![Computational thinking is an independent skill, since only 51% of its variance is reducible to known psychological variables [7, 8].](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jesus-Moreno-Leon/publication/325352993/figure/fig1/AS:636692188897284@1528810655748/Computational-thinking-is-an-independent-skill-since-only-51-of-its-variance-is_Q320.jpg)
Content uploaded by Jesús Moreno-León
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Jesús Moreno-León on Jun 12, 2018
Content may be subject to copyright.
A preview of the PDF is not available
On computational thinking as a universal skill: A review of the latest research on this ability
Abstract and Figures
In recent years we are witnessing movements around the world to bring computer programming to schools. Lots of these initiatives, however, have been conceived to address the shortage of professionals in the technology sector, an approach that is encouraged by the software industry. On the contrary, this article argues that the focus should swift towards computational thinking, an ability that goes far beyond computer science or technology, fostering fundamental skills for the citizens of the twenty-first century. In this paper we summarize the findings of recent investigations that study computational thinking from different perspectives, explaining what this new skill is made of, presenting outcomes of school interventions showing relationships between the development of this ability and improvements in different subjects and soft skills, presenting technologies to foster its development, and reviewing tools that support educators in the assessment of this skill.
Figures - uploaded by Jesús Moreno-León
Author content
All figure content in this area was uploaded by Jesús Moreno-León
Content may be subject to copyright.
... The integration of CT into STEM education is a dynamic and continually evolving domain, as underscored by recent research findings, e.g., [10,13,14,36]. For instance, Paltz et al. [36] synthesized the relationship between CT conceptualizations found in the literature, highlighting five seminal articles, i.e., [33,[46][47][48][49][50], connecting CT to the problem-solving process. Similarly, Wang et al.'s recent literature review [13] on CT integration in STEM education emphasized problem-solving skills as the driving force for CT development in STEM, while noting that programming served as a primary means of learning about CT in STEM. ...
... Biddy et al. [63] even note that some teachers struggle to differentiate between CT and traditional problem-solving methods. Paltz and Pedaste [36] conducted a systematic literature review and categorized six original articles on CT [33,[46][47][48][49][50]. They concluded that most of the underlying elements attributed to CT can be grouped into three categories related to problem-solving: defining the problem, solving the problem, and analyzing the problem. ...
Vocational Education and Training (VET) faces significant challenges in equipping individuals for modern workplaces, which increasingly require digital literacy and Computational Thinking (CT) skills. This paper addresses the imperative of integrating CT into VET programs and outlines key research questions. Our methodology primarily involves a systematic literature review, resulting in the identification of 29 relevant papers. Through qualitative content analysis, we develop a CT integration framework that connects CT practices and integration elements to the engineering design process, while highlighting the VET context. Arguably, the innovative aspect of this framework lies in its core dimensions of harnessing computational power for enhanced efficiency. Raising the question of whether computers can optimize the efficiency and effectiveness of specific tasks is paramount for addressing challenges in technology-rich environments. Therefore, this inquiry merits unwavering attention at every stage of the process. The proposed framework provides educators with a structured approach to identify integration opportunities and help prepare students for multifaceted vocational careers. Furthermore, other key findings underscore the inherently interdisciplinary nature of VET, the growing demand for STEM competencies, and the transformative potential of CT integration. Implications emphasize the need for further research, supportive policies, and practical CT integration. Despite limitations, this study strongly advocates for CT integration, empowering VET students for success in the contemporary workforce.
... The term Computational Thinking (CT) was coined to describe a systematic approach to human solving of complex problems. Since its original conception by Papert (1980), it has been widely accepted as an imperative skill for today's learners (Grover & Pea, 2013;Moreno-Leon et al., 2018;Shute et al., 2017). Major organizations, such as the World Economic Forum and the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), consider CT to be part of the new literacies necessary for being contributing members of society (Scott, 2015;World Economic Forum, 2015). ...
This paper explores the association between computational thinking (CT) skills and learning to play musical instruments. While CT has often been linked to programming and STEM fields, its application to non-digital contexts remains underexplored. The two studies presented here address this gap. In the first, a quantitative study (N = 91), self-report questionnaires were filled out by young adults with varied musical backgrounds, who also undertook CT tests. We found a strikingly positive association between musical experience and CT performance, with some nuanced associations based on the characteristics and experience of music playing. In the second, qualitative study (N = 10), interviews were conducted with high school students who are highly experienced in music performance, aiming at identifying CT skills they use while learning to play musical pieces. The analysis revealed that they employ a wide range of CT skills, and that the manifestation of these skills differs by the stage of learning. These two studies complement each other, hence this paper sheds important new light on the associations between CT and the field of music education.
... In particular, the grade 5 students appear to be performing better than the grade 6 students, which is somewhat unexpected (although it may be related to the ceiling effect that we begin to observe in grades 5-6). Indeed other studies have found that students tend to progress on CT-abilities as they get older, without having received any CT-specific instruction (Román-González et al., 2017;Relkin et al., 2020;Relkin & Bers, 2021;Piatti et al., 2022), in alignment with the consideration that Computational Thinking can be considered as a universal skill (Moreno-León et al., 2018). It would thus be interesting to collect data from another subset of students from grades 3-6 at the same point in time and replicate the study. ...
The introduction of computing education into curricula worldwide requires multi-year assessments to evaluate the long-term impact on learning. However, no single Computational Thinking (CT) assessment spans primary school, and no group of CT assessments provides a means of transitioning between instruments. This study therefore investigated whether the competent CT test (cCTt) could evaluate learning reliably from grades 3 to 6 (ages 7–11) using data from 2709 students. The psychometric analysis employed Classical Test Theory, Item Response Theory, Measurement Invariance analyses which include Differential Item Functioning, normalised z-scoring, and PISA’s methodology to establish proficiency levels. The findings indicate that the cCTt is valid, reliable and gender-fair for grades 3–6, although more complex items would be beneficial for grades 5–6. Grade-specific proficiency levels are provided to help tailor interventions, with a normalised scoring system to compare students across and between grades, and help establish transitions between instruments. To improve the utility of CT assessments among researchers, educators and practitioners, the findings emphasise the importance of (i) developing and validating gender-fair, grade-specific, instruments aligned with students’ cognitive maturation, and providing (ii) proficiency levels, and (iii) equivalency scales to transition between assessments. To conclude, the study provides insight into the design of longitudinal developmentally appropriate assessments and interventions.
... Para Moreno-León et al. (2018), la presencia de computadoras en las aulas promovió el desarrollo de habilidades de pensamiento computacional, un conjunto de competencias esenciales en la era digital. Los estudiantes no solo aprendieron a utilizar herramientas digitales para la creación y el análisis, sino que también adquirieron la capacidad de descomponer problemas complejos en partes manejables. ...
Esta obra examina la intersección crítica entre tecnología y educación, analizando su impacto transformador en los procesos pedagógicos contemporáneos. A través de cinco capítulos estructurados sistemáticamente, el texto proporciona un análisis exhaustivo que abarca desde los fundamentos teóricos hasta las aplicaciones prácticas de la tecnología en entornos educativos. El libro establece inicialmente las bases conceptuales de la relación educación-tecnología en el siglo XXI, profundizando posteriormente en las teorías pedagógicas que fundamentan la integración tecnológica. La perspectiva histórica presentada contextualiza la evolución de las herramientas educativas digitales, examinando el desarrollo desde tecnologías básicas hasta innovaciones avanzadas como la realidad virtual, la inteligencia artificial y el metaverso. El análisis enfatiza la implementación de tecnologías específicas que están redefiniendo el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje: plataformas de gestión del aprendizaje, herramientas de realidad virtual y aumentada, aplicaciones de inteligencia artificial, sistemas de videoconferencia, dispositivos móviles y entornos inmersivos. La obra culmina examinando el impacto de la tecnología en la motivación estudiantil y el desarrollo de competencias laborales. Esta publicación se establece como un recurso fundamental para profesionales de la educación, proporcionando tanto análisis académico riguroso como orientaciones prácticas para la implementación tecnológica efectiva en diversos contextos educativos.
... (35,44) Román-González and colleagues have done an incredible work in the field of computational thinking (CT). (51,52) Their work is aligned with the Bebras initiative. Specifically, Román-González developed a Computational Thinking Test (CTt) aimed at Spanish students between 12 and 13 years old, (53) which has been used alongside Bebras tasks to assess CT skills. ...
The Bebras Challenge is an international initiative that promotes computational thinking among students through fun and engaging challenges. It incorporates gamification elements, which play a significant role in making learning more interactive and motivating. For teachers, it offers valuable professional development opportunities, helping them to incorporate these concepts into their teaching practices. However, so far, a limited number of studies have been conducted to investigate Bebras Educational Competition and Gamification for the development of students’ computational thinking in secondary education. Also, while the Bebras Challenge is widely recognized for its role in promoting computational thinking through engaging tasks, the specific intersection of Bebras, gamification, and teacher development is a relatively underexplored research area. Specifically, for this paper seven databases were searched, and 33 papers were finally selected for this review. The findings seem to shed light on whether Bebras competition might enhance the development of students’ computational thinking, and to present what could be the potential impact and effectiveness of a gamified learning approach included in Bebras initiative for promoting computational thinking skills among students, especially in secondary education. A significant conclusion stemming from findings of this review, is that the learning of teachers at a professional level, and the development of their expertise, leads them to changes in teaching practices that have as a final result the improvement of student learning and the development of students’ computational thinking skills
... In 2012, researchers proposed a new CT framework that includes three essential dimensions for studying the development of young learners: (1) computational concepts, (2) computational practices, and (3) computational perspectives (Brennan & Resnick, 2012). In 2018, Moreno-Leon et al. (2018) highlighted CT as a versatile problem-solving tool. CT holds significant importance as a competency for young children, necessitating a thoughtful approach that aligns with their cognitive developmental characteristics. ...
Educators and researchers are becoming interested in cultivating computational thinking (CT). However, in the Hong Kong context, CT-related studies regarding young children are rarely found. The present study aimed to use an unplugged digital arts activity to examine the CT concepts that children performed and document their CT developmental trajectories. Constructionism theory highlights the importance of children engaging in hands-on activities and developing independent thinking skills. Meanwhile, social constructivism theory emphasizes the role of teachers as scaffolders, supporting children in their learning processes. A sample of children (N = 27, aged 3–6) was recruited from a nursery school in Hong Kong to participate in an animation art workshop. A total of 540 min of video data was recorded and collected for content analysis. The teaching team (N = 4) for this workshop were invited to write up their reflective journals, capturing their observations of the scaffolding strategies employed and their perspectives on how children at various levels demonstrated their understanding of CT concepts throughout the entire process. Within an analytical framework based on powerful ideas, the findings from the observations and field notes revealed that the children’s CT concepts and practices could be linked with the CT conceptual framework. In this study, older children showed a sophisticated competency and a more complicated mind structure in terms of the CT concept. Our findings highlight the importance of designing an age-appropriate curriculum for nurturing the computational thinking of young children through animation art.
This study critically reviews sixteen empirical studies that investigate the various difficulties that primary school students encounter while learning programming through educational games. Specifically, the challenges that students face in understanding basic programming concepts and the game elements that contribute to these difficulties, as well as the extent to which students can transfer the knowledge gained to contexts beyond games are analyzed. The results indicate that students primarily struggle with understanding loops (both simple and nested), while difficulties with selection structures and sequence structures are less pronounced. Regarding game elements, students face difficulties in interpreting command symbols representing directions, understanding graphical interface elements representing programming constructs, and managing complex user interfaces. The results imply a need for further empirical studies to explore how well students can apply their acquired programming knowledge to contexts beyond games. Although the need for further research is highlighted, the findings of the study provide valuable implications both to educators and game designers for a more effective incorporation of educational games to the teaching of programming, and a more straightforward depiction of programming concepts and a more user-friendly graphical user interface respectively.
Los nuevos currículos escolares incluyen la educación del pensamiento computacional del alumnado. Esto genera la necesidad de formar adecuadamente a los docentes, asunto que todavía presenta ciertas limitaciones. Una de ellas ha sido la ausencia de marcos pedagógicos adecuados. El diseño del Modelo 5PC trata de cubrir esta necesidad estableciendo cinco pasos secuenciales de enseñanza-aprendizaje del pensamiento computacional, que van activando distintos elementos a la vez que se desarrollan procesos de resolución de problemas. Sin embargo, este Modelo no cuenta con suficientes experiencias de implementación y evaluación. El objetivo de este estudio es someter este Modelo a juicio de expertos mediante el método Delphi, con el fin de validarlo y mejorarlo. Se realizaron dos rondas de preguntas en las que participaron seis expertos de distintas universidades. Tras el análisis de sus respuestas, se modificaron distintos elementos del Modelo 5PC, tales como: las fases del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje, las fases del proceso de resolución de problemas y en la distribución de los métodos y habilidades transversales.
Computational thinking is nowadays being widely adopted and investigated. Educators and researchers are using two main approaches to teach these skills in schools: with computer programming exercises, and with unplugged activities that do not require the use of digital devices or any kind of specific hardware. While the former is the mainstream approach, the latter is especially important for schools that do not have proper technology resources, Internet connections or even electrical power. However, there is a lack of investigations that prove the effectiveness of the unplugged activities in the development of computational thinking skills, particularly for primary schools. This paper, which summarizes a quasi-experiment carried out in two primary schools in Spain, tries to shed some light on this regard. The results show that students in the experimental groups, who took part in the unplugged activities, enhanced their computational thinking skills significantly more than their peers in the control groups who did not participate during the classes, proving that the unplugged approach may be effective for the development of this ability.
Computational thinking (CT) is emerging as a key set of problem-solving skills that must be developed by the new generations of digital learners. However, there is still a lack of consensus on a formal CT definition, on how CT should be integrated in educational settings, and specially on how CT can be properly assessed. The latter is an extremely relevant and urgent topic because without reliable and valid assessment tools, CT might lose its potential of making its way into educational curricula. In response, this paper is aimed at presenting the convergent validity of one of the major recent attempts to assess CT from a summative-aptitudinal perspective: the Computational Thinking Test (CTt). The convergent validity of the CTt is studied in middle school Spanish samples with respect to other two CT assessment tools, which are coming from different perspectives: the Bebras Tasks, built from a skill-transfer approach; and Dr. Scratch, an automated tool designed from a formative-iterative approach. Our results show statistically significant, positive and moderately intense, correlations between the CTt and a selected set of Bebras Tasks (r=0.52); and between the CTt and Dr. Scratch (predictive value r=0.44; concurrent value r=0.53). These results support the statement that CTt is partially convergent with Bebras Tasks and with Dr. Scratch. Finally, we discuss if these three tools are complementary and may be combined in middle school.
Programming and computational thinking skills are promoted in schools worldwide. However, there is still a lack of tools that assist learners and educators in the assessment of these skills. We have implemented an assessment tool, called Dr. Scratch, that analyzes Scratch projects with the aim to assess the level of development of several aspects of computational thinking. One of the issues to address in order to show its validity is to compare the (automatic) evaluations provided by the tool with the (manual) evaluations by (human) experts. In this paper we compare the assessments provided by Dr. Scratch with over 450 evaluations of Scratch projects given by 16 experts in computer science education. Our results show strong correlations between automatic and manual evaluations. As there is an ample debate among educators on the use of this type of tools, we discuss the implications and limitations, and provide recommendations for further research.
In the last years, socialization of the software development process has been proven to be an emergent practice, becoming social development platforms (such as GitHub or GitLab) very popular among software developers. However, little is still known about how social factors inuence software development. In particular, in this paper we focus on how socialization affects the learning of programming skills, as developing software can be considered, in part, a continuous learning process. Aiming to shed some light in this regard, we analyze the social interactions of almost 70,000 users and the sophistication of over 1.5 million software products authored by them in the Scratch platform, the most popular social coding site for learning to program. The results indicate that there is a relationship between the social conducts of users and the improvement of their programming abilities, showing that more social actions performed by users is positively associated with more sophistication in their programs. Furthermore, the results also provide evidence that the relationship of social factors with the development of software programming skills tends to grow with time.
Purpose
The purpose of this article is to review and discuss the varied ways computer programming is introduced to schools and families as a new form of learning. The paper examines the rhetoric around coding within academic journals and popular media articles over the past three decades. This article argues that despite the best intentions of media researchers and enthusiasts, if the rhetoric around computer science (CS) in all K-12 schools is to become a reality, there first needs to be a greater focus on monitoring such rhetoric and better understanding exactly how programming is presented to the wider public.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper represents an analysis of 67 peer-reviewed books and journal articles as well as news articles and editorials related to students’ learning (or needing to learn) computer programming on the K-12 level. In terms of criteria for inclusion, in addition to publication date and article readership, there were three considerations: the article needed to focus on CS on the K-12 grade levels; the article needed to focus on introductory computer programming initiatives, rather than more advanced courses/topics); the article needed to specifically focus on school-based learning environments.
Findings
Findings point to three distinct ways in which introductory coding initiatives have been portrayed (and been perceived): new literacy, “grounded” math and technical skill. Ultimately, the paper does not propose a single defining metaphor. Rather it argues that the metaphors one selects matter considerably in determining programming’s future in entering (or not entering) schools, and that educators need to make a conscientious effort to consider multiple metaphors without choosing just one.
Research limitations/implications
In terms of research limitations, the article does not purport to be an exhaustive analysis of all the metaphors that have been used to introduce CS to K-12 schools over the past 30 years. Rather it only identifies the leading metaphors from the literature, and in doing so, makes an important first step in examining the role of metaphor in the presentation of CS as a “new” course of study.
Practical implications
The article is intended for educators, researchers and administrators to gain a better understanding of what CS is (and could be) for K-12 schooling.
Social implications
The article is intended for educators, researchers and administrators to likewise understand how they, themselves, can present CS to students and families as a potential course of study.
Originality/value
There is currently considerable discussion about teaching CS in all US high schools, middle schools and even elementary schools. There is however little examination of past attempts to bring CS into K-12 schools and what these attempts may inform current advocacy.
[Full text freely available at http://www.informingscience.org/Publications/3521]
The introduction of computer programming in K-12 has become mainstream in the last years, as countries around the world are making coding part of their curriculum. Nevertheless, there is a lack of empirical studies that investigate how learning to program at an early age affects other school subjects. In this regard, this paper compares three quasi-experimental research designs conducted in three different schools (n=129 students from 2nd and 6th grade), in order to assess the impact of introducing programming with Scratch at different stages and in several subjects. While both 6th grade experimental groups working with coding activities showed a statistically significant improvement in terms of academic performance, this was not the case in the 2nd grade classroom. Notable disparity was also found regarding the subject in which the programming activities were included, as in social studies the effect size was double that in mathematics.
A new framework for understanding computing: a coherent set of principles spanning technologies, domains, algorithms, architectures, and designs.
Computing is usually viewed as a technology field that advances at the breakneck speed of Moore's Law. If we turn away even for a moment, we might miss a game-changing technological breakthrough or an earthshaking theoretical development. This book takes a different perspective, presenting computing as a science governed by fundamental principles that span all technologies. Computer science is a science of information processes. We need a new language to describe the science, and in this book Peter Denning and Craig Martell offer the great principles framework as just such a language. This is a book about the whole of computing—its algorithms, architectures, and designs.
Denning and Martell divide the great principles of computing into six categories: communication, computation, coordination, recollection, evaluation, and design. They begin with an introduction to computing, its history, its many interactions with other fields, its domains of practice, and the structure of the great principles framework. They go on to examine the great principles in different areas: information, machines, programming, computation, memory, parallelism, queueing, and design. Finally, they apply the great principles to networking, the Internet in particular.
Great Principles of Computing will be essential reading for professionals in science and engineering fields with a “computational” branch, for practitioners in computing who want overviews of less familiar areas of computer science, and for non-computer science majors who want an accessible entry way to the field.
Computational thinking (CT) is being consolidated as a key set of problem-solving skills that must be developed by the students to excel in our software-driven society. However, in psychological terms, CT is still a poorly defined construct, given that its nomological network has not been established yet. In a previous paper, we started to address this issue studying the correlations between CT and some fundamental cognitive variables, such as primary mental abilities and problem-solving ability. The current work deepens in the same direction as it aims to extend the nomological network of CT with non-cognitive factors, through the study of the correlations between CT, self-efficacy and the several dimensions from the ‘Big Five’ model of human personality: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. To do so, the Computational Thinking Test (CTt) and some additional self-efficacy items are administered on a sample of 1251 Spanish students from 5th to 10th grade (N = 1251), and the Big Five Questionnaire-Children version (BFQ-C) is also taken by a subsample from the above (n = 99). Results show statistically significant correlations between CT and self-efficacy perception relative to CT performance (rs = 0.41), in which gender differences in favor of males are found (d = 0.42). Moreover, results show statistically significant correlations between CT and: Openness to Experience (r = 0.41), Extraversion (r = 0.30), and Conscientiousness (r = 0.27). These findings are consistent with the existing literature except for the unexpected correlation between CT and the Extraversion factor of personality, which is consequently discussed in detail. Overall, our findings corroborate the existence of a non-cognitive side of CT that should be taken into account by educational policies and interventions aimed at fostering CT. As a final contribution, the extended nomological network of CT integrating cognitive and non-cognitive variables is depicted.
Computational thinking (CT) is being located at the focus of educational innovation, as a set of problem-solving skills that must be acquired by the new generations of students to thrive in a digital world full of objects driven by software. However, there is still no consensus on a CT definition or how to measure it. In response, we attempt to address both issues from a psychometric approach. On the one hand, a Computational Thinking Test (CTt) is administered on a sample of 1,251 Spanish students from 5th to 10th grade, so its descriptive statistics and reliability are reported in this paper. On the second hand, the criterion validity of the CTt is studied with respect to other standardized psychological tests: the Primary Mental Abilities (PMA) battery, and the RP30 problem-solving test. Thus, it is intended to provide a new instrument for CT measurement and additionally give evidence of the nature of CT through its associations with key related psychological constructs. Results show statistically significant correlations at least moderately intense between CT and: spatial ability (r = 0.44), reasoning ability (r = 0.44), and problem-solving ability (r = 0.67). These results are consistent with recent theoretical proposals linking CT to some components of the Cattel-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model of intelligence, and corroborate the conceptualization of CT as a problem-solving ability. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563216306185