Manufacturing (AM) process, wherein the buildings and construction components are fabricated layer-by-layer straight from a 3D digital model by successively depositing materials through a 3D printer's nozzle [2]. Unlike traditional construction methods, 3D Concrete Printing allows the fabrication buildings and construction components in previously unimaginable shapes. ...
... Developing appropriate new materials for the 3D printing process is another significant challenge of 3DCP. Because the printing materials must meet certain requirements such as: (1) When the material mix is poured, the mix ought to be able to sustain its own mass as well as the mass of each consequent layer to obtain the final design without any distortion [2]; (2) The material mix must be flowable in the system while also being buildable and be able to hold itself and each consequent layers after pouring; (3) The extruded material should set as fast as possible but not fast enough to ensure proper bonding with the consequent layer. ...
... Developing appropriate new materials for the 3D printing process is another significant challenge of 3DCP. Because the printing materials must meet certain requirements such as: (1) When the material mix is poured, the mix ought to be able to sustain its own mass as well as the mass of each consequent layer to obtain the final design without any distortion [2]; (2) The material mix must be flowable in the system while also being buildable and be able to hold itself and each consequent layers after pouring; (3) The extruded material should set as fast as possible but not fast enough to ensure proper bonding with the consequent layer. ...
The construction industry is likely to undergo considerable changes in order to enhance its productivity, optimize material usage, and improve workmanship. In the recent few decades, various automation technologies like 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) have been introduced in the construction industry to automate the construction process. 3D Concrete Printing is an emerging method that can be used for fabricating the building and building components straight from a digital model into consecutive layers devoid of the use of any temporary supports or subsequent vibration. It is necessary to examine the existing processes, potentials, and limitations associated with 3DCP, and identify future research aspects to understand its applications in the construction industry. The primary goal of this study is to summarize the previous works of literature from both technical and non-technical aspects. Hence, this article provides a state-of-the-art analysis of recent accomplishments in the field of 3D printing of civil structures and construction components as well as recommendations for future research.
... In response to the growing demand for sustainable and efficient building methods, 3D concrete printing (3DCP) has emerged as an innovative approach within the construction sector since the mid-1990s [1]. The combination of digital design and additive manufacturing in 3DCP provides key benefits such as design flexibility, optimized material usage, increased time efficiency, enhanced safety standards, and reduced costs [1][2][3]. Together, these factors contribute to the sustainability of construction processes. ...
... Consequently, developing advanced concrete mixtures that meet these requirements is fundamental to achieving a printable and durable mixture. Enhancing the structural performance of printed elements also requires significant research on the integration of reinforcement [3]. Additionally, other key research areas focus on digital developments, such as design optimization, process control, and computational modeling [8,9]. ...
The adaptation of 3D printing techniques within the construction industry has opened new possibilities for designing and constructing cementitious materials efficiently and flexibly. The layered nature of extrusion-based concrete printing introduces challenges, such as interlayer weaknesses, that compromise structural integrity and mechanical performance. This experimental study investigates the influence of interlayer orientation and the presence of cold joints (CJ) on mechanical properties, such as stiffness and strength. Three-point bending tests (3PBT) and optical measurement techniques are employed to correlate these properties with the structural response of hardened printed concrete. The analysis determines key properties like Young’s modulus and flexural tensile strength and evaluates them statistically. The investigation examines crack development and failure mechanisms, relating them to the material properties. The findings reveal a strong dependency of material properties and crack formation on layer orientation. Specimens with interlayers aligned parallel to the loading direction exhibit significantly inferior mechanical properties compared with other orientations. The presence of CJ considerably influences the progression of crack formation. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the structural performance of printed concrete.
... However, for consumer dwellings, some chemical or physical post-treatment methods like sintering are important to mitigate this defect since a flat appearance of architecture is more aesthetically pleasing to the public [12,43]. Dimensional errors and improper control of deposited material (insufficient or excessive) are the main factors that lead to 3DCP buildings having poor surfaces, so the printing speed and material output are required to be controlled, otherwise, expensive surface post-treatment needs to be considered [44,45]. ...
... The use of various equipment including large printers, conveying pipes, and pumping machines impose certain requirements on the site safety of 3DCP projects. In this case, DT can come into play to achieve human-machine interaction for intelligent safety solutions through real-time location sensing (RTLS) and two-way conversation between the physical and digital environments [44]. The digital twin allows the development of a real-time control system that combines physical space and cyberspace so that problems that occur during the printing process like fluctuations in material properties or pumping would be immediately identified and responded to without interrupting the process; this greatly improves its robustness [63]. ...
The benefits of 3D concrete printing (3DCP) include reducing construction time and costs, providing design freedom, and being environmentally friendly. This technology is expected to be effective in addressing the global house shortage. This review highlights the main 3DCP applications and four critical challenges. It is proposed to combine 3D concrete printing with Digital Twin (DT) technology to meet the challenges the 3DCP faces and improve quality and sustainability. This paper provides a critical review of research into the application of DT technology in 3DCP, categorize the applications and directions proposed according to different lifecycles, and explore the possibility of incorporating them into existing 3DCP systems. A comprehensive roadmap was proposed to detail how DT can be used at different lifecycle stages to optimize and address the four main challenges of 3DCP, providing directions and ideas for further research.
... Adequate lubrication between layers reduces friction and improves the workability of the designed mixture [39]. Buildability is the other key characteristic of the concrete required for 3D printing [40] which mainly depends on the shape stability of layers, yield stress and structural buildup of the materials [41]. The static yield stress provides material an initial rigidity and helps in shape retention after the extrusion which is desired for the structural build-up. ...
... If yield stress and plastic viscosity of the material is kept higher to avoid the above-mentioned problems, surface cracks and voids start arising which weakens the structure [191]. Introducing the trowels in the nozzle orifice can reduce the surface roughness to a limited extent [40]. ...
The latest trends of sustainability have introduced environmentally friendly materials and green technologies in the construction sector. However, these materials and technologies are not fully adopted due to certain limitations in their practical applications. In this concern, extensive research has been conducted on the geopolymer materials and additive manufacturing technologies for construction in the last decade. The application of geopolymers in 3D printing was first introduced in 2016 which has provided a state of the art sustainable dimension to the construction industry. Reasonable investigations have been conducted in this direction in the recent few years. The focus of this study is to provide an in-depth analysis of the productivity of 3D printed geopolymers. The productivity of 3D printed geopolymers of the previous research is categorized into rheological, physical and mechanical characteristics. Effects of distinct variables including minerals, activators, reinforcement, printing and post-processing have been analyzed on the fresh and hardened properties. This review provides an extract for the productivity from the recent studies to present a complete picture from various perspectives of input variables and response measures. Based on the critical analysis and findings, this review study offers a future direction for the current research field to ensure the practical applications of 3D printed geopolymers in the construction industry.
... 3D printing with YSF has also rapidly developed in the field of construction in the last 10 years (see the reviews of Bos et al. 2016;Jeong et al. 2019;Mechtcherine et al. 2020;Perrot et al. 2018;Perrot et al. 2016;Roussel 2018;Panda et al. 2018;Nerella 2018, Yang et al. 2024). In that field, the conditions are particularly favorable: indeed most construction materials (cement paste, fresh concrete, mortar, ceramics, plaster, raw earth material), are YSF just after their preparation, and they will afterwards progressively further solidify after they have been casted or spread thanks to chemical reaction and/or drying. ...
While they were still marginal around 30 years ago and even the very existence of the yield stress was still under debate, research work involving yield stress fluids has exploded over the last 20 years in rheology and physics, even to the point of sometimes appearing hackneyed. Yield stress fluids are now fully recognized as a specific state of matter by physicists and widely studied for this reason. They are also used for their remarkable mechanical behavior in a rapidly growing range of applications, notably in additive manufacturing or 3D printing in bioengineering, civil engineering, food processing, etc. This review first discusses the areas in which a sufficient knowledge might be considered acquired to be used in yield stress fluid engineering. This in particular includes the characterization of materials, through practical tests or sophisticated approaches, the use of simplistic constitutive equations or more complex models including various subtleties of behavior in view of flow simulations, a basic rheophysical framework for predicting the behavior of yielding dispersions or aggregated systems, but also for the widespread practical case of suspensions in yield stress fluids. However, there also appear large areas of major impact for which a comprehensive knowledge seems still lacking. This is in particular the case of: a relevant 3D formulation of the constitutive equation to describe the complex flows encountered in numerous applications, the physical and mechanical characteristics of the solid–liquid transition, the characterization and description of thixotropy, the transition to pasty materials, at the very frontier of “pure” solids.
... [15] While 3D concrete printing holds immense promise, challenges persist. Material compatibility and structural integrity are crucial concerns, requiring ongoing research and development [12] [2]. Ensuring that 3D printed structures meet regulatory standards and durability requirements is essential for widespread adoption. ...
This study explores the use of rice husk ash (RHA) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers in 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP). RHA, a byproduct of rice husk burning in Northern India, partially replaces cement, while PVA fibers provide reinforcement. The research aims to address air pollution from rice husk burning while enhancing 3D-printed concrete properties. This approach contributes to sustainable construction practices and demonstrates the potential for eco-friendly innovations in the building industry.
Note: Results and Conclusion section has been redacted as its under consideration for publication.
... Consequently, significant emphasis is placed on material mix design in 3DCP research. Further research areas include the integration of reinforcement and digital aspects such as process control and modelling of printed concrete and related processes [9,10]. ...
Extrusion-based printing of cementitious materials represents an innovative technology in civil engineering. The additive manufacturing process significantly influences the material properties in the hardened state, leading to anisotropic behaviour in terms of stiffness and strength compared to conventionally cast concrete. This experimental study aims to deepen the understanding of the mechanical behaviour of hardened printed concrete. Beam-like specimens with varying printing patterns, loading orientations and lengths are investigated within three-point bending tests (3PBT) and uniaxial compression tests (UCT). Homogenized material parameters such as Young’s modulus, compressive and flexural tensile strength and density are statistically evaluated using optically measured displacement and strain fields on the specimen surface. The qualitative and quantitative results demonstrate a strong dependency of material properties and failure mechanisms on the printing pattern. The interfilamental and interlayer areas with weak adhesion are identified as the main reason for anisotropy.
... Additionally, AM enables eco-friendly construction methodologies, which are crucial [12,13]. To date, new 3D printing systems with multiple innovations have emerged, offering reliable and innovative construction solutions for both small structures like kiosks, bridges, and benches, and larger-scale projects such as residences and shops [14][15][16][17][18]. These innovations are also vital for quick building repairs and creating temporary housing in disaster situations like earthquakes [19][20][21][22]. ...
Towards a sustainable future in construction, worldwide efforts aim to reduce cement use as a binder core material in concrete, addressing production costs, environmental concerns, and circular economy criteria. In the last decade, numerous studies have explored cement substitutes (e.g., fly ash, silica fume, clay-based materials, etc.) and methods to mimic the mechanical performance of cement by integrating polymeric meshes into their matrix. In this study, a systemic approach incorporating computer aid and biomimetics is utilized for the development of 3D-printed clay-based composite mortar reinforced with advanced polymeric bioinspired lattice structures, such as honeycombs and Voronoi patterns. These natural lattices were designed and integrated into the 3D-printed clay-based prisms. Then, these configurations were numerically examined as bioinspired lattice applications under three-point bending and realistic loading conditions, and proper Finite Element Models (FEMs) were developed. The extracted mechanical responses were observed, and a conceptual redesign of the bioinspired lattice structures was conducted to mitigate high-stress concentration regions and optimize the structures’ overall mechanical performance. The optimized bioinspired lattice structures were also examined under the same conditions to verify their mechanical superiority. The results showed that the clay-based prism with honeycomb reinforcement revealed superior mechanical performance compared to the other and is a suitable candidate for further research. The outcomes of this study intend to further research into non-cementitious materials suitable for industrial and civil applications.
... This phenomenon impairs the uniformity and integrity of 3D printed concrete, which thus negatively influences the mechanical properties, stiffness and durability of the concrete elements [9][10][11][12]. Additionally, during the printing process, excess deposition of concrete will lead to poor surface quality while insufficient material deposition will result in voids, which can be trapped and weaken the structure [13]. Consequently, utilizing 3DCPT to manufacture complex concrete structures especially in large-scale construction can be difficult. ...
Façades are key building components, determining building performance and forming the interface between inhabitants and the general public. Accordingly, façades should integrate high aesthetic value with the capability to bear relevant loads. Contemporary architectural façade design strategies often employ complex shapes, which presents civil engineering challenges in terms of assessing structural performance as well as determining effective fabrication strategies. Using 3D concrete printing for fabrication can achieve freeform shapes but has several limitations including limited structural performance. Instead of directly 3D printing concrete elements, this paper presents an approach to fabricating geometrically complex façade elements in ultra-high-performance fibre-reinforced concrete using 3D printed formwork to achieve greater accuracy and cost efficiency compared to conventional fabrication methods. Following compression test and flexural test to examine the feasibility of using 3D printed formwork for concrete fabrication, a façade prototype with a non-standard shape using 3D printed polymer formwork and UHPFRC is examined for its structural behaviours. Results show that compressive strength and flexural strength are not affected negatively by the exterior 3D printed formwork. Meanwhile, the proposed façade prototype demonstrates good concrete flowability and load test results, promising a new construction method for concrete fabrication.
... Buildings and building elements (wall modules, for example) made by 3D printing can have a complex geometric shape in terms of plan and height. This contributes to the creation of expressive architecture [15]. Theoretically, 3D printing can allow any shape to be printed [16,17]. ...
The object of the study is a modular wall panel made on a 3D printer. Previously, this sample was tested in climatic chambers. The aim of the study is to assess the energy efficiency potential of the additive structure under study based on a more detailed analysis of the data obtained from the experiment in the climatic chamber and the thermal imaging performed. The work uses numerical and analytical methods. The heat transfer coefficient was calculated based on the data on the distribution of temperature and heat flux over the surface. The heat transfer coefficient U is equal to 0.464 W/m2 °C. This value is higher than the normative value for Saint- Petersburg, Russia (climate zone according to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification is Dfb). For the comfortable use of these modular additive panels, it is necessary to additionally insulate them. An analysis of thermal imaging of the additive structure showed that the temperature is distributed unevenly over the surface. Under the same conditions, the temperature variation can be more than 10 °C. This factor can significantly affect the overall heat transfer coefficient of the structure.
... [14] Most experiments characterize the buildability of 3D printing materials by thedeformation rate, but the deformation rate cannot describe the performance of 3D printing materials well. [15][16][17] Panda [18] added solid waste to raw materials, and the experiment showed that the buildability would not be significantly affected under the appropriate substitution rate. The use of recycled glass can improve the fluidity of 3D printing raw materials and improve the extrudability of raw materials. ...
This paper explores the influence of glass powder on the 3D printing characteristics of cement-based materials, aiming to find potential applications for the substantial waste glass generated daily. The experimental results indicate that as the substitution rate of glass powder increases, the setting time of cement-based materials prolongs. Additionally, the initial increase and subsequent decrease of the longitudinal difference system, as well as the gradual reduction in cumulative hydration heat of cementitious materials, are observed. Notably, a substitution rate of 5% yields improved compressive strength in mortar. By combining glass powder with 3D printing, enhanced economic and environmental advantages can be achieved.
... 3D printing is an advanced construction technique that utilizes the concept of replication material layer by layer through the nozzle head. In 3D printing, the challenges of the complete process are governed by the materials, machine and the part of design [2]. The replication of layer by layer in 3D printing concrete also face the problem of setting time and rheology property of concrete, however, this situation can be controlled by adding admixtures to certain extent [3]. ...
The most extensively used construction materials in the world are cement, mortar, and concrete. GGBS is an alternative to Portland cement that can reduce carbon dioxide emissions significantly and has been recognized as an environmental-friendly construction material. It can also be used as a substitute or as a supplementary to cement, which can help promote sustainable development globally. On the other hand, 3D printing concrete is a revolutionary concrete building process that is developed by many research institutes and companies across the world. Some of the benefits of 3D printing concrete are the use of materials is optimized, reduce labour cost, fast construction and able to construct customized buildings. However the study about 3D printing concrete materials needs more extensive works in order for the materials to fulfill the criteria of 3D printing concrete properties. Therefore, this study tends to explore some of the materials properties of 3D printing concrete. The objective of this study is to investigate the fresh properties and flexural strength of 3D printing concrete containing GGBS as partial cement replacement and to evaluate the optimum percentage of GGBS as partial cement replacement in 3D printing concrete. The percentage replacement of GGBS that was carried out in this study was 0%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% with a 0.5 w/c ratio. Extrudability, flowability, buildability, and flexural strength tests were performed. From the experimental results, it shows that 30% of GGBS replacement recorded the highest flexural strength. The mix also performs well in extrudability and buildability test.
... Therefore, extruded layers should not deform to their self-weight to achieve good buildability and shape retention. The buildability of 3DPC depends on the static yield stress of the extruded material and its structural build-up, which will influence the rigidity of the layer and its shape stability [39,53,54]. A layer's faster extrusion rate than the structural buildingup rate of previous layers will fail the structure overall. ...
This study presents a detailed assessment of current technical obstacles and the potential for newly developed 3D printing concrete technology. This novel construction strategy will transform the building geometry features while saving time and money, but it still faces several technical, environmental, and operational obstacles. This study combines the knowledge of the most recent publications with the author’s view to address and explore the significant operating aspects, practicality, and possibilities for novel three dimensional printed concrete (3DPC) technology. This paper is organized into seven main categories: prominent parameters for 3DPC, raw materials, mix design methodology, the effect of concrete ingredients on the properties of 3DPC, 3DPC microstructure, reinforcement in 3DPC, field applications and sustainability of 3DPC are covered. Furthermore, solutions for the problems, scope, and economic and environmental challenges have been presented. It was found that this technology needs maturity at different levels, such as technical, economic, and environmental before implementation for practical applications.
... The structural design using prestressing strands is formulated based on existing code (NEN-EN-1992-1-1). However, C3DP is an evolving domain, and there are no proper codes available [99]. Hence, to validate the safety of the structure, a detailed laboratory tests are carried out over a scaled model. ...
Digital fabrication is the revolution in construction industries, enabling the design possibility of optimum and complex structural elements with mass customization and minimal material utilization. Topology optimization and digital fabrication are interdependent. The utilization of digital fabrication in topology optimization ensures the optimality of topology optimized structure and vice versa. The combination of digital fabrication and topology optimization enables the generation of lightweight structures with low material consumption. The complex topology optimized structure can be fabricated using digital fabrication. However, the structural efficacy of digitally fabricated structures is low. The optimal selection of reinforcement, assembly, and formwork helps to increase the structural efficacy of digitally fabricated structures. The authors, in this review, provide an overview and outlook of different digital fabrication techniques and their potential. Moreover, it highlights the optimal selection of digital fabrication techniques for manufacturing topology-optimized structures without manufacturing-driven constraints.
... Similar to other extrusionbased process, in 3D concrete printing (3DCP), fresh material is extruded through nozzle in layer by layer manner until the part is completed [9][10][11]. The main challenge involved in this technique is to develop the material that can be simultaneously extruded and built in layers without any failure [12][13][14]. In this regard, rheology of material plays a key role, which can be commonly analyzed though assessment of characteristics such as pumpability, extrudability and buildability [15][16][17]. ...
Three-dimensional (3D) concrete printing (3DCP) is one of the digital construction techniques that demands the fulfilment of particular material properties. One of the most important requirements for 3DCP is the material’s rheology. This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the rheology of Portland cement-based materials used in extrusion-based 3DCP. The first sections of the article focused on the influence of mix design on the rheology required for 3DCP in both fibre reinforced and non-fibre reinforced mixtures, followed by the role of various chemical admixtures in tailoring the time dependent rheology. The research points out the lack of rheology benchmarking, implying a strong need for novel or standard printable mix designs that use sustainable materials to improve the structural build-up of mixtures. The review also shows a strong need for active rheology control of cementitious materials for large scale printing application.
... However, ridged textures of the consumer dwellings can be troublesome (Holt et al., 2019). Generally, this poor surface quality of 3D concrete printing is attributed to several factors such as dimensional errors and improper control of deposited materials (deposited materials can be in excess or insufficient) (Panda et al., 2018a). ...
Purpose
In recent years, 3D printing technologies have been widely used in the construction industry. 3D printing in construction is very attractive because of its capability of process automation and the possibility of saving labor, waste materials, construction time and hazardous procedures for humans. Significant researches were conducted to identify the performance of the materials, while some researches focused on the development of novel techniques and methods, such as building information modeling. This paper aims to provide a detailed overview of the state-of-the-art of currently used 3D printing technologies in the construction areas and global acceptance in its applications.
Design/methodology/approach
The working principle of additive manufacturing in construction engineering (CE) is presented in terms of structural design, materials used and theoretical background of the leading technologies that are used to construct buildings and structures as well as their distinctive features.
Findings
The trends of 3D printing processes in CE are very promising, as well as the development of novel materials, will gain further momentum. The findings also indicate that the digital twin (DT) in construction technology would bring the industry a step forward toward achieving the goal of Industry 5.0.
Originality/value
This review highlights the prospects of digital manufacturing and the DT in construction engineering. It also indicates the future research direction of 3D printing in various constriction sectors.
... 3D printing technology is a new construction method, which is beneficial to reduce labor and emission and meet the requirements of green construction [185]. There are five main standards of 3D printed concrete [186,187], namely: extrudability, fluidity, constructability, opening time and interlayer adhesion, in which interlayer adhesion plays a key role in the development of more complex structures. The lack of proper combination between adjacent layers is one of the main problems faced by 3D printing methods. ...
The research on the strength, deformation and failure process of materials should be implemented on the atomic scale to study the interaction between atoms. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation is a way which uses computer systems and relies on Newton's classical mechanics to simulate the movement of molecular systems in order to achieve analysis of macroscopic properties. This thesis first briefly introduces the development history of MD simulation and its application in cement-based materials, and explains the basic concepts and analysis process in MD simulation. After that, the mechanical properties and interface interaction simulation of cement-based materials are described in detail, focusing on the various modeling methods, force field selection and research results, and then grasp the research progress of MD simulation of cement-based materials. Finally, the thesis makes a prospect to analyze the future direction of using MD simulation to study the cement materials and the interaction between the cement matrix with other materials (such as rubber).
... In summary, while several studies have been performed on 3D printed manufacturing, there is a lack of pertinent design codes and standard test methods as emphasized by several researchers [196,216,217]. Thus, there is need for concerted research efforts to overcome the deficiencies in terms of rheology, buildability, structural Fig. 7. Variation of (a) shear stress, and (b) viscosity versus shear rate for cement paste and geopolymer paste [199] (reproduced with permission). ...
The manufacturing of geopolymers and alkali-activated materials for precast and cast in-situ construction applications could be achieved using suitable production techniques, such as one-part production, pre-setting pressure and hot pressing, two-stage concreting, and 3-dimensional printing. Adequate selection and tailoring of the manufacturing methodology are imperative for overcoming characteristic application problems of these materials and achieving eco-efficiency and superior engineering properties. With distinctive benefits including rapid solidification, lower cost, saving natural resources, less energy consumption, and reduced carbon footprint, alkali-activated and geopolymer composites have emerged as a strong contender for replacing conventional concrete in diverse construction applications. Critical analysis of the literature on innovative production methods indicates that the one-part production technique is promising for the eliminating design complexity of these mixtures. The pre-setting pressure and hot pressing applications would allow the achievement of superior physical and mechanical characteristics in a short period of time, especially for the precast industry. The workability and setting problems of alkali-activated materials could be overcome using the two-stage concreting methodology. To be used in 3D printing of alkali-activated and geopolymer materials, remarkable development is required in terms of rheological aspects. Accordingly, this paper surveys pertinent and recent literature and critically reviews the state-of-the-art of alternative production techniques of alkali-activated and geopolymeric materials, along with its use in recent applications, identifies pertinent knowledge gaps, and defines future research directions.
... Initially, the use of 3D printing is limited to manufacturing, mainly for the production of prototypes of parts with low output, small part sizes and complex designs [68]. However, with the gradual development of economic society and the technology of rapid progress, the cost and time of 3D printing have been reduced considerably; coupled with the improvement of material technology, 3D printing technology is also increasingly accepted [103]. In recent years, the use of 3D printing has been extended to construction. ...
Emerging advanced technologies (EAT) have been regarded as significant technological innovations which can greatly improve the transforming construction industry. Given that research on EAT related to the management of prefabricated construction (MPC) has not yet been conducted, various researchers require a state-of-the-art summary of EAT research and implementation in the MPC field. The purpose of this paper is to provide a systematic literature review by analysing the selected 526 related publications in peer-reviewed leading journals during 2009–2020. Through a thorough review of selected papers from the state-of-the-art academic journals in the construction industry, EAT is recognised as the key area affecting the development of the MPC discipline. This study has value in offering original insights to summarise the advanced status quo of this field, helping subsequent researchers gain an in-depth understanding of the underlying structure of this field and allowing them to continue future research directions.
3-D printing technology has emerged as a transformative solution for the construction industry, addressing issues such as prolonged construction time, extensive labor requirements, and high carbon emissions. However, the adoption rate of 3-D concrete printing (3-DCP) remains slow, particularly in developing countries. This paper systematically reviews the challenges hindering the widespread adoption of 3-DCP and proposes a methodological framework for customized 3-D printable concrete (3-DPC) using locally available materials. The review was conducted by manually analyzing 124 research/review papers, narrowing them down to 34 key papers that address critical aspects of materials, printability, and process improvements. The findings emphasize that material customization plays a crucial role in reducing costs while enhancing the practicality of 3-DCP applications. An Indian case study is discussed, where customized 3-DPC resulted in a 40% reduction in construction costs. However, the exact recipe of how they built their customized 3-DPC remains unrevealed. The proposed framework provides practical guidelines for researchers and practitioners to develop tailored 3-DPC solutions that can accelerate technology adoption in both developed and developing regions.
For the additive manufacturing in civil engineering, the cementitious ink must have contradictory properties to be printable, indeed it must be initially fluid enough to be pumpable and extrudable, and also should stiffen quickly after deposition to be buildable. These can influence the mechanical properties and the behavior of the printed structure. This work is focused on the role of the printing conditions, mainly time gap between successive layers and environmental conditions, on the quality of the interface between printed layers. The mechanical properties of the interface were studied by means of classical and instrumented indentation tests at micro and macroscopic scales jointly to bidirectional macro compression tests. In addition to the macrohardness tests, microindentation allows to study the role of the interface at a local scale by applying the interfacial weakness criterion based on a hardness profile established on a cross-section in the neighborhood to the plane of the interface. The influence of the printing conditions on the mechanical behavior of the interface is clearly highlighted. As an example, this criterion shows a degradation of the interface property with an increase in the time gap between layers in addition to the influence of the thermo-hygrometric conditions. For a better understanding of the mechanical behavior at the interface, additional instrumented indentation tests in the plane of the interface using macro-loads are carried out until the rupture. The critical load of fracture confirms the role of the printing conditions, whereas the compression tests are not able to show significant differences between the elaboration conditions. The indentation test, which is not widespread in the field of civil engineering, proves here that it can be very useful for a finest mechanical characterization of the material, especially for the characterization of the interface at a local scale.
The article presents the results of a comprehensive study of the use of 3D Concrete printing (3DCP) technology to create urban infrastructure facilities according to sustainable development principles. The work includes a study of scientific articles on the subject area under consideration, a survey of additive construction market participants, as well as an analysis and generalization of promising areas for technology development and methods for improving the quality of objects erected using 3DCP. As part of the conducted literature review, publications included in the Scopus database for the period 2015–2024 were selected for analysis using the keywords ‘Sustainable development + 3DCP’ and ‘Sustainable construction + 3DCP’. The following conclusions were made: (i) the most popular publications are review articles about the development of materials and technologies for 3DCP and (ii) the most sought-after are the studies in the field of partial application of 3DCP technology, existing equipment and materials for 3DCP, and assessment of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of 3DCP use. For this purpose, a questionnaire was developed consisting of three blocks: equipment and technologies; structures and materials for 3DCP; the ecology and economics of 3DCP applicability. As a result, four main risks have been identified, which represent promising areas for 3DCP development.
Formulating a mix design for 3D concrete printing (3DCP) is challenging, as it involves an iterative approach, wasting a lot of resources, time, and effort to optimize the mix for strength and printability. A potential solution is mix formulation through artificial intelligence (AI); however, being a new and emerging field, the open-source availability of datasets is limited. Limited datasets significantly restrict the predictive performance of machine learning (ML) models. This research explores data augmentation techniques like deep generative adversarial network (DGAN) and bootstrap resampling (BR) to increase the available data to train three ML models, namely support vector machine (SVM), artificial neural network (ANN), and extreme gradient boosting regression (XGBoost). Their performance was evaluated using R², MSE, RMSE, and MAE metrics. Models trained on BR-augmented data showed higher accuracy than those trained on the DGAN-augmented data. The BR-trained XGBoost exhibited the highest R² scores of 0.982, 0.970, 0.972, 0.971, and 0.980 for cast compressive strength, printed compressive strength direction 1, 2, 3, and slump flow respectively. The proposed method of predicting the slump flow (mm), cast, and anisotropic compressive strength (MPa) can effectively predict the mix design for printable concrete, unlocking its full potential for application in the construction industry.
Increasing pollution poses enormous pressure on the global ecosystem, with a need to limit the carbon emissions from the construction materials industry. Mitigation of this carbon is possible by converting industrial wastes into alternative cement and optimisation in the building process. Taking this into account, advancement is taking place in sustainable geopolymer composites-based additive manufacturing (AM) technology. Typical precursors for geopolymer binder are industrial waste by-products (such as slag, fly ash, and metakaolin). In another aspect, AM entails several benefits such as easy fabrication, freedom of design, the ability to generate sophisticated structural elements and reduce: expenses, time, waste generation, and labor demands. This review journal paper on geopolymer AM presents a bibliometric study followed by an overview of AM methods and influencing parameters, techniques in geopolymer AM (such as extrusion and powder bed), materials, improvements in AM process, and fresh-state and hardened-state properties. Recent developments in AM processes within the geopolymer are critically discussed while investigating the properties and applications of the same. The discussion includes an analysis pinpointing research gaps essential in developing geopolymer AM.
Graphical abstract
Introducing 3D-concrete printing has started a revolution in the construction industry, presenting unique opportunities alongside undeniable challenges. Among these, the major challenge is the iterative process associated with mix design formulation, which results in significant material and time consumption. This research uses machine learning (ML) techniques such as Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Decision Tree Regression (DTR), Gaussian Process Regression (GPR), and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) to overcome these challenges. A dataset containing 21 mix constituent features and 4 output properties (cast and printed compressive strength, and slump flow) was extracted from the literature to investigate the relationship between mix design and performance. The models were assessed using a range of evaluation metrics, including Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), Mean Squared Error (MSE), and R-squared value. Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) yielded more favorable results. In the case of cast strength, GPR achieved an R2 value of 0.9069, along with RMSE, MSE, and MAE values of 13.04, 170.12, and 9.40, respectively. A similar trend was observed for printed strengths in directions 1, 2, and 3. GPR achieved R-squared values exceeding 0.91 for all directions, accompanied by significantly lower RMSE values (below 4.1). The machine learning models were also validated using four unique mix designs. These mixes were 3D printed and tested for compressive strength and slump flow. GPR's average error was 10.55 %, while SVM achieved a slightly lower average error of 9.38 %. Overall, this work presents a novel approach for optimizing 3D-printed concrete by enabling the prediction of slump flow and compressive strength directly from the mix design. This approach can facilitate the design and fabrication of 3D-printed concrete structures that fulfill the necessary strength and printability requirements.
Common issues in 3D printed concrete arise due to its high cement content, processing requirements, and the lack of extensive research into its long-term performance. To this end, this study explores using supplementary cementitious materials from local regions to partially replace cement, aiming at reducing the carbon footprint. Various printable mixtures with different substitution rates are formulated, and corresponding mechanical and permeability tests are conducted. It was revealed that the compressive and flexural strengths of 3D printed concrete with low cement content were lower than the strength of cast concrete due to the construction process of printed concrete. It was found that, compared with the other two sets of ratios, the higher contents of fly ash and slag could effectively fill the pores of printed concrete. Both the capillary water absorption and the content of chloride ions of the low-carbon mixture were significantly lower than that of the pure cement-printed specimens.
This study addresses the growing interest in utilizing steel slag as a sustainable alternative to river sand in additive manufacturing of concrete, driven by the increasing scarcity of natural resources. The rheological properties of fresh material significantly impact the quality of 3D-printed filament, necessitating suitable workability for printability. The research focuses on evaluating the influence of steel slag aggregate and key admixtures, such as silica fume and superplasticizer, on the workability properties of fresh concrete. Through an extensive series of 90 slump tests, optimal combinations ensuring the desired workability for 3D printing applications were identified. To enhance the manufacturing of fresh concrete and develop user-friendly tools, a novel soft computing approach is introduced—Adaptive Elitist Differential Evolution coupled with Bayesian Regularization Artificial Neural Network (aeDE-BRANN). This advanced model considers five critical input parameters: silica fume to Portland cement ratio, steel slag to cement ratio, water to cement ratio, cement content, and superplasticizer dosage. The model outputs crucial workability metrics, including slump flow and slump. In a comprehensive comparative study, the aeDE-BRANN framework demonstrates superior performance in terms of both simplicity and efficiency when compared to other forecasting models. Feature analysis techniques, including Shapley values from game theory and partial dependence plots, provide valuable insights into the intricate relationships between input variables and workability properties. The findings underscore the water to cement ratio as the most influential factor on workability, followed by silica fume to Portland cement ratio and steel slag to cement ratio. This study contributes a reliable tool for predicting workability properties, aiding in the selection of suitable steel slag aggregate and admixtures. Ultimately, it facilitates the sustainable and innovative evolution of 3D concrete printing practices.
3D printing technology revolutionizes construction by creating custom building components with increased efficiency
and reduced waste. This paper reviews advancements in the 3D printing of cementitious materials,
focusing on integrating mineral additives (MAs) like metakaolin, micro-silica, slag, and fly ash to address
environmental and economic challenges linked with high-Portland cement content in 3D concrete printing
(3DCP). MAs enhance the pumpability, printability, and buildability of 3DCP while reducing its environmental
impact. The review emphasizes optimizing cement mixtures, including alkali-activated materials, to enhance
sustainability and performance. It discusses the mixture design’s importance, balancing mechanical properties
and environmental impacts, and examines MAs’ influence on rheological properties, mechanical performance,
and 3DCP durability, including layer bond strength. The paper also discusses global 3D printing technology
adoption in construction and challenges in additive manufacturing implementation. By analyzing printing parameters,
mixture proportions, and materials’ effects on long-term performance, this review highlights 3D
printing’s potential for economically viable and eco-friendly structural elements. It aims to guide future advancements
in 3D printable cementitious materials, meeting modern construction demands while addressing
traditional concrete production’s environmental challenges.
This study focuses on the performance analysis of the 3D printing process using cementitious material on equipment installed at the Structures Laboratory (LabEst-UnB) of the University of Brasilia. A research direction was defined for the 3D printing with the aim of identifying which steps need to be further developed and which improvements should be made for this specific process to evolve. Following the execution of the proposed experimental program, evaluations of cementitious material pieces printed with the InovaHouse3D’s Alya 130 printer were conducted, documenting the encountered issues and classifying them into failure groups. The causes, consequences, and affected components were defined and used in the application of the Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) method in the search for critical system events. It was observed that the most critical system failures were related to the material composition and printing parameters, focusing on events that trigger variations in the material's consistency. Thus, through this work, it was possible to identify improvement opportunities and suggest scientific research topics to enhance the 3D printing process according to the established priority levels.
Facing growing problems such as rising prices and shortage of skilled workers, additive manufacturing with concrete offers a promising solution for the construction industry. Increasing productivity through automated processes and reducing environmental impact by exploiting the novel geometric freedom as well as the use of sustainable printing materials are just some of the many advantages of the new construction technology. In order to establish concrete printing as a construction method for larger-scale structures, extensive research is required. From a structural engineering perspective, the basic printing methods, extrusion and particle bed, each with or without reinforcing elements, lead to structural behavior that differs from conventional structural concrete as their layer-by-layer production results in anisotropic material characteristics. While the focus of international research is mainly on mastering the printing process and the fresh or hardened concrete properties on small specimens, this study aims to propose a verification method for printed structural members that are primarily loaded by compressive forces. Recent studies on printed unreinforced large-sized structural members are evaluated and design concepts based on current standardization for unreinforced concrete and masonry walls are compared. Based on the results, their application for printed wall segments for the verification of load-bearing capacity is discussed to initiate standardization.Keywords3D-PrintingAdditive ManufacturingStructural DesignLoad-Bearing BehaviorDimensioning
Rapid construction with an energy-efficient approach is a major challenge in the present construction industry. Cement, a carbon-intensive material, is mainly used in the construction industry and hence increases the sector's carbon footprint on the environment. The current review focuses on the study of 3D concrete printing (3DCP), in which cement is partially replaced with industrial byproducts such as ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), fly ash, and silica fume. Walling material is primarily targeted in 3DCP. There is a need to include energy efficiency to achieve a thermally comfortable environment. The life cycle assessment (LCA) of concrete is studied to discover the potential conflicts affecting the environment. The sand-to-binder ratio is pivotal in determining the performance of concrete. The content of the supplements is decided based on this factor. The rheological, physical, and mechanical properties of 3DCP are studied further and analysed. GGBS demonstrates better performance in the compressive and flexure strength of concrete. The usage of fly ash and silica fume has reduced the thermal conductivity of the material, whereas GGBS has increased it. An LCA study shows that 3DCP can be made sustainable with the use of these supplementary cementitious materials.
The construction world has changed day by day and is becoming more digitalized by introducing new technologies. Three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) is one such technology that has automated building process along with several benefits such as reduced material waste, reduced human hazard, and time savings. Traditionally, this technique utilizes cement to construct numerous structures, resulting in a significant carbon footprint and negative environmental impact. There is a need to find alternate solutions to reduce cement consumption. Alkali activation technology has replaced cement completely. The scope of development of alkali-activated 3D printable concrete utilizing agro-industrial byproducts is presented in this study. A review of the fresh and hardened properties of alkali-activated 3D printable concrete was the primary objective. The change in properties of 3D concrete mixes with the variation of additives that influence the ultimate strength parameters is presented. This study explores the curing conditions and in-depth behavior of uses of 3DCP in the construction industry. The environmental benefits over conventional concreting technology are presented. As per previous studies, the optimum mix composition per cubic meter concrete is 600-700 kg/m 3 of binder content, 450 kg/m 3 of alkali activator solution, and 600-800 kg/m 3 of fine aggregate content. This study contributes to the making of 3D printable alkali-activated concrete.
This study focuses on the performance analysis of the 3D printing process using cementitious material on equipment installed at the Structures Laboratory (LabEst-UnB) of the University of Brasilia. A research direction was defined for the 3D printing with the aim of identifying which steps need to be further developed and which improvements should be made for this specific process to evolve. Following the execution of the proposed experimental program, evaluations of cementitious material pieces printed with the InovaHouse3D's Alya 130 printer were conducted, documenting the encountered issues and classifying them into failure groups. The causes, consequences, and affected components were defined and used in the application of the Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) method in the search for critical system events. It was observed that the most critical system failures were related to the material composition and printing parameters, focusing on events that trigger variations in the material's consistency. Thus, through this work, it was possible to identify improvement opportunities and suggest scientific research topics to enhance the 3D printing process according to the established priority levels.
Plastic collapse and buckling are the key structural failure criteria in 3D concrete printing (3DCP). This study aims to analyze the effect of different geometrical designs and printing factors on the buildability performance of 3DCP structures. Due to the high number of variables involved, the Design of Experiment (DOE) has been used to reduce the number of simulations. In geometrical design parameters, the structure’s design is more sensitive, followed by the width and length of the printed design. The buildability increases when we move from sharp corners to more stable structures like fillets and circular geometry. For geometrical design parameters, a maximum buildability of 74% of the designed height is achieved for circular design with the highest width and lowest diameter. For printing parameters, the highest buildability of 486 mm (81%) is achieved for the lower values of printing speed and layer height. The study analyzed failure phenomena of buckling and yield strength for the tested combination of parameters. The study analyzed the sensitivity analysis of individual parameters and their combination for maximum buildability and developed the low order polynomial regression equation for each printing parameter and geometrical factors. Based on the analysis of the results, the study also proposed different new printing strategies to increase the overall performance of the printing process.
3D printing of cementitious materials or concrete (3DCP) has developed unbelievably in past 10 years and has the potential to revolutionize the concrete industry completely in the couple of incoming decades. Compared to cast concrete, 3DCP technology has a high customizability of architectural and structural design; can reduce material consumption, minimize material waste, decrease construction time from months or days to hours; can improve sustainability, environmental impact and resolve residential crises through providing $10,000 homes. In this article, a comprehensive review for 3D printing of various materials, techniques and trending applications has been carried out. The materials used for 3DCP, mix design principles and printing process parameters has been overviewed. The factors influencing flowability, extrudability, buildability of various mixes; microstructure and mechanical properties of the hardened concrete; and improvement techniques has been discussed. An important part of this review is provided to highlight the cost of 3D printed houses compared with traditional alternatives, and environmental sustainability of 3DCP and its compatibility with international plans for climate change and minimizing the energy usage. Finally, some to-date challenges are discussed, with conclusions that also identifies the needed research and state of the art for this incredible technology. Overall, this review presents the finding of the mentioned topics through exploring 396 of the latest published articles especially focusing on last three years.
Additive manufacturing (AM) is a technology used to create an object from a computer‐aided design (CAD) model by adding materials in a layer‐by‐layer manner. This chapter aims to provide a brief introduction to the basic concepts of additive manufacturing, the history and current state of this technology, and a description of the methods, materials, and application of this technology in different industries. The following seven categories can be used to accommodate all AM processes: vat photopolymerization, material extrusion, material jetting, binder jetting, powder bed fusion, sheet lamination, and directed energy deposition. AM is being used in the biomedical field due to its capability for producing patient‐customized products. Based on projections by Wohlers Associates, customized products are responsible for the rising trend in the use of 3D printing.
Recently, 3D concrete printing (3DCP) based on additive manufacturing techniques has been gaining prominence in the construction industry. However, in order to meet the extrusion requirements, 3DCP mixtures are usually dosed with high Portland cement contents. Thus, a promising solution to make this technology more sustainable is the reduction of cement consumption through partial replacement by supplementary cementitious materials (SCM). In view of this, this paper aims to develop composites for 3D printing containing different percentages of limestone filler and metakaolin as binder fraction of the analysis compositions. The proposed mixtures encompass replacement contents of 30% (using only limestone filler) and 40% (one with 40% limestone filler and, another, containing 30% filler and 10% metakaolin). In the fresh state, these mixtures were evaluated through the tests of spread, slump, bulk density, incorporated air content, squeeze-flow and buildability. In the hardened state, flexural strength, compressive strength, interlayer adhesion strength, specific gravity, void index and water absorption by immersion were analyzed. The results show the possibility of obtaining printable composites with reduced cement consumption for the printing system used, establishing itself as a relevant alternative for 3DCP technology in accordance with the criteria required for the printing system.
3D printing is a novel technology that has been introduced to construction industry and has been found to have numerous potentials including high speed fabrication of customized building elements without formworks and low material waste. Despite such superiority, to ensure the extrudability of materials and their coherent adhesion , most commonly, a higher content of the Portland cement (PC) with other chemical admixtures are used in 3D printed concrete (3DPC) mixes. This common practice, however, can result in augmentation of greenhouse gas emissions and also increase in the costs associated with 3D printing. To avoid this, and provide favorable printability properties, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) have gradually become a key ingredient of 3DPC. Utilizing SCMs, previous studies have found the critical effects of SCMs on operational aspects of 3D printers and their controls on a variety of functional parameters. To closely evaluate such parameters, the present study provides a review of the effect of SCMs on 3DPC with and without alkaline activator, focusing on manufacturing techniques, rheological properties, mechanical properties, bond strength between printed layers, effect of curing regime, and shrinkage behavior. The main challenges and future research direction of 3DPC are also presented. Based on the presented review, it is found that coal fly ash, silica fume, blast furnace slag and metakaolin are the main SCMs that are commonly used to enhance pumpability, printability, and buildability of 3DPC, as well as addressing environmental issues associated with the larger use of PC in 3DPC.
This study aims to present an overview of the progress of geopolymer composites with regards to the latest developments on its constituents (binders, activators, and aggregates) and manufacturing techniques. Some ecological, economic, and industrial limitations of the traditional aluminosilicate binders yield to the pursuit of alternative ones over the period. Some of these latest binders e.g. ferrochrome ash, mine tailings, rice husk ash, red mud, have been highlighted in this paper. Current advances on replacement of natural fine and coarse aggregates such as mine tailings (iron ore tailings), recycled/lightweight aggregates for geopolymer preparation have been reviewed from the past literature. The paper also focuses on developments regarding the new class of green alkaline and acidic activators, which is traditionally considered to be the binding agent in the preparation of geopolymer composites. Different geopolymer production methods have been briefly discussed to study their effectiveness in achieving a strong and durable composite. This paper may serve to encourage further experimental research works for achieving more sustainable, cost-effective geopolymer composites with enhanced mechanical properties.
Extrusion-based 3DCP is experiencing exponential advancement in process, control, material, and fresh-state analysis technologies, strategically poising 3DCP to become an industrial manufacturing process for infrastructure development. To elucidate the mechanical characterisation and numerical simulation of 3DCP elements synergy among experimental and computational mechanics is required. Such activities should characterise the unique material properties of printed components to permit limit state design procedures and the correct prescription of finite element (FE) model parameters. In this research, mechanical characterisation procedures that experimentally evaluate the anisotropic material characteristics of a fibre-reinforced printable concrete (FRPC) are presented. These procedures are comprised of direct tensile, uniaxial compression, Young's modulus, and four-point bending (FPB) crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) tests. The results portrayed anisotropic non-linear and similar elastic behaviour (in terms of Young's modulus) in all experimental tests conducted. From the mechanical characterisation tests two elastic parameters, seven strength parameters and five inelastic parameters are ascertained. The experimental findings relating to the material characteristic parameters are validated via supplementary numerical evaluation, and suitable constitutive relations are selected. The mechanical parameters are implemented in an anisotropic Rankine-Hill continuum multi-surface plasticity FE model, and the FPB-CMOD fracture response of 3DCP specimens is simulate with respectable agreement.
Concrete with coarse aggregate in the 3D concrete printing (3DCP) has broad prospects for high strength, low cost and shrinkage. In this study, an extrusion-based 3D printer was designed and utilized to print concrete with the largest aggregate size of 20 mm. Printable concrete with coarse aggregate was designed by different volume ratios of cement to aggregate (C/A). Then the effect of C/A on the printability and direction-dependent mechanical performance was investigated. X-ray micro-computed tomography (X-CT) was used to detect and analyze the voids distribution characteristics of printed specimens. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) investigations of microstructure at the interlayer area were conducted. Results indicated that the initial flowability of printable concrete should be within 178–200 mm, and the recommended printable C/A was within 0.35–0.60. The decrease of C/A improved the maximum printing height and mechanical performance but weakened the shape-stability of the multi-layer structure. X-CT results indicated that reducing excess slurry content caused by the decline of C/A decreased the compactness of the printed structure. The compressive strength and flexural strength of 3D printed specimens showed a direction-dependent characteristic, mainly related to the non-uniform distribution of voids revealed by X-CT. SEM images revealed the “micro-bridging” morphology in the interlayer area and proved that there were carbonation and structural weakening problems at the surface and surrounding of this area.
The built environment defines humankind’s daily lives, sophistication, efficiency, and effectiveness. Despite this, its primary industry, construction—which transforms the built environment into a reality and an operation—remains in need of more efficient, innovative, and sustainable strategies, technologies, and instruments. The incorporation of digital fabrication into 3D printing (3DP) technology offers an entirely different and expanded freedom of geometry, functionality, materials, savings, efficiency, and effectiveness. For the inherent potential of 3DP technology, its sustainability assessment and potential contributions should be explored systematically to shed light on future applications and further innovations. This study presents a systematic review of the sustainability potential, assessments, and challenges of 3DP concrete for built environment applications. A comprehensive and comparative review of related literature is performed to identify the current trends and research gaps and recommend reducing or eliminating the energy and environmental footprints and the socio-economic impact. The study concludes that, in terms of documented global warming potential (GWP) values, 3DP technology appears to be a promising alternative to conventional construction and concrete use. A life cycle analysis (LCA) is recorded that is meant to be widely used as an assessment tool for environmental and energy assessment in digital fabrication technology, leaving an integrated review, including social and economic aspects, understudied. The 3DP concrete technology has unlimited potential in terms of material flexibility, savings, labour’s cost, design flexibility, and operation agility. Besides, researchers intend on introducing unconventional and locally available materials to increase the sustainability of 3DP technology in construction.
3D-printed construction is an additive, layer-by-layer construction method with the potential to reduce material consumption, optimize design, decrease construction time, lower labor requirements, minimize logistical demand, improve sustainability, and reduce costs as compared to conventional construction. This paper presents the results of a systematic review of 4491 publications spanning from 1998 through 2019. The review presents the viability of 3D-printed construction as a replacement for conventional construction methods, specifically in remote, isolated, or expeditionary environments, where conventional construction capability may be limited. The paper includes an analysis and characterization of the existing body of 3D-printed construction literature before evaluating seven viability factors of the method: materials, structural design, process efficiency, logistics, labor, environmental impact, and cost. In addition, the paper highlights three case studies of 3D-printed construction in remote, isolated, and expeditionary environments. The paper concludes by suggesting areas of future research to ensure the viability of this technology, such as printing full-scale structures and components with locally sourced materials in uncontrolled environments, defining standards for 3D printing, automating additional construction processes, and performing both environmental impact and cost life-cycle analyses. With continued investment in research and development, 3D printing could become a more viable and accepted method of construction, transforming the way the industry is managed in remote, isolated, and expeditionary environments.
Latest Edition: 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing: Principles and Applications (with Companion Media Pack). Fourth edition of Rapid Prototyping. Rapid prototyping (RP) has revolutionized how prototypes are made and small batch manufacturing is carried out. With rapid prototyping, the strategies used to produce a part change a number of important considerations and limitations previously faced by tool designers and engineers. Now in its third edition, this textbook is still the definitive text on RP. It covers the key RP processes, the available models and specifications, and their principles, materials, advantages and disadvantages. Examples of application areas in design, planning, manufacturing, biomedical engineering, art and architecture are also given. The book includes several related problems so that the reader can test his or her understanding of the topics. New to this edition, the included CD-ROM presents animated illustrations of the working principles of today’s key RP processes. © 2010 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved.
This paper presents the experimentation and modeling efforts at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, to study the material flow patterns in the extrusion and deposition stages of the Contour Crafting (CC) process. A preliminary finite element analysis (FEA) was conducted for extrusion and deposition mechanisms of CC with ceramic materials (e.g. clay) as the fabrication material. Using the FEA simulations, certain basic understandings of the effect of extrusion orifice geometry on the performance of CC were derived. A square orifice was found to be aptly suited, both in terms of delivering excellent fusion between layers as well as creating the desired external surface profile. The experimental observations support these results.
Although automation has advanced in manufacturing, the growth of automation in construction has been slow. Conventional methods of manufacturing automation do not lend themselves to construction of large structures with internal features. This may explain the slow rate of growth in construction automation. Contour crafting (CC) is a recent layered fabrication technology that has a great potential in automated construction of whole structures as well as subcomponents. Using this process, a single house or a colony of houses, each with possibly a different design, may be automatically constructed in a single run, imbedded in each house all the conduits for electrical, plumbing and air-conditioning. Our research also addresses the application of CC in building habitats on other planets. CC will most probably be one of the very few feasible approaches for building structures on other planets, such as Moon and Mars, which are being targeted for human colonization before the end of the new century.
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