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Stranger Danger? An investigation into the influence of human-horse bond on stress and behaviour
Abstract
Human-animal bond is receiving increasing attention and is thought to confer benefits on well-being and performance in working animals. One important benefit of bonding is the "safe base" an attachment figure provides, which manifests in better coping and increased exploration during potential threat. However, there is limited research exploring the existence or benefits of human-horse bonds, though bonding is sought after by both pleasure and elite riders. The purpose of the current study was to determine whether the presence of horses' owners confers a safe-base, therefore improving horse behaviour and physiological stress responses during novel handling tests. Horses completed two different handling tests, one with their owner and the other with an unfamiliar experimental handler (n = 46). Test and handler order was randomised and handlers were double blind to the performance of the horse with the alternate handler. Time taken to complete the tests and proactive behaviour were measured as indicators of performance and compliance. Core temperature, discrepancy in eye temperature, heart rate and heart rate variability were recorded to assess stress responses. If horses experience a "safe base" effect in the vicinity of their owner, they would be expected to show lower stress responses and greater behavioural compliance, compared to being handled by a stranger. There was no difference in behaviour or any physiological stress response between the handlers. This indicates that a calm, competent, but unknown handler may be equally effective to an owner during stressful procedures as neither equine performance nor affective state supported a safe-base effect. This supports previous research suggesting that the level of bond between human and horse may not be the most salient factor in coping or compliance during training and handling. These findings have implications for veterinary and clinical behaviour counselling, where novel human handlers must modify behaviour under potentially stressful circumstances.
... From this perspective, recent studies converge on the idea that promoting positive interactions with humans can be a way to improve horses' emotionality, social bonds, and well-being [20][21][22][23][24][25]. It is argued that human company may be important to a horse, where physical contact and the benefits of stroking are crucial elements for potentiating human attachment [23][24][25][26]. ...
... From this perspective, recent studies converge on the idea that promoting positive interactions with humans can be a way to improve horses' emotionality, social bonds, and well-being [20][21][22][23][24][25]. It is argued that human company may be important to a horse, where physical contact and the benefits of stroking are crucial elements for potentiating human attachment [23][24][25][26]. Likewise, the frequency and number of interactions can determine how horses deal with situations curated by humans. ...
... The person inside the paddock was unknown to the foals, but it is not certain if the presence of a familiar person would help the young horses feel safer while facing potential threats [24], and they would most probably generalize their responses [28]. For example, Schmidek [28] observed that gently handled foals did not discriminate between handlers regarding their familiarity or experience, while Ijichi [24] observed the opposite when comparing horse owners to unfamiliar handlers during mildly stressful handling procedures. ...
Horses are often still exposed to stressful or inadequate conditions and difficult relationships with humans, despite growing concerns about animal welfare. In the present study, we investigated the impact of different approaches of short-term handling sessions on young Lusitanian horses raised on a high-breed farm, specifically on their later adaptability to humans and stressful environments. Thirty-one foals (3 months old ± 15 days), from both sexes, were separated into three groups, one submitted to 3 consecutive days of handling sessions (Int-H), another to one handling session each month for 3 months (Month-H), and one left undisturbed (control). At 8 months old ± 15 days, all foals were evaluated during behavioral tests (restraint in a stock and forced-person test). Evaluations were based on behavioral observations and physiological assessments. The handled foals (Int-H and Month-H) reacted less to being isolated and restrained and better tolerated human contact and veterinary procedures than the control ones. The handled foals displayed less evasive and negative behaviors toward human approach, but also sought less human contact and did not interact, regardless of the handling timeframe. All animals displayed signs of stress when restrained in the stock, with increased neutrophil counts and CHCM levels in the blood, and no differences in metabolic (CK and LDH) and other hematological parameters. The neutrophil–lymphocyte ratio was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in handled foals than in control ones, suggesting low standards of welfare. Our data suggest that early forced handling decreases fearfulness in new environments; however, it does not improve the horses’ relationship with humans, and it decreases welfare.
... Therefore, they stated that whether the person is known or not by the horse does not make a difference in mitigating the effect of the stressful event. Ijichi et al. 15 examined the stress responses of horses during new handling procedures while being guided by their owners and a stranger, they found no difference in horses' performance (crossing time), behaviour or in physiological responses (heart rate, eye temperature) in terms of caregiver familiarity. Similar to our research results, Ijichi et al. 15 concluded that an unknown handler may be as effective as the owner in influencing horses' responses when exposed to potentially stressful situations. ...
... Ijichi et al. 15 examined the stress responses of horses during new handling procedures while being guided by their owners and a stranger, they found no difference in horses' performance (crossing time), behaviour or in physiological responses (heart rate, eye temperature) in terms of caregiver familiarity. Similar to our research results, Ijichi et al. 15 concluded that an unknown handler may be as effective as the owner in influencing horses' responses when exposed to potentially stressful situations. Also, Hartmann et al. 16 and Liehrmann et al. 17 deduced that they did not find any effect of the familiarity of the handler in novel object and novel surface tests. ...
Knowing the behavioural responses of horses while planning the training processes is crucial in constituting the appropriate training program. The purpose of the study was to examine some behavioural and physiological responses of Arabian horses participating in flat races against the reactivity to human and fear tests. Within the scope of this study, 15 female Arabian horses aged between 2 and 8 years were subjected to reactivity to passive human test, reactivity to active human test, and handling tests from reactivity to human tests and the novel surface test, the static novel object test, and the startling novel object tests from fear tests. Significant relationships (P<0.05) were detected between the agonistic behaviours of horses and maximum heart rate values in the passive human test, active human test, static novel object test, and startling novel object test. Active human test, it was determined that as the agonistic behaviours of horses increased, the distance to approach humans increased (P<0.05). The novel surface test observed that as the horses' agonistic behaviours increased, the number of attempts to cross the surface successfully also increased (P<0.01). In the handling test, increased agonistic behaviours caused the test time to prolong (P<0.01). As a result, it was determined that various processes in training were prolonged in horses with high agonistic behaviours during the tests. It has also been determined that the trainability of horses may differ within the same breed and sex. For this reason, it is recommended to determine behavioural responses and to plan horse training individually. By understanding the trainability of horses, it is possible to achieve maximum efficiency for their benefit.
... If a relationship is defined as "an affectional tie that one person or animal forms between himself and another specific onea tie that binds them together in space and endures over time" (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970, p. 50), then the equivalent response of the horse to their owner or a stranger does not fit this description of attachment. Ijichi et al. (2018) similarly reported that horses performed equally and had comparable stress physiology during a novel object test for their owner or a stranger, thus negating the secure base effect. Additionally, Merkies et al. (2014) found that while horses demonstrated separation distress from humans, any human who rejoined them was sufficient to abate their distress. ...
... Multiple studies have demonstrated that horses can differentiate between familiar and unfamiliar people (Proops & McComb, 2012;Stone, 2010), but to date there is little evidence to show that horses respond differently to familiar and unfamiliar people in standard tasks. Lansade and Bouissou (2008) demonstrated that horses approached unfamiliar people just as readily as familiar people, and Ijichi et al. (2018) found no difference in willingness to approach a novel object or ability to handle a horse in a stressful situation, regardless of if the horse was familiar with the handler or not. Brubaker et al. (2021) showed horses did not behave differently toward familiar or unfamiliar humans when being brushed, but they did find that horses who participated in equine-assisted activities showed a preference to interact with unfamiliar people, while those horses who were not selected for those activities showed a preference for a familiar handler. ...
... Furthermore, the nasal temperature also decreased in response to negative emotional states in dairy cows [37,54]. In horses, the infrared temperature of the eye has been successfully used to determine stress levels in response to different sporting performances [55], human handling [50,56], and interaction with riding equipment [57]. Contrary to the cattle and horses, the infrared temperature of eyes in rabbits and dogs has been found to elevate due to stress. ...
... IRT has also been used in horses. Non-invasive measures of infrared thermography of the eyes in horses has been successfully used to determine stress levels in horses during performance [55], human handling [50,56], and interactions with the riding equipment [57]. More studies are needed, however, on the link between the IRT in horses and their lateralisation preferences. ...
Simple Summary
As concerns over animal welfare grow, individuals working in animal husbandry need easier ways to assess the psychological wellbeing of livestock. Recent research in lateralisation and stress has helped scientists find links between stress and the sides of the body animals use to inspect new objects and people or engage in new experiences. Research has shown that the left side of the brain processes familiar conditions, while the right side of the brain is more often used for new situations. These sides of the brain correspond to behaviours expressed with the opposite side of the body. Animals often use a specific eye or leg when initiating behavioural responses or interactions which can be assumed to link to the opposite side of the brain. This article summarised the existing literature for lateralisation in common livestock species in addition to advocating for increased use of thermography when assessing welfare in livestock.
Abstract
Lateralised behavioural responses to environmental stressors have become more frequently used as indicators of social welfare in animals. These lateralised behavioural responses are under the control of asymmetrical brain functions as part of the primary functions of most vertebrates and assist in primary social and survival functions. Lateralised behavioural responses originating from the left hemisphere are responsible for processing familiar conditions, while the right hemisphere is responsible for responding to novel stimuli in the environment. The forced lateralisation and side preference tests have been used to determine the visual lateralised behavioural responses in livestock to environmental stressors. Limb preference during movement has also been used to determine motor lateralisation. Although behavioural investigations in livestock have recorded lateralised behavioural responses to environmental stressors, there are still limitations in the implication of lateralisation to other conditions, such as restraint and invasive procedures. Thus, it is important to have a non-invasive measure for these lateralised behavioural responses. Recently, lateralised behavioural responses have been correlated with the use of infrared temperature of external body surfaces, such as the eyes and coronary bands of limbs. This review summarised the different forms of the lateralised behavioural responses in livestock, especially cattle and horses, to environmental stressors, and the association between these responses and the relevant external body surfaces’ infrared temperature, with the purpose of improving the use of non-invasive measures in assessing welfare conditions in animals. The combination of the lateralised behavioural responses and infrared temperature of external body surfaces to environmental stressors could improve the assessment strategies of welfare conditions and the related additional husbandry interventions that could be applied to improve the welfare of farm animals.
... Active refusal was classified by any movement of any of the horse's hooves that did not contribute to movement toward the target area when being led (e.g., stepping sideways or backward when asked to move forward). Passive refusal included any refusal behaviour that did not include movement of the feet (i.e., standing still) when the horse was being asked to move (definitions adapted from Ijichi et al., 2018). Avoidance behaviour was defined as any head movement performed to evade or oppose the stimuli (halter, blindfold, pressure of lead rope); this included lifting, tossing, shaking and turning the head away from the handler or obstacle. ...
Blindfolds have commonly been suggested to make horses more tractable in emergency or high-stress situations such as barn fire evacuations or trailer loading. However, little research has been done on the veracity of this claim. Two studies were conducted to examine the impact of blindfolds on ease of handling. In Study 1, 33 riding lesson horses were led from a familiar stall both blindfolded and unblindfolded. In Study 2, 27 of these horses were then led through an obstacle course both blindfolded and unblindfolded that required them to weave through cones, back up through a chute, walk across a tarp and pass through a gate made of pool noodles that brushed their flanks. For both studies, time taken to complete each phase of the test (Study 1: haltering, blindfolding, exiting stall; Study 2: each of the four obstacles) was recorded, as well as heart rate difference from baseline, lead rope pressure and frequency of avoidant or resistant behaviours. Results were analyzed using a mixed model with post-hoc Tukey-Kramer comparisons to investigate the relationship between variables. Generally, blindfolded horses required more time and greater lead rope pressure for handling and displayed higher frequencies of avoidant (p < 0.05) and active refusal behaviour (p < 0.04) in Study 1 and for the cones and backing up obstacles in Study 2. Conversely, when navigating the visually frightening “gate” obstacle in Study 2, blindfolded horses required less time (p = 0.0053) and lead rope pressure (p = 0.0049) and demonstrated fewer avoidant (p < 0.0001) or refusal behaviours (p = 0.0009) than unblindfolded horses. Blindfolded horses showed a greater heart rate increase from baseline while being led in Study 1 (p = 0.0226). Blindfolding did not have an effect on heart rate in Study 2 (p = 0.1672), but horses demonstrated reduced heart rate difference from baseline during their second attempt at the obstacle course regardless of blindfolding status (p < 0.0001). These findings suggest that blindfolding may be a beneficial tool when navigating visually frightening stimuli and time is not a concern. However, in emergency scenarios such as barn fire evacuations, blindfolding is likely to increase lead time and difficulty of handling, which could negatively impact the success of a rescue and put human and animal lives at risk. Future research is required to test the efficacy of blindfolds in a more realistically simulated emergency environment.
... In studies with pet cats, Felis catus, familiarity with humans has been shown to have either no effect [9] or a negative influence on sociability behaviors [10] and a positive influence on the duration of contact [11]. Similarly, in one study domestic horses (Equus ferus caballus) groomed by a familiar handler showed a lower stress response than when groomed by an unfamiliar handler [12], while in another study, horses handled by their owners and an unfamiliar handler showed similar behavioral compliance and physiological measures of stress [13]. ...
Simple Summary
Many mammals behave differently with familiar people versus strangers, and sometimes the sex of the person is another important influence. We studied shelter dogs during walks to determine the effects on behavior of the dog’s sex and maturity and the walker’s sex and familiarity. In Study 1, unfamiliar men and unfamiliar women walked dogs. In Study 2, after walks with unfamiliar men and women, dogs were walked again when walkers were familiar. In both studies, mature males urinated at higher rates when walked by a woman than by a man, whereas mature females urinated at similar rates with women and men. Mature males and mature females were less likely to defecate when walked by a man than by a woman. Juvenile dogs were less affected than mature dogs by the walker’s sex, suggesting experience influenced responses in mature dogs. In Study 2, the effects on urination and defecation of a dog’s sex and maturity and the walker’s sex did not change over walks as dogs became familiar with walkers. Shelter dogs may be less responsive to the degree of familiarity with people than other mammals because they are directly exposed to so many people. Our results indicate that dog sex and maturity and human sex influence dog–human interactions.
Abstract
Many mammals living on farms, in zoos, and in research settings behave differently with familiar people versus strangers, and the sex of the person can also influence interactions. We conducted two studies to examine the influence of a dog’s sex and maturity and a walker’s sex and familiarity on the behavior of shelter dogs during leash walks. In Study 1 with unfamiliar walkers (n = 113 dogs), we found that mature males urinated at higher rates when walked by a woman than by a man, whereas mature females urinated at similar rates. Mature males and mature females were less likely to defecate when walked by a man than by a woman. Juvenile dogs were generally less affected than mature dogs by a walker’s sex, suggesting a role for experience in mature dogs’ responses. In Study 2, when dogs were walked more than once by a man and a woman (n = 81 dogs), we found patterns of urination and defecation like those in Study 1. Importantly, the effects of the dog’s sex and maturity and the walker’s sex on dogs’ patterns of urination and defecation did not change over walks as dogs became familiar with walkers. Dogs in shelters are directly exposed to so many people that they may be less responsive to differing degrees of familiarity than mammals living in other settings. Our data indicate that dog maturity and sex and human sex influence dog–human interactions.
Riding schools play an essential role in the equestrian industry and in education. These establishments are reliant on horses to work for numerous hours, often with riders of different abilities. However, little is known about the impact workload has on the well-being of these horses and effective monitoring of welfare is required for animal-based industries to maintain their Social Licence to Operate. The aim of the current study was to investigate how the quantity of work carried out by riding school horses affects their behaviour and physiology, providing evidence as a starting point to identify suitable levels of work that riding school horses can be used for before their welfare is compromised. Horses (n=30) were observed 1-2 hours after completing their workload on a day of Rest, Moderate (1-2 hours) and Hard work (3-4 hours). Infrared thermography of eye temperature (IRT) and heart rate variability (RMSSD) were measured as indicators of arousal. The Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) was scored treatment-blind to measure discomfort and pain. No significant difference was found between RMSSD or eye temperature depending on the level of workload, indicating subjects were able to cope with increasing demands. However, there was a significant difference in the HGS score between Rest, Moderate and Hard work (p<0.001). This indicates a greater degree of discomfort following an increase in hours of work. Another possible explanation for the increase of the HGS score is that tiredness can influence the presence of some of the FAUs (e.g., backward ears and orbital tightening) making it more difficult to discriminate between whether a horse was in pain or the increased score is a consequence of being physically tired after the work. Findings indicate that 1-2 days of working 3-4 hours can be appropriate in horses conditioned to the work in well managed riding facilities, however further research is needed to determine how long increased HGS lasts to determine how often days of hard work may occur without impacting welfare.
Equid welfare in equine assisted services (EAS) is an area that has received attention, but less attention than the documentation of human outcomes in response to EAS. To safeguard the well-being of equids and minimize human risk of injury, continued research on the effects of EAS programming and participants on equids needs to occur. The aims of this systematic scoping review were to identify the approaches taken for describing and understanding equids in EAS and the methods employed in evaluating equids' responses to EAS programming, participants, or both. Literature searches were performed in relevant databases to identify titles and abstracts for screening. Fifty-three articles were identified for full-text review. Fifty-one articles met the inclusion criteria and were retained for information and data extraction. The qualitative grouping of articles by study aim resulted in four categories: 1) characterization and description of equids in EAS; 2) the acute responses of equids to EAS programming, participants, or both; 3) the effects of management practices; and 4) the chronic responses of equids to EAS programming and participants. The latter three areas are in need of more research, especially as it relates to differentiating acute and chronic effects of EAS on the equids involved. Detailed reporting of information on study design, programming and participant characteristics, equid demographics, and workload are needed to facilitate comparison among studies and permit eventual meta-analysis of studies. Multi-faceted approaches including an array of measurements as well as relevant and informative control groups or conditions are required to identify the complex effects of EAS work on equids, their welfare, well-being, and affective states.
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