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Ecological modernization and responses for a low‐carbon future in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries
... This requires more scientific attention. Further, the incorporation of low-carbon growth technologies (e.g., renewables, reuse technologies, more closed-loop systems, smart cities technologies) will mean an increase of waterenergy-food integration in the region, mainly on coastal areas (Al-Saidi & Elagib, 2018). Furthermore, the growth of tourism is impacting coastal areas but also food demand and waste production (Pirani & Arafat, 2016). ...
... The transition toward low-carbon economies requires mainly two things from Gulf states: (1) the redesign their energy mix; and (2) lowering carbon emissions through interventions in the built environment and energy use patterns. With regard to the energy mix issue, renewable energies, mainly solar in the GCC countries and solar as well as hydropower in Iran, have been incorporated into ambitious development strategies in the region (Al-Saidi & Elagib, 2018;Bayomi & Fernandez, 2019). At the same time, nuclear energy is on the rise as a type of clean energy for power production. ...
... On the revaluation of the regional level, Gulf countries, particularly GCC countries, have been increasingly engaged within the global sustainability agenda. This is reflected through national commitments on renewables, joining international conventions or working with international organizations on sustainability paradigms (e.g., Green Economy or the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals or SDG's) Al-Saidi & Elagib, 2018;Luomi, 2015). Due to decades of sanctions and wars since the early 1980s, Iraq has been a latecomer to the international scene, and has now joined most environmental conventions. ...
Environmental concerns related to the health of the marine ecosystems, the negative impacts of coastal infrastructure and the deterioration of water quality (e.g., increasing salinity and warming trends of the Gulf waters) are threatening development prospects in the Persian/Arabian Gulf region. Many of these challenges require a cooperative approach, as the Gulf waters resemble characteristics of common pool resources. Regional environmental cooperation can also be an important contributor to peace and a prosperous future in the region. The chapter aims at examining the legacies as well as potential fields of regional environmental cooperation in the Arabian/Persian Gulf. It first conceptualizes environmental cooperation in relation to regional cooperation models and sustainability politics, and as a viable component of the interdisciplinary idea of positive peace. Later, it highlights the cooperation legacies in the region with regard to environmental sustainability. Using current overarching challenges (marine protection, resource supply infrastructure integration and risks, extremes and global warming), the chapter analyzes the status of cooperation, identifies cooperation fields, and stipulates recommendations for joint action. The high potential and the contemporary necessity for regional cooperation are far short of the countries’ efforts to harmonize and coordinate actions, while the region is still dominated by traditional rivalry politics and governance frameworks that are sectoral, nationally oriented, and loosely integrated into the international sustainability agenda.
... They are manifestations of a competition among global cities to show off stereotypes of modernization and sustainability [2]. These planned cities are promising to transform major cities in the region, and are often mentioned as a part of ongoing transformation of the region towards a low-carbon future through reshaping the built environment, e.g. using energy efficiency and sustainable design [3]. In fact, sustainability considerations have recently become more important for GCC countries as they are becoming more engaged with the sustainable development agenda [4]. ...
... This energy abundancy has caused a high level of energy consumption fuelled by significant energy subsidies which GCC states have recently began to reduce, e.g. from 9.5% energy subsidy share of GDP in Saudi Arabia in 2014 to 4.6% in 2016 [8]. Interventions in the built environment such as the construction of new cities with higher standards of energy efficiency can be seen as a way to reduce the large energy footprint [3]. Alongside new planned cities, there are new interventions in terms of infrastructure updates, smart city projects or modern transport in major cities (i.e. ...
... Here, we characterize the respective cities as contemporary or modern cities. If transformative ecological innovations are applied on a larger scale in terms of the amount of innovations or the amount of beneficiaries, this is called ecological modernization, a theory strain that firmly relies on ecological dissemination [3]. We characterize the cities in this category as eco-cities. ...
Cities of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region have harboured impressive architecture conveying modernity and affluence. GCC countries are increasingly reshaping the face of their urban areas through the development of futuristic planned cities. These cities are competing for labels that show design innovations and energy-efficient technologies. This paper goes behind the headlines and self-labelling, and compares the region's major planned cities in terms of the nature of the urban development models. It proposes a techno-social framework to characterize the cities based on the criteria of access and innovation. The assessment shows that most developments resemble infrastructure upgrade via digital and smart cities. While ecological innovations are incorporated in urban design, they are limited to few livable cities. Most representative cities for sustainability are either small theme cities or yet to be completed. Economization and mega-events are largely fuelling urban development, with open outcomes on the success to attract long-term residents, and the level of contribution to the region's low-carbon future.
... The development of alternative energy sources is an integral element of the national strategies of countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). These wealthy countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates or UAE) have accelerated the push for alternative energies through targets for renewables as an integral part of ambitious national visions of economic diversification and low-carbon transformation [1,2]. At the same time, nuclear energy has been incorporated as part of the future energy policy mix, while consumers' energy tariffs have been significantly increased and the energy production sector restructured to allow for independent power suppliers (usually as public-private partnerships) [3][4][5]. ...
... While the political economic approaches are dominant in explaining the energy transition in the Gulf [5,[18][19][20], less attention has been paid to hidden/inferior factors that might be necessary to fully capture the push for alternative energies. A small number of factors such as geopolitics and the role of megaproject mentality in promoting modernization have been highlighted in some studies, indicating that energy transition is embedded in regional competition and rivalries for showcasing grandeur and affluence [2,3]. However, there has so far not been a systematization of non-economic factors in the Gulf energy transition. ...
... Third and finally, renewable energies can be seen as a response to sustainability and environmental requirements to decrease the large ecological footprints in the region and reduce the carbon-intensity of economies. Al-Saidi and Elagib [2] examined ecological modernization in the region and linked renewables and interventions in the built environment to low-carbon policies. Al-Saidi et al. [32] explained the increased engagement of GCC states in the global sustainability agenda, including the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Agreement. ...
Energy transition in the region of the Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC) has recently commenced and is now being implemented through large-scale renewable projects, nuclear plants, and energy efficiency measures in the built environment. This paper highlights how alternative energies are associated with non-economic factors such as prestige, modernity, and (soft or symbolic) power. It analyzes the specific ways of delivering energy diversification in the Gulf through renewable megaprojects, the reorganization of the energy sector, and the incorporation of nuclear energy as an add-on source. These decisions serve GCC states in showcasing modernity, maintaining centralized control, posturing geopolitically, and extending the rent distribution mechanisms. On one hand, the energy transition in the Gulf has been domesticated through policies and strategies suiting the political systems in the region. This can have an acceleration effect on this transition. On the other hand, the implications of the adaptation of the energy transition to the reality of the Gulf remain open. The success of this transition will depend on the ability of GCC states to ecologically modernize the Gulf societies, reduce environmental risks, and enhance GCC-wide cooperation.
... Recently, there are some key initiatives and trends related to decarbonization in the GCC countries [39], [40], [41], [42], [43], [44], [45], [46], [47]. These initiatives are summarized in the following points. ...
... Among the found barriers are institutional, market, technical, cultural as well as the lack of policies and incentives to enforce the implementation and adoption of renewable energy [35], [94]. Additional key challenges that may hinder the transition of GCC countries from hydrocarbon products to renewable energy such as the cost competitiveness of fossil fuels compared to the renewables in the region, the limited renewable energy infrastructure and grid integration, lag regulations which could create uncertainty and slowing down of renewable energy projects' implementation as well as the limited local manufacturing and expertise [39], [40], [41]. Furthermore, the market distortions and limited promotions to the renewable energy developments, as well as the subsides for electricity and fuels have also been associated with the slow progress of the cleaner energy developments due to the low energy prices in the GCC region [95]. ...
The alarming increase of greenhouse gases production has boosted the proportion of renewable energy worldwide mainly in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). The GCC states have recently supported several projects to replace gasoline and fossil fuels with energy produced from solar, wind and geothermal sources. Thus, the total installed renewable power capacity has increased significantly from 176 MW in 2013 to 5.6 GW in 2022 with a total CO2 saving of ~4 million tons per year. However, to meet the ever-increased demands for decarbonization and the tightening environmental requirements and regulations, various polices and regulatory codes are required to promote the transition from fossil fuel machinery operation to renewable energy resources and to effectively reduce the carbon footprint in the region. This review paper discusses in depth the recent progress and initiated projects, and measures undertaken by the GCC countries to transit from fossil fuel energy source to renewable energy resources. The state-of-the-art advances in decarbonization and renewable energy generation in the GCC region along with the effective codes, policies and regulatory limits for sustainable renewables are also discussed in this paper. The paper also discusses the potential of the renewable energy sources in the GCC region such as wind, solar, and geothermal as replacement for fossil fuel and suggested a holistic innovative approach to ensure smooth transition from gasoline powered cars to electric ones. The findings and discussions in this review are vital for readers, policymakers, and active researchers in the field of renewable and sustainable energy sources.
... obstacles to diversification in the gcc region include the significant influence of states and the absence of interregional commerce or specialization among gcc states (hvidt, 2013). various gcc states have implemented different strategies to achieve economic diversification, such as the establishment of sovereign wealth funds (el-Kharouf et al., 2010) and the adoption of environmental technologies (Al-saidi & elagib, 2018). participating in the sustainability agenda, such as by implementing sustainable energy, can reduce the significant dependence of gcc economies on the oil and gas industries (Flamos et al., 2013). ...
... For instance, countries in the gcc region are currently showing a keen interest in achieving 'ecological modernization' by implementing 'eco-innovations, ' especially in the construction sector (Al-saidi, 2022). this is done to uphold their contemporary reputation and appeal to affluent inhabitants and investors (Al-saidi & elagib, 2018). Moreover, participating in the energy transition agenda is beneficial since the money saved from reducing energy subsidies can be used to more productive purposes, such as the advancement of renewable energy (Abdel gelil et al., 2017). ...
This study examines the influence of board characteristics on company’s sustainability reporting in the GCC region. In contrast to prior research, we investigate the relationship between variables across a span of eleven years, encompassing all nonfinancial firms listed on the GCC stock exchanges. Our study addresses the scarcity of research undertaken in the GCC region on this particular topic. This study empirically investigates the relationship between board characteristics (specifically, board size, board gender diversity, board meetings, and board independence) on the adoption of sustainable reporting while taking into account firm characteristics (including leverage, profitability, liquidity, and firm size) and controlling for macroeconomic variables (such as GDP and inflation). This research utilized Probit regression to examine the influence of the likelihood of various variables on the adoption of sustainable reporting. The findings indicated that larger board sizes, a higher proportion of female board members, the inclusion of more independent directors, and more frequent board meetings all contribute to the improvement of sustainable reporting. Furthermore, the greater the size, the greater is the impact of profitability and liquidity on the sustainability of reporting. The current research offers some insights into the connection between board characteristics and corporate sustainability reporting for corporate boards, regulators, and practitioners who are interested in promoting sustainable reporting. Further investigation should examine the comparison of sustainability reporting methodologies across different regions, as well as between privately held and publicly listed corporations. Finally, as evident by the results reported in the Maximum Likelihood Estimator our results are robust.
... GCC countries are experiencing a technology-driven transformation towards a low-carbon and energy-efficient built environment (Al-Saidi and Elagib, 2018;Zaidan et al., 2019). This is reflected in region-wide efforts to adopt renewables, encourage the development of low-carbon smart cities (e.g., Masdar city in the United Arab Emirates and Lusail city in Qatar), and invest in ICT-based solutions for infrastructure (Saxena and Al-Tamimi, 2018;Al-Saidi and Zaidan, 2020). ...
... Another explanation for the push towards smart cities lies in environmental and economic considerations. GCC countries see technological updates and low-carbon urban development as a vehicle for economic diversification and ecological modernization (Al-Saidi and Elagib, 2018). In order to achieve this, they rely on ambitious national visions within which smart city initiatives are located. ...
City planners are seeking ways to incorporate human-centric urban projects that combine smart technology, good infrastructure and people’s perception as well as their participation. Smart city developments are increasingly being applied to smaller scales at which communities can co-design hard infrastructure and the resulting services. Experiences from city projects at this level have produced a plethora of designs, challenges and success factors, particularly from cases in countries with long legacies in city development. In the Gulf Cooperation Council region, young cities and new planned cities house the bulk of the population and face environmental challenges related to urban segregation, urban sprawl and large consumption footprints. The political-economy of this region in terms of central urban planning and government-led economic development offers valuable insights on the limits and challenges in implementing projects related to smart and connected communities (SCC). SCC as a label for smart urban interventions towards more connectedness between hard and soft (human-related) infrastructure can provide opportunities for participatory and sustainable urban planning in the region. This paper analyzes the role of community-level interventions within the smart city policies of Gulf countries. It shows that only few local-level projects exist, while the barriers to large-scale SCC initiatives are related to demographics, community characteristics, technological sophistication, lack of conducive regulations, and the prevalence of central urban planning. The success of local smart city approaches in the Gulf is dependent on public leadership in terms of clearing obstacles, designing broader strategies, and expanding projects to include the residential sector. Considering the potential of SCC projects to enhance the transition to sustainability in the predominantly urban Gulf societies, broader engagement of local governments, utilities, and community-level developers can result in tangible benefits in terms of more sustainable, smart and tailored local services.
... Structural challenges to such diversification include the strong role of states and the lack of interregional trade or specialization among GCC states (Hvidt, 2013). GCC states have tried several tools for economic diversification, including sovereign wealth funds (El-Kharouf et al., 2010) and the introduction of environmental innovations (Al-Saidi and Elagib, 2018). Engagement with the sustainability agenda through, for example, the deployment of sustainable energy can help break up the high proportion of GCC economies tied up in the oil and gas sectors (Flamos et al., 2013). ...
... Thirdly and finally, the technological and economic feasibility of many environmental technologies has provided "win-win" opportunities for GCC countries to satisfy environmental requirements and save costs or attract investments. For example, GCC states are now interested in an "ecological modernization" through "eco-innovations," particularly in the built environment, in order to maintain their modern images and attract high-value residents and investors (Al-Saidi and Elagib, 2018). Furthermore, engaging in the energy transition agenda is worthwhile since saved revenues from energy subsidy reductions can be redirected towards more productive uses (e.g., development of renewables or direct welfare transfers) (Abdel Gelil et al., 2017;Al-Saidi, 2022a). ...
The agenda of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is a key international outcome for guiding development efforts of nation states. However, SDG targets cover vast areas of action, and they are difficult to break down and monitor for countries with different developmental situations and needs. Often, global rankings of countries’ compliance with the SDG agenda are plagued with false signals and methodological limitations. This paper presents a much-needed prioritization of the SDG targets for the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region. It maps SDG targets and outlines priorities and key areas for environmental action. Sustainability in resource use, consumption and production constitutes a primary area for investments. Education and awareness represent cross-cutting priorities and low-hanging fruit for action. Tackling climate change and emerging supply risks and the management of ecosystems represent an action area in which GCC governments can intensify their interventions. As a supporting policy, regional environmental cooperation is important for enhanced commitments and tackling transboundary aspects of the SDG agenda. The analysis of the SDG agenda in the GCC regions reiterates the importance of countries engaging with global sustainability framings in order work out their own interpretations in congruence with national development realities. Such an SDG regional mapping exercise also assists national-level planners or regional bodies working on development issues in shaping the Gulf region’s engagement with the global sustainability agenda and tracking progress on key SDG priorities.
... Energy certifications for buildings, district cooling systems and the construction of low-carbon megaprojects have been a popular instrument in the GCC region for ecological modernization and low-carbon development [15]. Saudi Arabia holds the bulk of new planned city developments in the GCC region such as the 500$ billion Neom city project under construction. ...
... Key energy transition indicators for Saudi Arabia.Source: International Energy Agency for all indicators, expect for renewables targets extracted from[15,16]. ...
Since 2016 and guided by the National Vision 2030, the energy transition in Saudi Arabia has gained significant momentum. There have been important energy subsidy reforms and dynamic developments in the renewable energy sector. This paper provides a systematic view of the Saudi energy transition by highlighting drivers, sectors, targets and processes. It analyzes the progress with regard to lowering carbon emissions and consumption, as well as introducing ambitious new targets and solar energy projects. The energy subsidy reforms have delivered the needed funds for the energy transition and allowed for more participation in the energy markets. Other aspects of the energy transition included low-carbon urban developments and energy efficiency measures in the building sectors. Besides, key energy-intensive industries such as petrochemicals and desalination are incorporating renewables and facilitating the use of clean energy. Overall, the Saudi energy transition is underway, and it holds significant and necessary adjustments to the most important economy in the Middle East region. It needs to be complemented by environmental awareness and sustainable lifestyles. Reforming the large carbon economy of Saudi Arabia towards more sustainability and environmental responsibility can have positive spillovers and powerful messages about the future of carbon-fuel exporting states.
... Policies on climate change are rather scant in GCC countries. Only recently did GCC states start to relate national policies to climate change, whereby the notion of low-carbon development needs to be understood within the economic diversification efforts of GCC states as well as the search for decoupling economic growth from environmental degradation (Al-Saidi and Elagib, 2018). Climate change is a cross-sectoral challenge that is expected to affect several activities in the GCC; e.g., cooling needs, marine ecosystems and fisheries, or infrastructure dealing with climate extremes such as heatwaves or storms (Al-Maamary et al., 2017). ...
... This is mainly due to low rankings in environmental SDGs, since GCC countries usually rank highly for pure economic and developmental indicators. Besides, the level of achievements regarding ecological footprints, renewables, climate change and innovation is not high despite the abundant financial resources and the ongoing process of ecological modernization (Al-Saidi and Elagib, 2018). Similarly, GCC countries rank modestly in the 2020 Environmental Performance Index, between 42nd (UAE) and 122nd (Qatar) places (Wendling et al., 2020). ...
For around 40 years, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have been developing cooperative frameworks that aim at enhancing security and economic cooperation as well as establishing joint action on common threats such as environmental degradation of the Gulf waters. Population and economic growth, alongside global issues such as climate change, have increased the pressure on vulnerable ecosystems. They have also resulted in the expansion of environmental concerns and the associated risks. In fact, contemporary sustainability issues represented by global visions such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) include numerous issues to tackle sustainability in a comprehensive manner. Using mapping of the SDG-based sustainability issues, this paper examines interstate relations among GCC states aimed at achieving comprehensive sustainability outcomes through regional environmental cooperation. It highlights the conceptual and practical relevance of such regional cooperation among GCC states, which share a common pool resource (the Gulf) and many socio-economic, physical, and cultural similarities. Sustainability issues, interstate relations and GCC-based cooperation are examined in terms of policies, legacies, interests and commitments across different sectors; e.g., water, energy, agriculture, ecosystems, and climate. Despite not being comprehensive and not resulting in strong, enforceable outcomes, regional environmental cooperation in the GCC region has been valuable for environmental collaboration and policy coordination. There is a need to strengthen cooperative frameworks, issue representation, and participation in order to overcome the recent rise in interstate competition and political rifts that are negatively affecting the capacity of the regional level to contribute to future environmental outcomes.
... High oil subsidy is identified as one of the major hindrances to effective RE application and demand-side management actions in the region ( Al-Maamary et al. 2017b;Darwish et al. 2018). Al-Saidi and Elagib (2018) reviewed the current model for attaining a low-carbon future in the region and emphasize the existence of energy subsidies as a potential barrier for the deployment of renewables. The reduction in subsidies could result in rise in fossil fuel-powered electricity prices, thus making RE investment more attractive and competitive (Lilliestam and Patt 2015). ...
... The development of geothermal energy in KSA, for example, is largely hindered by the absence of political support, non-existence of incentives for private investors, and lack of awareness of various stakeholders (Taleb 2009). Further challenge to widespread deployment of renewables in the GCC can be ascribed to harsh climate, resource insecurity, and bureaucratic processes associated with RE projects approval (Al-Saidi and Elagib 2018;Darwish et al. 2018). ...
There is a growing focus on the role of renewable energy (RE) policies such as feed-in tariffs (FITs), renewable portfolio standards (RPSs), subsidies, incentives, and research and development in the global energy policy mix and in promoting environmental sustainability. Although most developed countries have well-formulated RE policies, in developing countries, such policies face many barriers. This study analyzes the policies, drivers, and barriers to RE deployment for fostering environmental sustainability in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. In the GCC region, the need for economic diversification to reduce dependency on single resource, diminishing hydrocarbon reserve, loss of oil export revenue, climate change mitigation pledges, and abundant solar energy resource are the key drivers for diversifying energy sources to include RE. However, the apparent lack of consolidated policy framework for wide-scale RE utilization calls for a well-articulated policy to advance RE development in each member state. Although FIT and RPS approaches could be effective for initial deployment of small-scale RE projects, a competitive tendering and auctioning mechanisms are more suitable for large-scale projects. Whereas, developing effective energy codes could successfully promote RE deployment, the increased share of RE in energy supply would have synergistic impacts on the region. The GHG emissions avoidance expected to be achieved by the GCC countries will vary between 5 and 247 million tons of CO 2 equivalent by 2030. The fulfillment of inspirational RE targets for 2030 would contribute in fulfilling climate change mitigation pledges, environmental sustainability, economic growth, and generating new jobs.
... Permasalahan ekologis yang dihadapi saat ini menjadi semakin mendesak untuk ditangani mengingat dampak yang semakin merusak lingkungan (Zhou et al., 2023). Pencemaran udara, kerusakan habitat, perubahan iklim, dan kehilangan keanekaragaman hayati menjadi tantangan serius yang memengaruhi keseimbangan ekosistem global (Al-Saidi & Elagib, 2018;Malik et al., 2023;Scheidel et al., 2018). Dampak dari permasalahan ekologis ini meluas secara luas, mencakup kesehatan manusia, keberlanjutan sumber daya alam, dan stabilitas ekonomi (Jiang et al., 2024;Rastegar et al., 2022). ...
Urgensi penelitian ini terletak pada kebutuhan mendesak untuk mengatasi masalah ekologis di Indonesia dengan mengadopsi temuan studi global yang relevan menjadi kebijakan adaptif yang sesuai dengan konteks lokal. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengisi kesenjangan dalam literatur dengan menyediakan panduan konkret bagi pengambilan keputusan dalam upaya menjaga keberlanjutan ekologis di Indonesia, serta memperkuat kapasitas negara dalam merumuskan dan melaksanakan kebijakan yang berkelanjutan secara lingkungan. Penelitian ini menggunakan analisis bibliometrik dengan data dari database Scopus untuk mendapatkan pemahaman yang mendalam tentang tren penelitian, tema, dan kontribusi para peneliti dalam domain keberlanjutan ekologis. Pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan melakukan filter pada pencarian keyword berdasarkan judul “ecological sustainability”. Tahapan ini berhasil mengumpulkan dokumen relevan sebanyak 1,550 dokumen. Alat analisis yang dimaksimalkan yaitu memanfaatkan Vosviewer. Temuan ini menunjukkan bahwa tren peningkatan minat penelitian dalam keberlanjutan ekologis, terutama setelah tahun 2010, menyoroti kesadaran global tentang urgensi masalah lingkungan. Namun, kontribusi Indonesia dalam literatur ilmiah global masih terbatas, sementara pemetaan tematema menunjukkan bahwa beberapa aspek, seperti ekonomi, inovasi, dan energi terbarukan, memerlukan eksplorasi lebih lanjut. Dalam konteks ini, literatur global menjadi sumber berharga untuk menginformasikan kebijakan adaptif untuk Indonesia, memungkinkan pengembangan langkah-langkah konkret yang responsif terhadap dinamika sosial, ekonomi, dan ekologis. Dengan memperkuat kerjasama lintas sektor, meningkatkan kesadaran masyarakat, dan mendorong inovasi serta investasi dalam energi alternatif dan terbarukan, Indonesia dapat maju menuju sistem ekonomi yang ramah lingkungan dan berkelanjutan, merespons tantangan keberlanjutan ekologis secara efektif. Pemerintah Indonesia harus memainkan peran utama dalam implementasi kebijakan adaptif untuk mencapai keberlanjutan ekologis.
... In comparison with our results, ref. [62] argued that expanding solar infrastructure may reduce land for food production, deepen import reliance, and negatively impact food security in GCC countries. ...
The rising global demand for food and energy has led to growing attention to the nexus between food security and renewable energy. This study aims to investigate the impacts and shocks of renewable energy consumption, particularly solar and wind energy, on food availability and stability in Saudi Arabia, by assessing both short-term and long-term effects. We use the time series annual data covering the period (2000–2022) analyzed by applying the Vector Autoregressive (VAR) model system and its environment, Granger causality, the forecast-error variance decompositions (FEVD), and the impulse response functions (IRFs). The VAR results indicated that wind renewable energy positively affects food availability; one unit of wind energy consumption will significantly increase food availability by 3.16% (Z value 2.017 at a 5% significance level), and no statistically significant coefficients are associated with food stability. Also, the results confirmed that one unit of renewable energy consumption from solar will significantly increase food stability by 36.5% in Saudi Arabia (Z-value 1.682 at a 10% significance level). The Granger causality results concluded that solar energy has a bidirectional Granger causality with food availability but not food stability. The FEVD results showed that solar energy shocks have more persistent impacts in explaining the rapid increase in food security than wind energy shocks in both the short and long term. The IRFs concluded that food availability has shown a positive and steady increase in response to wind energy. This study provides practical recommendations for policymakers to balance energy transition goals with food security concerns. Future research should explore emerging technologies in wind and solar energy that can enhance efficiency and sustainability while minimizing adverse effects on food security.
... Al-Saidi & Elagib, 2018;Günel, 2016;Krane, 2019; LSECities, 2017;Rizzo, 2017;Waha et al., 2017. 173 Sinno, 2020. ...
... In terms of food security, more attention has been paid to the relationships between food supply and demand, climate and food security, agricultural innovation and technology, and other influencing factors [19][20][21][22]. In the face of global problems such as the intensification of the greenhouse effect and deterioration of the ecological environment, a number of scholars have begun to study the relationship between carbon and grain and also the relationship between carbon emission efficiency and food security [23,24]. For example, it is of interest to determine how carbon emission reduction per unit of grain production can be achieved by improving resource utilization, energy consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions to improve the efficiency and sustainability of grain production [25]. ...
The delineation and measurement of carbon emissions in agricultural production systems constitute a complex issue involving multiple factors. Previous research in this area has been limited in terms of comprehensive carbon emission assessment throughout the agricultural production process and systematic measurement. This study focuses on both dynamic and static aspects, systematically analyzing the agricultural carbon emissions and emission efficiency in Hebei Province from 2000 to 2020. It comprehensively explores the influencing factors of carbon emissions and delves into the relationship between agricultural carbon emission efficiency and food security. The experimental results revealed the following: (1) From 2000 to 2020, the agricultural carbon emissions in Hebei Province exhibited a fluctuating downward trend, with a spatial distribution pattern where they were high in the south and low in the north. And the carbon emissions caused by chemical fertilizers and plowed land accounted for 42.6% of the total. (2) The efficiency of agricultural carbon emissions in the static dimension fluctuated at a rate of 0.0265, whereas the ML index fluctuated less in the dynamic dimension, and the agricultural industrial structure had the most significant impact. (3) The coupling coordination degree of food security and agricultural carbon emission efficiency increases with time, and “coordination” gradually dominates in spatial change. The conclusions of this study are of great significance in stabilizing grain production and achieving low-carbon production in the Hebei Province.
... The application o this ramework in Saudi Arabia showcases its potential to address energy challenges and promote sustainable development in the residential sector. Al-Saidi and Elagib [31] explore the concept o ecological modernization and its implications or transitioning to a low-carbon uture in the GCC countries. The authors discuss the unique challenges aced by these countries, which are major oil producers, in reducing their carbon emissions and diversiying their economies. ...
... Ecological modernization is a concept that combines modernization with efforts to protect and preserve the environment [2]. This concept also highlights the importance of economic growth and technological development [3]. Ecological modernization includes efforts such as the use of renewable energy [4], reduction of waste [5], use of more efficient technologies [6], and development of environmentally friendly products [7]. ...
... Regarding the GCC countries, it is believed that they must adapt some models based on long-term strategies to achieve a low-carbon future, by relying on less fossil energy sources that must be replaced by REST, gradually and efficiently. This can be achieved through interventions in the built environment, deployment of REST, technology investments, gradual integration into global knowledge-intensive industries, and reduction of large ecological and carbon footprints [108]. This is in addition to artificial intelligence's (AI) utilization in REST. ...
Highlights
• Investigates energy and environmental issues in the six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries in the Middle East region, West Asia, as being considered, globally, a very important, strategic, and volatile region. These countries are Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.
• Discloses that the Middle East region, including the GCC countries, produces more oil than any other world’s region, accounting for just under a third of the global oil production in 2020; at 31.3%, constituting a slightly larger share of global production than it was 10 years ago.
• Investigates the oil consumption in the GCC countries, in comparison with other countries that are much greater in population and/or industrial advancements.
• Contributes to the areas of energy and the environment, with views affecting strategic environmental assessment of the efficiency of energy conversion systems to support energy and environmental policies.
• Contributes to views on, and deeper understanding of, climate change impacts, ecological and carbon footprints, pollution control, energy system efficiencies, and energy management, in terms of optimization, economic control, and pollution control.
• Focuses on the usage of fossil energy sources (oil and natural gas), with deep views on renewable energy sources and sustainable development, taking into account population and the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (UN’s SDGs), as well as the ecological and carbon footprints.
• Indicates that the GCC’s high rates of oil consumption have resulted in negative impacts on the environment and the climate, in terms of high ecological and carbon footprints, considering the fact that some of the GCC’s countries have the highest per capita ecological and carbon footprints.
• Suggests, as part of a decarbonization strategy, that the GCC countries need to accelerate their efforts towards achieving the UN’s SDGs and climate change performance.
• Concludes that the GCC countries should reduce their dependence on fossil energy sources and, thus, gradually shift to renewable energy sources, particularly photovoltaic solar energy.
... Countries with large populations such as Algeria, Egypt, Iran and Saudi Arabia show concerning rates of increases in energy consumption overall (mainly due to population growth), and per capita (indicating a lack of energy use efficiency). In fact, these large energy footprints represent some of the main reasons behind the ongoing energy transition in the Gulf; e.g., through phasing out of energy subsidies, introduction of renewables, or energy efficiency measures [46][47][48]. To react to and compensate for rising demands, it is important to have a well-functioning energy sector (hence the energy security index) for fulfilling different domestic demands as well as export-related ones. ...
The Ukraine war has forced Europe to redefine its energy security policies towards more diversification and less reliance on Russian energy. As an energy-rich and relatively close region, the Middle East can play a potentially important role in Europe's future energy security. However, a short-term and static view on the Middle East's readiness as Europe's energy partner conceals the dynamic nature of Europe's external policy towards this region. Closer energy cooperation with the Middle East requires a holistic approach and informed strategies that consider the realities and perspectives of energy-exporting countries. This paper provides an analysis of the role of the Middle East in Europe's energy security by considering political economic factors such as capacity, domestic reforms, and long-term supply reliability. Using a perspective based on international political economy, long-term strategies for energy cooperation between the Middle East and Europe are highlighted. Integration with North Africa's energy markets and infrastructure can deliver energy supplies and foster energy transition in Europe and the Middle East. Oil diplomacy with Gulf countries is necessary for price stability and the compensation of oil supplies for Europe. Finally, there are opportunities for European countries to strengthen energy trade partnerships (particularly with Qatar) and thus become more involved in the interstate competition for the abundant gas supplies of the Middle East. Europe's energy rapprochement with the Middle East solicits a re-examination of EU external energy policies in order to achieve more long-term and mutually beneficial energy cooperation.
... This particular analysis shows the same result as found in the study conducted by Al-Saidi & Elagib, (2018). The study pointed out that reduction in traffic congestion is essential from the viewpoint of the economy, as it will be helpful for them in having strong compliance with the requirements of Going Green [27]. ...
Worldwide, the urban population is increasing rapidly at 1.84%. Green Mobility emerged as a practical approach for promoting environmentally friendly and sustainable transportation in cities. This study is carried out with the main aim of finding the advantages and viability of Green Mobility in the future cities of Saudi Arabia. The quantitative research methodology is used to obtain credible data on the benefits of implementing green mobility through the perspective of government officials dealing with environmental issues. A validated questionnaire was administered to respondents working in the environmental protection sector. All analysis was carried out by using SPSS version 20. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were calculated. The inferential statistics were obtained using the regression and Pearson correlation tests. Findings have shown a significant connection between Green Mobility and its environmental benefits that enhance the quality of life in Saudi Arabia. Green Mobility is associated with the incremental investment, time-saving, reduction of traffic congestion, climate protection, improving health benefits, air quality betterment and diversification of energy supply. Overall, this study's findings have emphasized the need for an integrated and clear policy designed within a national framework.
... On the basis of previous experience accumulation, China identified the second and third batch of low-carbon pilot areas in 2012 and 2017. With the implementation of the low-carbon pilot policy, scholars have also studied the low-carbon pilot policy and found that it has reduced the carbon emissions of industry and service industries [2] and improved the eco-efficiency of the economy [3] by improving the low-carbon development system and optimizing the regional economic structure. However, the real puzzle is: the low-carbon pilot policy can improve the eco-efficiency of the economy,but the effect on agricultural eco-efficiency is still unknown even though the agricultural eco-efficiency as an important symbol of high-quality agricultural development. ...
... In other words, the effect of total energy consumption is statistically significant and positive in all of the estimated models. This is consistent with prior research that found that energy usage has a favourable impact on carbon emissions in GCC countries (Salahuddin and Gow, 2014;Salahuddin et al., 2015;Al-mulali and Che Sab, 2018;Al-Saidi and Elagib, 2018). ...
This paper aims to examine the asymmetric impact of oil price shocks on environmental degradation for a panel of six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries from 1996 to 2016. We use the dynamic seemingly unrelated regressions (DSUR) approach that considers cross-sectional dependency to reveal the interrelations between oil price shocks and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The finding shows that the positive shocks of oil prices have a statistically significant negative effect on CO2 emissions, while negative shocks of oil prices did not affect CO2 emissions. More specifically, the positive oil price shocks have negatively influenced the CO2 emissions in Oman, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and United Emirates Arab. In turn, the most negative effect is found in Qatar and Saudi Arabia. Meanwhile, the negative shocks of oil prices have statistically significant effects on the CO2 emission of Oman and Saudi Arabia. While for other countries, it does not have a significant impact. Also, the results support an environmental Kuznets curve in Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates; in contrast, the hypothesis was rejected in Bahrain and Oman. This study could help policymakers adopt renewable energy policies and use energy-saving technologies to sustain economic development and improve environmental quality.
... Stimulatingly, trade openness results look to diminish the carbon emissions in the South Asian region. A probable reason is that sustainable and integrated trade policies and agreements can increase the potential of government for addressing unresolved environmental issues (Pui and Othman 2019;Al-Saidi and Elagib 2018). Similarly, adjustment of regional and global trade barriers to environment-related goods and services can boost the adoption of pro-society and environment technologies at a very minimum cost. ...
This study explores the dynamic linkages of financial inclusion, modernization, and environmental sustainability in South Asia during the period 1998–2019. Two distinct composite indexes for financial inclusion and modernization are developed by using principal component analysis (PCA) based on normalized indicators. To examine the dynamic linkages, we adopted panel regression models that are not only robust but also heteroskedasticity consistent. We find that financial inclusion, modernization, per capita GDP, and FDI appear to lead to higher CO2 emissions in the South Asian region. Meanwhile, increased economic integration and trade openness appear to have negative dynamics for carbon emissions. These empirical findings are unbiased and robust to different reasonable modifications to panel data model specifications. This study comes up with the conclusion that presently there is no policy coherence and coordination between growing financial inclusion, modernization, and carbon mitigation strategies in South Asia. Thus, the prospect of financial inclusion and modernization should be cohesive into comprehensive climate change mitigation strategies at regional, national, and global levels, specifically to mitigate the adverse dynamics of higher carbon emissions associated with modern development.
... Beyond that, based on the oil and gas production in the states of the GGC, severe environmental problems have been noted. Desertification and drought (Kannan, 2012), biodiversity loss (Gasparatos et al., 2017), pollution in coastal sites (Sakthipriya et al., 2015) and air pollution (Al-Saidi and Elagib, 2018;Omidvarborna et al., 2018) are only few of the traditional energy-transitional challenges in the area. ...
Purpose
Until recently, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region, whose members consist of Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman and Bahrain, has not significantly focused on the green transition. Specifically, wind energy development has made minimal progress relative to that of other regions.
Design/methodology/approach
The abundance of cheap fossil fuels in the region has not incentivized renewable energy development, and where this has taken place solar technologies are often preferred.
Findings
However, lower technology costs together with lost investment opportunities – also common elsewhere in the world, has increased the pressure on the GCC region from developers. This work qualitatively addresses the challenges and the strategies for the wind development in the area. It focuses on the analysis of different proposed type of investments – driven by a state-supported proposed fund – such as utility-scale investments, industry-specific investments, manufacturing investments and regional accelerators.
Originality/value
The work also suggests that Gulf sovereign wealth funds should act as the lead investors under new schemes, such as joint ventures, for wind development in the GCC, using their wealth to offering their populations with new sources of employment as well as energy that is sustainable.
... At the same time, the postponements of major events, e.g., major sporting events or megaprojects, can decrease the pressure on basic supply but also affect related infrastructure development. In some parts of the world, e.g., the Arab states of the Gulf, or some parts of Africa, megaprojects are driving much of the newer infrastructure development and rehabilitation (Al-Saidi and Elagib, 2018). Similarly, quarantine regulations can lead to a combined disruption of both supply and demand. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic offers an opportunity to examine the impacts of system-wide crises on key supply sectors such as water, energy and food. These sectors are becoming increasingly interlinked in environmental policy-making and with regard to achieving supply security. There is a pressing need for a systematization of impacts and responses beyond individual disruptions. This paper provides a holistic assessment of the implications of COVID-19 on the water–energy–food (WEF) nexus. First, it integrates the academic literature related to single cases and disruptions to provide a broader view of COVID-19 demand- and supply-side disruptions and immediate effects. Then, the major, long-term impact categories of medicalization/hygienization, (re)localization of production, and demand fluctuations are highlighted. These impacts result in priority cross-links such as irrigation, energy requirements for local food production, energy use for water and wastewater treatment, or water for energy use. Finally, sector-level insights on impacts and responses are provided, drawing from illustrative cases. The analysis of impacts of COVID-19 on the WEF nexus reflects heterogeneous experiences of short-term adaptations, and highlights the revaluation of the water–food–trade nexus. Revived debates on food sufficiency can benefit from green applications to minimize expected trade-offs. The current crisis also reveals some gaps in the WEF nexus debates with regard to the lack of risk-based perspectives and the need for a better consideration of spatial aspects in resource integration. Regarding resource-security issues in the WEF nexus, the COVID-19 stress test boosts debates concerning the adequacy of the production value chains (e.g., contingency and storage, diversification, and self-sufficiency) and the value of cross-border integration (e.g., of trade, globalization, and aid).
... The member countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE)) are rich in carbon-based resources. However, they are undergoing a tangible modernization, mainly in the built environment, in order to reduce their large carbon footprints ( Al-Saidi and Elagib, 2018 ). Besides this, they are becoming more engaged with the global sustainability agenda . ...
The circular economy concept can enhance sustainability through restructuring consumption and production patterns using innovative designs and business models. This core premise is highly relevant for the interlinked water and food supply sectors in arid regions, which are threatened by natural scarcity and resource overuse. This paper transfers the idea of the circular economy into the practice of the water and food sectors using the example of the region of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). It develops a framework for identifying circular economy strategies and issues applicable to basic supply sectors. In analyzing the value chain and circular strategies of the water and food sectors, the circular economy idea has resulted in numerous industrial applications. The range of applications is illustrated in the key industries of wastewater and local food production. Expanding the reuse options for municipal wastewater and valorizing organic waste represent important circular economy directions for the basic supply sector of the GCC. Incorporating these ideas is positive, but a more comprehensive set of measures is needed to generate low-carbon and low-metabolism economic development in the region. In addition to the current sporadic supply-side initiatives, there is a need for non-technical circular economy strategies related to demand management and waste reduction.
... Small businesses oriented towards local products can reduce the large carbon and energy footprints of production and consumption in Qatar. These large footprints represent a key obstacle for a low-carbon future for the Gulf countries which possess significant fossil fuel energy resources [8]. Indeed, the creation of sustainable, low-carbon and low-energy production chains are forms of business differentiation that can create value for customers. ...
Herbal medicine can improve economic diversification and sustainable livelihoods of local communities. In fact, the demand for herbal medicine is increasing globally while policymakers also value non-economic benefits, e.g. preserving traditions/heritage, enhancing communities' cohesion/trust and promoting sustainable practices towards a low-carbon, low-energy and low-metabolism future. The paper discusses the context, opportunities and challenges for developing a medicinal herbal plants industry in Qatar. A literature review was carried out on international experiences in medicinal herbs businesses, with a focus on countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Qualitative data were collected through interviews with smallholders in the herbal medicine industry and experts in order to make a characterization of the business models in Qatar. The herbal medicine industry in Qatar consists of small entrepreneurs that share characteristics with traditional herbalists. It is challenged by the capacity of businesses to enhance resource-efficient production processes through environmentally friendly cultivation and commercial trade.
... The OIES mentioned that the strong fiscal position of the GCC countries, however, may enable them to deploy alternative energy systems with savings from the domestic energy-price reform [86]. In 2017, Al-Saidi and Elagib [90] indicated that, though barriers exist to renewable energy megaprojects in the GCC region, modernization policies are still emerging. Furthermore, Al Shidi et al. [21] state that the GCC countries indeed have a strategic plan, since the slow transition from fossil-fuel economies to low-carbon economies is necessary to improve their global image; without a doubt, they will deploy renewable energy, albeit at their own pace. ...
The member countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) are reliant on fossil fuels to generate electricity. Fossil fuels also represent the main source of economic income in the region. Climate change is closely associated with the use of fossil fuels, and it has become the main motivation driving the GCC countries to search for alternative solutions, such as renewable energy technologies, to eliminate their reliance on fossil fuels and the climate burden attached. The GCC countries have all adopted plans for economic development and diversification to be implemented over two decades. Such plans are strengthened by a framework for long-term planning, which includes a strategic commitment to pursue the development process in a sustainable manner. This research provides a comprehensive review and strict follow-up to shed light on the renewable energy projects implemented in the GCC region and critically discusses future prospects. The projects foreshadow the GCC countries’ ability to comply with the future requirements and to spearhead the renewable energy transition towards a more sustainable and equitable future. The main findings of this research reveal that the GCC countries have achieved significant progress in the field of renewable energy deployment. The United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia are at the top of the list for global renewable energy projects, while Kuwait and Oman have also announced the progress of their projects and have honored their pledges. We find that Bahrain and Qatar need to exercise more transparency in regard to disclosing information about the developments of their renewable energy projects. Finally, although several promising renewable energy projects are underway or have been announced in the region, their completion should be accelerated, and more projects must be implemented to fully meet the decarbonization targets and climate constraints.
... Aquaculture can also be developed using wastewater and this specific use is rising globally (Bunting & Edwards, 2018). Finally, renewable energy is increasing in the region for desalination -in order to face the rising energy cost of high-quality desalinated water -and other applications in the water-energy-food supply infrastructure (Gorjian & Ghobadian, 2015;Al-Saidi & Elagib, 2018;Al-Saidi & Saliba, 2019). This advancement, together with the energy recovery capacity from treatment plants, can open up more cost-effective ways to reuse water for urban agriculture. ...
Technical report on wastewater treatment and best practices in Morocco
... Aquaculture can also be developed using wastewater and this specific use is rising globally (Bunting & Edwards, 2018). Finally, renewable energy is increasing in the region for desalination -in order to face the rising energy cost of high-quality desalinated water -and other applications in the water-energy-food supply infrastructure (Gorjian & Ghobadian, 2015;Al-Saidi & Elagib, 2018;Al-Saidi & Saliba, 2019). This advancement, together with the energy recovery capacity from treatment plants, can open up more cost-effective ways to reuse water for urban agriculture. ...
This contribution reviews current efforts in the region, and compares reuse trends in Iran and Gulf Cooperation Council countries. Agricultural production in the Gulf region is naturally constrained by water scarcity and alternative water sources are therefore highly needed. The impacts of unsustainable water use on the limited, non-renewable groundwater resources are disastrous in terms of declining groundwater table, increased salinity and farm closures. In Iran, water is more available but water scarcity is increasing due to the rapid growth of economy and population, but also due to waste and overuse. Marginal water resources – unutilized water of lower quality - such as urban wastewater, stormwater, as well as saline water, can provide important options for sustainable local food production. Although some new water sources, such as treated wastewater, are being increasingly used, the use in agriculture or other close-to-person uses are still not common. At the same time, different water sources can be used or combined for food production, e.g. marine-terrestrial agriculture or the utilization of harvested or drained water. In this context, this comparative review analyses the use of these marginal resources for food production as a way to enhance de-growth and a circular economy in urban areas of the region. It first highlights the available marginal resources and conceptualizes the use of these resources in the context of sustainability paradigms, such as de-growth and circular production. At the same time, policy challenges are highlighted and this paper advocates the use and potential of new resources such as treated municipal wastewater. For a wide use to happen, such new water sources need to be appropriately identified, treated, delivered and accepted by society and end-users.
... Kuwait and Qatar sharing groundwater reserves with neighbouring Saudi Arabia, were not addressed. Furthermore, the expansion of renewables could potentially replace a large proportion of current domestic energy demand [85,86]. In addition to embedded GWD in food trade, excessive surface water extractions affecting environmental flows could be taken into account [87,88]. ...
We quantify the heavily oil-dominated WEF nexus in three Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries (Kuwait, Qatar and Saudi Arabia) across spatial scales and over time, using available empirical data at the national level, and explore the exposure to nexus stresses (groundwater depletion) in other countries through virtual water trade. At the domestic scale, WEF trade-offs are fairly limited; while all sectors require considerable amounts of energy, the requirements for water and food production are modest compared to other uses. At the international scale, revenues from oil exports in the GCC allow the region to compensate for low food production and scarce water availability. This dependency is dynamic over time, increasing when oil prices are low and food prices are high. We show how reducing domestic trade-offs can lead to higher exposure internationally, with rice imports originating in regions where groundwater is being depleted. However, Saudi Arabia's increased wheat imports, after reversing its food self-sufficiency policy, have had limited effects on groundwater depletion elsewhere. Climate change mitigation links the WEF nexus to the global scale. While there is great uncertainty about future international climate policy, our analysis illustrates how implementation of measures to account for the social costs of carbon would reduce the oil and gas revenues available to import food and desalinate water in the GCC.
... [4,5,23], report smaller targets for renewables than more recent ones, e.g. [24,30,31]. The latter put the targets as a proportion of total capacity as follows: 15% for Kuwait by 2020, 5% for Bahrain by 2020, 20% for Qatar by 2030, 24% for the UAE by 2021, and 54 GW for Saudi Arabia by 2040. ...
Nuclear energy programs are currently under formalization in countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), with the first power plants in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) due to be operational in 2020, and Saudi Arabia's program under development. A political-economic narrative stresses potential benefits such as the diversification of energy sources, the centralization/maintenance of power in the energy supply sector, and the preservation of carbon fuel reserves for export purposes. However, a narrow justification renders the analysis of the nuclear push incomplete, as it is not specific to the nuclear option: i.e., the benefits mentioned apply to other types of alternative energies such as the (relatively) clean options of solar and wind. Economic or domestic considerations might actually be less dominant than geopolitical ones in GCC countries. By analyzing nuclear legacies in the region, this paper highlights the geopolitical considerations behind the nuclear programs of GCC countries, in particular Saudi Arabia and the UAE. The rise of the nuclear energy option in the GCC region coincides with the resurrection of the nuclear program in Iran in the early 2000s. It is linked, in terms of evolution and discourse, to geopolitical rivalry and posturing as well as to the rising tensions in the region, at least in the case of the nuclear ambitions of Saudi Arabia. Despite the political and environmental vulnerabilities of the region, as well as the region-specific risks associated with nuclear power production, nuclear energy seems to be a stable choice in the energy mix policies of these countries.
... 80% of total electricity consumption in Saudi Arabia [22]. With population and economic growth, the bill for subsidies is rising, a fact that has driven GCC governments to rethink the lavish energy subsidies by exploring energy efficiency and technological measures to curb the rising emissions, and by initiating measures to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation [23]. ...
Energy subsidies can account for a large share of government expenditures in some GCC countries. In light of fiscal imbalances since 2014, these countries have reiterated their intention to decrease subsidies and substitute them with more targeted support systems. This paper briefly outlines the extent of energy subsidies. The scope and the drivers of the subsidy reform agenda are outlined, citing recent literature. Some instruments are explained such as adjustment of electricity or water tariffs, increasing of fuel prices, and compensation of citizens through cash transfers. However, the adopted reforms are not yet comprehensive and do not alter the social contract of rentier states.
Digital transformation is reshaping industries worldwide, and tourism is no exception. In the dynamic context of Dubai, a city recognized globally for its innovative megaprojects, integrating digital technologies into the tourism sector has transcended the status of a mere trend to become a critical element in the city's long-term strategy. This chapter examines the role of digital technologies, such as big data, artificial intelligence, and the internet of things, in promoting sustainable tourism practices. Through case studies of major megaprojects, it highlights how digital transformation initiatives have improved operational efficiency, visitor experiences, and sustainability. The chapter also discusses collaborative efforts among stakeholders and the challenges faced in implementing digital strategies. Finally, it provides insights into the future of smart tourism in Dubai, highlighting the ongoing adaptation to global demands and sustainability standards.
Implementing ecological modernization in companies is very important in achieving community welfare. However, ecological modernization only impacts the community around the company's environment. This research explores the process of ecological modernization and its impact on the community surrounding the company. A qualitative research design was used, involving 16 participants from various professional backgrounds related to the company. We focus on PT. Vale Indonesia's activities as an object of research. Interviews, observations, and focus group discussions (FGD) were used to collect data. We analyze data by condensing, displaying, and drawing conclusions. The validity of the data was tested by extending observations, research accuracy, and triangulation of sources, techniques, and time. The research findings show that PT. Vale Indonesia is developing a green energy system as part of an ecological modernization effort to overcome expensive production and reduce the negative impact of the raw material crisis. Societies are also experiencing the effects of ecological modernization at the physical, emotional, and social levels.
This article aims to fill the literature gap while examining the role of green innovation, climate change adaptation technologies, technological diffusion, and environmentally related tax revenues in dealing with carbon neutrality among seven technologically advanced economies (T.A.E.-7) from 1990 to 2018. We employ advanced panel estimators to address slope heterogeneity and cross-sectional dependency issues. The long-run results show that green technological innovations and technological diffusions have significantly and negatively impacted carbon emissions in sample countries. Meanwhile, the role of environmental policy is also significant in addressing environmental vulnerabilities. These findings suggest that climate tech is imperative to ensure carbon neutrality in the long run; however, their marginal effects vary in magnitude, particularly concerning diffusion and adaptation. Similar results are endorsed using alternative estimators addressing endogeneity issues and recommending climate tech’s inclusive framework to support the green growth agenda.
This chapter unveils the various strategies of environmental sustainability at the regional and international levels. It first looks at the regional geopolitical setting, in which the exploitation of a strategic niche such as environmental sustainability is gradually becoming a key part of competition and the pursuit of hegemony. This often hampers much needed collective approaches to minimizing the looming climate crisis. At the international level, sustainability politics can be best explored through specific concepts such as environmental diplomacy, green branding or hedging. Here, policymakers tend to be more active within global climate regime and international sustainability governance for the sake of strengthening their leverage and linkages. The chapter highlights that a green agenda is often strategically instrumentalized and sometimes even politicized for serving specific state interests and foreign policy goals of the respective leaderships. It also shows the close interdependence of internal and external trajectories.
The Colombian National Biodiversity Policy main objective is the biodiversity and ecosystem services management, through strategies for land conservation. This paper proposes a guide for the determination of potential areas for fauna conservation in Colombia. A map algebra equation for ArcGIS 10.8 software was proposed using land cover, species density, protected areas, land vocation, agricultural frontier and ecosystem
geodatabase. This tool was used in Silvania, Colombia. The land cover in Silvania is mostly heterogeneous agricultural areas with 45.40%, followed with 24.94% by forest and semi-natural areas, artificial territories correspond to 12.04% and shrub and/or herbaceous vegetation association occupies 6.59%. The results show that fauna conservation potential areas level corresponds to 7.83% "Very High" and 22.61% to a "High" level for conservation. This guide, helps to contribute for land use planning and the construction of policies, plans and programs that contribute to fauna conservation.
The water-food nexus in the Middle East and Northern African (MENA) region is characterized by resource depletion, import dependence and environmental degradation. This contribution proposes that consumption awareness and resource circularity can be seen as a pathway to alleviate environmental problems and achieve long-term supply security in the water and food sectors. The chapter introduces wastewater recycling as a salient and highly relevant development in the MENA region. Current directions in using treated wastewater are analyzed. Furthermore, forerunner countries from different MENA sub-regions are briefly introduced with the focus on the particular characteristics and policy challenges in each of presented cases of wastewater reuse. Furthermore, crosscutting issues are presented. These include the need for addressing the large consumption footprints in MENA countries, the existence of distorting subsidies for agricultural water, the lack of communities’ participation, the inadequacy of existing strategies and the suboptimal coordination mechanisms between water and food sectors. We suggest at the end of the paper some recommendations to policy makers in the region.
Dimethyl ether (DME) has received high attention due to global environment pollution and energy supply problem. Due to its clean combustion properties, it is a promising clean renewable material for the future. In the present study, dehydration of methanol to dimethyl ether was investigated in a fixed bed flow reactor at different operating conditions using the synthesized MCM-41 catalyst with tethering of the active sulfonic acid groups onto the support via covalent bonds. The structure of the synthesized catalyst was studied using thermogravity, NH3-temperature programmed desorption, scanning electron microscopy, XRD and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller techniques. The synthesized catalyst showed high thermal stability and high surface area. The activity test also showed that the maximum methanol conversion was observed at 350 °C and catalyst contact time of 8 s. Light hydrocarbons and higher oxygenated compounds were not produced at temperature above 300 °C.
Economic growth and demographic change are leading factors that impact the availability of resources such as water and arable land in countries around the globe. The case of Arab countries, where both these resources have been naturally scarce, is illustrative. This chapter outlines the contribution of growing scarcity and historic negligence of sustainability of both resources in encouraging and sustaining political instability in the region. Because of failures of public policies in the area of sustainability, vulnerability to local conflicts and larger-scale instabilities and political disintegration are increasing. This chapter provides a closer look at the case of Syria and Yemen. A growing body of scientific literature now links the current Syrian conflict to climate variability, unsustainable agriculture, and consequent unemployment on the one hand and political instability on the other hand. Evidence from Yemen suggests a link between the rise of the Houthis and groundwater depletion in the North, and a link between the repatriation of Yemenis from the Gulf in the 1990s and past failures in agricultural water management. This chapter advocates the consideration of environmental factors alongside broad regional and local political, social, and economic factors in the study of current and future conflicts.
Abstract Water scarcity in the Arab region is intensifying due to population growth, economic development, and the impacts of climate change. It is manifested in groundwater depletion, freshwater ecosystem degradation, deteriorating water quality, low levels of water storage per capita, and added pressures on transboundary water resources. High‐income Arab countries have sought to circumvent the ever‐present challenges of water scarcity through agricultural imports (virtual water trade), desalination, and, increasingly, wastewater reuse. In this review article, we argue that the narrative of water scarcity and supply‐side technological fixes masks more systemic issues that threaten sustainable water management, including underperforming water utilities, protracted armed conflict and displacement, agricultural policies aimed at self‐sufficiency, evolving food consumption behaviors, the future of energy markets, and educational policy. Water management challenges, particularly on the demand side, and responses in the Arab region cannot be understood in isolation from these broader regional and international political and socioeconomic trends. Recognizing the complex and interdependent challenges of water management is the first step in reforming approaches and shifting to more sustainable development outcomes and stability in the Arab region and beyond.
The purpose of the study was to analyze the social phenomenon of collecting animal carcasses from rural properties using the perspective of the ecological modernization theory. The results show that the success of the Recolhe pilot project is associated with users’ engagement in environmental awareness, environmental regulations, sanitary and environmental risk management, minimization of labor in rural properties, and municipal legal pressures.
he Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region and the wider Arab world are faced with multiple inter-connected dilemmas embedded in the social, economic, and environmental pillars of sustainable development. The question of how to design effective sustainability strategies that are aligned with the context of the GCC region is a relevant one. In this special issue, contributors have investi-gated the obstacles to sustainable development in the GCC region, the impact of current development patterns on the sustainability agenda, and the way in which countries react to local, regional, and global sustainability pressures and debates. The issue aimed to provide a platform for academics to present policy-relevant research and practical steps being taken towards realising genuine sustainable development within the GCC region, while teasing out the major obstacles to this process. This regional focus is motivated by the shared challenge of GCC countries of reforming carbon-based economies as well as their systems of high subsidisation and universal benefits in order to incorporate sustainable concerns, merit-based rules, and more targeted policies. While these challenges are shared with other Arab countries, as well as other countries exporting oil and gas, the origins, current patterns, and future directions of sustainability reforms in the GCC region reveal interesting lessons to be learnt. The countries of the GCC (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emi-rates (UAE)) are home to a large supply of fossil fuels and various types of minerals, and they are richwith regard to Arabic and Islamic culture and history. The economies of the GCC countries are characterised by their heavy dependence on exports of fossil fuels. These exports have generated significant revenues that have resulted in high per-capita income levels and decent living standards. Since the1970s, the dominant development view in the region centred on economic growth, wide job creation through public jobs for national citizens, a heavy reliance on immigrant workers, and an ecosystem for a comprehensive distribution of economic and social benefits among nationals. Owing to the significant revenues generated from oil and gas as well as the ambitious plans of the leadership withint he GCC, the GCC nations have transformed into very modern states during the past few decades. Recently, the fiscal sustainability of this model has been questioned in response to increasing demands from the growing population and economies for natural resources and for financial support. It is this factor that has made the biggest contribution to the sense of urgency regarding sustainability reforms in the region. Collectively, the GCC nations have a population of more than 40 million people. The region is one of the most urbanised in the world, with around 80% of the population residing in urban areas, mostly in close proximity to coasts where important ecosystems and cultural heritage are located. Roughly40% of the GCC region’s population are people born outside the region, of which the majority areAsian migrant labourers. Overall population growth is continuously increasing due to high fertilityrates among nationals and the influx of foreign workers. The high portion of foreign workers has given rise to various social and cultural debates related, for example, to identity, dependence, anddiversity. In response, GCC countries have sought to increase local capacities through education, nationalisation of human resources, or promotion of entrepreneurship ideals among the local population. To date, most sustainability research has been conducted in other regions, particularly in developed and emerging countries. We contend that there remains a distinct knowledge gap regarding the sustainability journey within other settings, and sought to rectify this through the valuable contributions in this special issue. These contributions have provided a much-needed regional focus and unravelled context-specific influences on the transition of GCC states towards a holistic sustainability agenda, discussing emerging trends and initiatives, and taking stock of practical lessons pertinent for the GCC region. Some of the obstacles to sustainability have been brought to the fore, including high energy subsidies and large footprints, the lack of renewables and low prioritisation of environmental sustainability, and the entanglement of socio-political realities with the realisation of truly sustainable policies and programmes. Papers in this special issue have highlighted how the GCC region has a special context in the wider Arab region in terms of being historically reluctant to effectively engage with the global sustainability agenda advocated by developed countries (Al-Saidi, Zaidan, and Hammad2019). This is despite theopenness of the region to adopt westernised concepts and embrace state-of-the-art technologies and design concepts (Al-Zo’by 2019; Zaidan2019). This apparent paradox is explained by the cautious approach of GCC countries towards sustainability in order to protect their carbon-based economies. The preferred path GCC countries are following is to learn from international best practices in order to address more pressing issues, such as the resilience of coastal areas, resource provision through clean technologies such as reuse and renewables options, addressing environmental risks to their coastal cities, or improving the sustainability engagement of local stakeholders (Abulibdeh,Al-Awadhi, and Al-Barwani2019; Abulibdeh, Zaidan, and Al-Saidi2019; Al-Awadhi, Charabi, andChoudri2019; Al-Saidi and Lahham2019; Hayman2019). In contrast, other regions in the Arabworld might not have the luxury of monetary revenues to selectively and gradually embrace sustain-ability. For example, due to rising demand and limited energy sources, Morocco has set a renewables target of more than 50% by 2030, far more ambitious than any GCC country. Furthermore, for countries such as Lebanon, the provision of sufficient food and basic education for growing popu-lations, including huge numbers of refugees, is a real challenge that spurs projects using innovations such as urban agriculture (Albakri and Shibly2019; Dehnavi and Suß2019). In contrast, access to food,energy, and water, alongside other comforts such as public jobs and good salaries, have been a prerogative of GCC citizens. In the GCC, sustainability is increasingly being perceived as a policy imperative of the twenty-first century, but also as a beneficial tool to sustain the basic functioning of a growing economy within healthy environmental boundaries. Furthermore, it represents a vehicle for states to gain legitimacy on the international scene in terms of being responsible towards the global community and caring about shared norms and challenges.
After decades of reluctance, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries are now more engaged within the global sustainability agenda. Though they historically sought to coordinate strategies, differences in environmental diplomacy and participation modes currently exist. This article examines these differences and links diplomacy to political and economic considerations during different eras. It maps positions, activism in multilateral agreements, and investigates recent changes in light of increased domestic pressures and the rise of formalised national visions. The increased global environmental engagement of GCC countries can yield better outcomes, but environmental pillars do not feature highly in their current visions.
This article analyses water, food, and energy security in the Gulf
Cooperation Council (GCC) countries using the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus approach. The innovative focus is on identifying past and future development-based drivers of water-energy-food integration in the region. The study presents a critical review of WEF nexus in the Gulf region and identifies links to sustainable development in this area. It concludes that integrating water, energy, and food resources within the nexus is crucial for GCC nations to accomplish resource security and sustainable development.
In this paper, economic and environmental impacts of energy efficiency programs associated with new and existing buildings are evaluated for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). In particular, the analysis considers optimized designs for new buildings as well as different energy retrofit programs for existing buildings are considered in the bottom-up analysis using archetypical building energy models located in five sites representing a wide range of KSA climates. In particular, the analysis presented in this paper provides specific estimations to the extent of the energy and demand savings that could be achieved in the building sector even under highly subsidized energy prices. It is found that even a basic energy retrofit program using low-cost energy efficiency measures implemented to the existing building stock can provide significant economic and environmental benefits. Indeed, a level 1 energy efficiency retrofit program targeting only the existing residential building stock could reduce electricity consumption by 10,054 GWh/year and peak demand by 2,290 MW and carbon emission by 7.611 million tons/year.
In the last two decades, resource cities of the Arab Gulf Region have been known to urban scholars and the general public for their extravagant, large-scale urban developments. These so-called megaprojects have allowed Gulf governments to both brand their nations globally and compete regionally and internationally with other global economic centers. However, as oil-rich Gulf countries have attempted to diversify their revenue stream away from fossil fuels, a new urban typology has emerged in their capitals to facilitate the transition to the knowledge-intensive economy. In continuity with previous research on megaprojects in the Gulf and Asian countries, we have called this new typology Knowledge Megaprojects (KMs). In this paper, by using as a reference point for comparisons the existing literature on knowledge developments in the West, we set to exemplify KMs in the Gulf region by analyzing the case of Education City—a large knowledge campus being developed by the Qatari government in Doha. One main result of this study is that KMs replicate the same shortcomings of other more mundane, extravagant megaprojects and thus are unlikely to provide the right urban setting to foster a sustainable transition to the post-carbon economy in the Gulf.
In this chapter, after reviewing the intertwined effects of geopolitical aspirations and the rapid urbanization of Gulf capitals, I will focus on Qatar Foundation’s Education City campus to analyse processes and politics of Knowledge Megaprojects in resource-rich countries of the Arab Gulf Region. I argue that while Education City is a new type of Knowledge Megaproject, in that it aims to be a knowledge hub that is better connected with other urban localities around the world to produce knowledge and innovation (Ascher 1995, Castells 1996), its outcomes are similar to those of other consumption megaprojects in the Gulf, i.e. social displacement, spatial seg- regation, and the privatization of urban space (Graham and Marvin 2001, Gellert and Lynch 2003, Bagaeen 2007).
Electric power is required to produce, treat, distribute, and recycle water while water is required to generate and consume electricity. Naturally, this energy-water nexus is most evident in multi-utilities that provide electricity and water but still exists when the nexus has distinct organizations as owners and operators. Therefore, the sustainability question that arises from energy-water trade-offs and synergies is very much tied to the potential for economies of scope. Furthermore, in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, multi-utilities are not only common, but also the nexus is particularly exacerbated by the high energy intensity of the water supply due to limited fresh water resources. The goal of this paper is to identify and motivate several opportunities for enhanced integrated operations management and planning in the energy-water nexus in multi-utilities in the MENA. It proceeds in four parts. First, an exposition of the energy-water nexus especially as it applies to the MENA is given. This discussion focuses on the electric power system, the potable water distribution system, and thirdly, the wastewater distribution system. Second, the paper shifts to opportunities in integrated operations management highlighted by an energy-water nexus supply- side economic dispatch illustration. Thirdly, the discussion shifts to planning opportunities for the energy-water nexus for the sustainable development of water and energy resources. A concluding section summarizes the policy implications of the identified opportunities.
Water availability on the continents is important for human health, economic activity, ecosystem function and geophysical processes. Because the saturation vapour pressure of water in air is highly sensitive to temperature, perturbations in the global water cycle are expected to accompany climate warming. Regional patterns of warming-induced changes in surface hydroclimate are complex and less certain than those in temperature, however, with both regional increases and decreases expected in precipitation and runoff. Here we show that an ensemble of 12 climate models exhibits qualitative and statistically significant skill in simulating observed regional patterns of twentieth-century multidecadal changes in streamflow. These models project 10-40% increases in runoff in eastern equatorial Africa, the La Plata basin and high-latitude North America and Eurasia, and 10-30% decreases in runoff in southern Africa, southern Europe, the Middle East and mid-latitude western North America by the year 2050. Such changes in sustainable water availability would have considerable regional-scale consequences for economies as well as ecosystems.
The members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), namely Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, and United Arab Emirates (UAE), are facing challenges to meet the growing electricity demand and reduce the associated hydrocarbon emissions. Recently, there has been a pressing need for a shift towards smart power grids, as smart grids can reduce the stress on the grid, defer the investments for upgrades, improve the power system efficiency, and reduce emissions. Accordingly, the goal of this paper is to delineate an overview of current smart grid efforts in the GCC region. First, we present a detailed overview of the current state of the power grids. Then, we classify the efforts into three broad categories: (i) energy trading and exchange through GCC interconnection; (ii) integration of renewable resources; and (iii) demand side management technologies for shaping the demand profile.
Over the last decade, governments of the small Arab emirates in the Gulf region have invested billions of dollars in an attempt to foster rapid growth in their capital cities: the results have been truly dramatic and many of the urban centres in the region have been physically transformed. One interesting aspect of this growth is the fact that rhetoric about sustainability has apparently gained traction in the region, as evidenced by a plethora of urban megaprojects that are all carefully branded as green and sustainable. Urban developments in the Gulf have stimulated a spate of scholarly literature in a number of disciplines, and the debates are ongoing; this article will contribute to the discussion in several ways. It begins with a description of recent economic developments in the Gulf, and goes on to explore and expand the modern phenomenon of ‘instant urbanism’ as it applies to the region. We then compare two notable megaprojects in Doha and one in Abu Dhabi, closely analysing the rhetoric of sustainable urban development that surrounds each. We show the limitations of this rhetoric and uncover the covert aims of these projects, and suggest some of their unintended outcomes.
Driven by globalization and market openings, many architecture and engineering firms have become global. By focusing on the urban megaprojects in the Gulf, a particular cultural and political context, this paper argues that such firms have a major role in the rapid urban transformation of Gulf countries and act as transfer agents of an international knowledge in the urban planning domain. However, the transfer is adapted by several context-related char- acteristics, such as local governance, urban knowledge, and regulatory framework. This paper explores the procedural adaptation of these firms to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in terms of internal structure, methodology, adopted tools, and interaction with the context. The level of learning that results from this transfer is also investigated.
This paper assesses the performance of Qatar and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in terms of their achievements towards becoming knowledge-based economies. This is done through a comparison against 17 benchmark countries using a four pillars’ framework comprising (1) information and communication technology, (2) education, (3) innovation, and (4) economy and regime. Results indicate that the UAE ranks slightly better than the median rank of the 19 compared countries while Qatar ranks somewhat below. Results also indicate that both countries lag considerably behind knowledge economy leaders, particularly evidenced in the innovation pillar. Policy recommendations are mainly addressed at further developing the two countries’ research culture as well as improving the incentives to attract top quality researchers and highly talented workers.
The objective of this study was to analyze long-term temperature-related phenomena in the eastern portion of the Middle East, focusing on the coastal region of Qatar. Extreme temperature indices were examined, which were defined by the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices, for Doha, Qatar; these indices were then compared with those from neighboring countries. The trends were calculated for a 30-year period (1983–2012), using hourly data obtained from the National Climatic Data Center. The results showed spatially consistent warming trends throughout the region. For Doha, 11 of the 12 indices studied showed significant warming trends. In particular, the warming trends were represented by an increase in the number of warm days and nights and a decrease in the number of cool nights and days. The high-temperature extremes during the night have risen at more than twice the rate of their corresponding daytime extremes. The intensity and frequency of hot days have increased, and the minimum temperature indices exhibited a higher rate of warming. The climatic changes in Doha are consistent with the region-wide heat-up in recent decades across the Middle East. However, the rapid economic expansion, increase of population since the 1990s, and urban effects in the region are thought to have intensified the rapidly warming climate pattern observed in Doha since the turn of the century.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia considers treated wastewater a major water source and aims to achieve 100% use of treated wastewater by 2025. This article reviews Saudi Arabia’s treated wastewater utilization status to date. It also highlights the key challenges facing the authorities, such as the substantial growth in demand for wastewater services; low coverage of the existing wastewater collection, treatment, and treated wastewater use systems; and the capital investment needed for infrastructure development. Finally, the article highlights the initiatives taken thus far to tackle these challenges and recommends further initiatives towards successful achievement of Saudi Arabia’s treated wastewater utilization objective.
This chapter presents a theoretical and evidence-based investigation of the contribution that national educational systems make to the development of and transition to a knowledge economy in the Arabian Gulf, generally, and Saudi Arabia, specifically. The challenges to creating an Arabian Gulf knowledge economy are twofold. One is a functional and structural challenge of developing a knowledge economy-oriented mass education system. The other is a cultural and contextual challenge of aligning Arabian Gulf expectations, traditions, and norms with institutionalized expectations for knowledge economies. The knowledge economy development challenge that is specific to national versus non-national Gulf populations, information and communication technology (ICT), and formal mass education systems is highlighted. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the role that national innovation systems play in knowledge economy development in the Arabian Gulf countries.
The development of projects for new eco-cities is rapidly becoming a global phenomenon. Alleged eco-cities are being built across a variety of spaces via processes of urbanisation triggering substantial environmental, social and economic impacts. This article investigates how new eco-city projects interpret and practice urban sustainability by focusing on the policy context that underpins their development. The article argues that projects for new eco-cities are shaped in loci by policy agendas tailored around specific economic and political targets. In these terms, the ideas and strategies of urban sustainability adopted by eco-city developers are understood as reflections of broader policy priorities. The case study employed in this article, Masdar City, reveals how the Emirati eco-city initiative is the product of local agendas seeking economic growth via urbanisation to preserve the political institutions of Abu Dhabi. Following the economic imperatives set by the ruling class, the Masdar City project interprets sustainability as ecological modernisation and practices urban environmentalism almost exclusively in economic terms. The article shows how the developers of Masdar City capitalise on sustainability by building an urban platform to develop and commercialise clean-tech products, and concludes that the Emirati alleged eco-city is an example of urban eco-modernisation: a high-tech urban development informed by market analysis rather than ecological studies.
Purpose
This paper aims at exploring the role of science, technology and innovation (STI) in transforming the United Arab Emirates (UAE) into a knowledge economy (KE) by initially assessing the country's achievements implementing the KE pillars. It further evaluates the country's STI capacity and competence in exercising adoption and diffusion of knowledge.
Design/methodology/approach
A situational analysis and a comparative approach were exploited to describe the UAE's position in terms of transition to a KE, highlighting weaknesses, strengths and opportunities. Related discussions were supported by data made available from several international sources. The country's worldwide performance was particularly matched against that of the other members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) together with two more Asian transformation economies and also a few examples from other Arab and Muslim countries.
Findings
Apparently, the UAE has made important progress in the implementation of the KE pillars and transitioning to the innovation‐driven stage, particularly at the macro‐economic environment and quality of infrastructure levels, notably the ICT sector. However, the county is facing several challenges that require concerted efforts and rigorous follow‐up. For instance, the UAE is lagging behind most transformation economies and some GCC countries when it comes to investment in education and R&D activities. This hurdle impeded the country's ability to absorb, adapt and create new technology and knowledge. As a result, the country's economy is experiencing a negative trade balance in foreign technology transfer. The comparative and situational analysis methodology adopted in the context concluded several lessons and policy remarks.
Originality/value
Using the most updated data, this exercise stems from the country's need to examine the current status, a necessary step for realization of new prospects and adoption and application of future policies and programs.
Abstract To minimize or at least substantially reduce damage to the natural resource
sustenance-base we urgently need institutional reform within modern society.
Environmental sociologists have different views as to which institutional traits can be
held primarily responsible for the environmental crisis. Examples include its capitalistic
or industrial character as well as the complex, highly administrated technological
system of modern society. We discuss these matters in the context of the theory of
"ecological modernization" as developed by the German sociologist Joseph Huber,
among others. To analyze the institutional reforms required for bringing human interaction
with the sustenance-base under rational ecological control, however, the theory
needs to be substantially modified and complemented in several respects. However,
restructuring the processes of production and consumption is only half the story.
The change to ecologically sound patterns of production and consumption is limited
by the dimension of the environmental crisis that has to do with nature as sustenancebase
and does not provide a solution to problems related to what we call the second
dimension of the environmental crisis: the changing role of nature as "intuited nature"
and the way people "deal with" these aspects of the environmental crisis
within everyday life. In this respect we propose that theories of modern society as a
risk-society should be given greater attention within environmental sociology.
This book provides a survey of technologies available to tackle the problems associated with climate change in the energy, water and food security nexus with a special focus on the Middle East. It is divided into three main sections. The energy Section consists of six chapters, the water section of seven chapters and finally the food security section has six chapters. The individual chapters are authored by experts and provide discussions and in-depth views on the current status of each topic.
The United Arab Emirates’ (UAE) hot climate, coupled with the extreme demographic and urban growth experienced over the past four decades, has shaped a built environment where energetic quality of construction has been superseded by the quantity of construction needed to support the country's growth. This development is further aggravated by the slow development of energetic building codes, as well as the subsidized cost of electricity. The result is that the UAE consistently leads the list of countries with the highest environmental footprint, and the electricity production required to drive building cooling constitutes the brunt of the emissions balance-sheet. The work presented here reviews primarily UAE-based research that addresses the effectiveness of passive building-envelope measures that reduce energy consumption. A number of measures have been developed in response to the increasing demands of emerging energy regulations, and include measures specific to the building envelope in the planning phase or as retrofit, including radiative, convective and conductive heat transfer through walls, windows, roof, as well as energy efficient natural ventilation techniques. This review is geographically restricted to the UAE as its development challenges are directly tied to its distinct economic growth pattern and specific legislation implemented to address energy efficiency. Results confirm the importance of the following factors for energy-optimized structures: building orientation, thermal insulation (which can generate in excess of 20% energy savings in particular in the residential context), appropriate glazing type and orientation in highly glazed office buildings (up to 55% energy savings reported), excessive light levels and glare, and natural ventilation, which can reduce energy consumption from a reported high of 30% in villas to up to 79% in a high rise office building using mixed mode ventilation.
This paper outlines the benefits of large scale energy efficiency programs for new and existing buildings in Oman. In particular, an energy productivity analysis for these programs is carried out to encompass their overall impact for Oman’s economy. Over 75% of the total electricity consumed in Oman is attributed to buildings with almost 50% is due to household. First, a comprehensive optimization analysis is carried out using whole-building energy simulation to determine the best energy efficiency measures suitable to improve the energy performance of buildings in Oman. The economic and environmental benefits of a wide range of energy efficiency measures technologies are then evaluated. In particular, the impacts of different energy efficiency retrofit levels of existing buildings are the estimated on the energy productivity indicators for the building sector of Oman. The results of the analysis indicate that the implementation of a government funded large scale energy retrofit program for the existing residential building stock is highly cost-effective. In particular, it is found that a basic large scale energy efficiency retrofit program can provide a reduction of 957 GWh in annual electricity consumption and 214 MW in peak demand as well as over 660 kilo-ton per year in carbon emissions.
The decline of petroleum resources is a real problem that needs to be addressed by the non-renewable energy policies applied by world governments. Renewable energies such as solar and wind sources, nuclear power, or hydrogen fuel cells may become viable alternatives to conventional fuel in the future. This study reviews the conditions of the world’s leading oil producers for the coming 50 years, i.e. the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. On the other hand, this study clarifies the share of renewable energies today and how it will continue to increase steadily.
This study demonstrates that the increase in oil and shale gas production will affect the GCC countries, especially kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), the largest oil exporter in the GCC. The study demonstrates that the GCC have failed in the separation between economic development and energy demand in the past decades. Therefore, the GCC economies are among the least efficient in the world. The growth in energy consumption is faster than economic growth in the region.
Sustainable energy in GCC states has been considered since 2008. Resource efficiency programmes, clean technology research, alternative energy projects, green building codes, green economy strategies, and public transport systems have become a part of mainstream news. The GCC states have started to have a stake in the transition to sustainable energy. The GCC states have already undertaken some policy, projects, and sector-wide efforts. These projects, if implemented, will boost the investment, and its effect on the environment will be apparent. Many of these policies and plans, however, still exist only on paper. The green building codes and national solar targets has been discussed.
This paper investigates the causal relationship between environmental quality, Foreign Direct Investment and economic growth using simultaneous-equation panel data VAR model a panel of 17 MENA countries over the period 1990–2012. Our empirical results pointed out that there is a unidirectional causality running from both FDI stocks and CO2 emissions to economic growth. They also indicate the existence of unidirectional causality running from economic growth to CO2 emissions. However, the results support the occurrence of unidirectional causality from FDI stocks to CO2 emissions. Our empirical result confirms the hypothesis of neutrality for the Environment-GDP link. There is bidirectional causality from emissions and economic growth, and a bidirectional causal relationship between FDI stocks and CO2 emissions. For the global panel, we show that the existence of a unidirectional causality running from FDI stocks to economic growth; a bidirectional causality between economic growth and CO2 emissions; as well as a bidirectional causality between FDI stocks and emissions.
Hydrocarbon-concentrated economies would have to determine prospects and opportunities for the development of a more sustainable future. The vast unexploited renewable energy sources (RES) potential of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states in conjunction with increased cash liquidity within new climate regimes is paving the way toward technologies based on renewables. In this respect, the objective of this paper is to highlight the current development of RES in the region that constitutes the GCC and to discuss the opportunities for wide diffusion and large-scale implementation. Finally, the key economic, regulatory, market, and technical RES exploitation driving forces are presented per country.
Qatar has one of the fastest growing and funded water sectors in the GCC region, with significant government funds being focused into water supply and sanitation. However, it is anticipated that there will be an increase in the demand on desalinated water supply due to increase in urban population and expansion of industrial and agriculture activities. This is expected to cause water shortages and a serious need for new water sources. There is a critical need to evaluate the efficacy of applying certain advanced technologies to improve the quality of Treated Sewage Effluent (TSE) for reuse in more applications in the industrial and agriculture sectors to reduce the demand on desalinated water. Treated sewage effluent (TSE) and wastewater have tremendous potential in supplementing the ever-growing water demand. It can be effectively recycled for both potable and non-potable purposes, provided it meets specific water quality requirement and type of application. Generation of treated wastewater is also cheaper and consumes lower energy when compared to desalinated water. Nevertheless, wastewater effluent contains a wide range of pathogens and other pollutants including chemicals of emerging concerns and heavy metals. Many studies have confirmed the abundance presence of pharmaceuticals, personal care products (PPCPs) and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in wastewater that could pose a severe threat to public health. Therefore, it is essential that wastewater effluents are adequately treated and monitored to ensure a safe supply and reuse of treated effluents.
Air pollution over six countries in the Arabian Peninsula (AP), including the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman, is shown to include particulates, greenhouse gases, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Distribution of the pollutants is strongly affected by major sandstorms that frequent the AP. Concentration of these pollutants is analyzed. Unprecedented infrastructure activities, overusing governmental subsidized energy, water desalination, heavy traffic in large cities, and cement plants are found to be the main reasons for the pollutants. In 2010, Qatar recorded the highest carbon dioxide (CO2) emission per capita with 40.31 metric tons. The KSA had the lowest CO2 per capita but recorded the highest emission resulting from the cement industry. Bahrain recorded the lowest cement industry emissions. Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) data retrieval over three sites in the AP depicted significant anthropogenic particles mixed with the desert dust over the AP.
Yasser Elsheshtawy explores Dubai's history from its beginnings as a small fishing village to its place on the world stage today, using historical narratives, travel descriptions, novels and fictional accounts by local writers to bring colour to his history of the city's urban development. With the help of case studies and surveys this book explores the economic and political forces driving Dubai's urban growth, its changing urbanity and its place within the global city network. Uniquely, it looks beyond the glamour of Dubai's mega-projects, and provides an in-depth exploration of a select set of spaces which reveal the city's 'inner life'.
Planners around the Arab Gulf states are increasingly drawing on narratives about “urban sustainability,” despite the fact that the explosive growth of urban centers in the Arabian desert largely defies the logic of sustainability. In this article, I consider how and with what effect these narratives have been deployed by various actors in Doha, Qatar. Eschewing a simple economistic reading, I highlight political geographic context and analyze how actors mobilize and rework these discourses. Drawing on mixed-methods fieldwork in Fall 2013, I illustrate how sustainability narratives are mobilized together with nationalist tropes about modernizing Qatar and building up the country’s international prestige, while preserving local traditions and culture through the built environment. With a focus on recent efforts to green Doha, this analysis sheds light on the disciplining function of nationalist discourses in the production and constitution of what it means to label development practices “green” in contemporary Qatar.
This paper aims to foster understanding and development of renewable energy technologies (RETs) in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, to develop a generic framework to assess renewable energy readiness (RE-readiness) of GCC countries as a case study and to calculate a country’s RE-readiness score and discuss the associated gaps and strengths. Towards achieving these objectives, this study essentially serves as a “benchmark” to assess each country’s RE-readiness, identifying gaps and providing recommendations to overcome the main barriers to integrate renewable energy projects for power generation.
This paper empirically investigates the effect of economic development on the energy intensity of human well-being (EIWB) in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) during the period (1995–2012). We employ a time-series cross-sectional Prais–Winsten regression model with panel-corrected standard errors (PCSE). We conclude that economic development has had a significant positive impact on EIWB during the period (1995–2012). The results indicate that the stress on the environment had increased in a noticeable manner from 1995 until 2006. However, over the period 2007–2012, the stress went back to the level observed in 1995. This observation is unfortunate from the perspective sustainable economics.
The building sector in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region is experiencing a rapid expansion owing to factors like economic growth, burgeoning population and modernization. The GCC countries are amongst the highest in the world in terms of per capita energy consumption and environmental emissions. The growth in the building sector is therefore having adverse implications on their energy and environmental scenarios. The article reviews the building sector in the GCC region focusing on two of its most important countries: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) and United Arab Emirates (UAE). In terms of ongoing investment in the building sector, population and size of economy, KSA and UAE have a collective share of 72%, 80% and 79% respectively in the entire GCC region. The article provides an insight into the policies and practices in the developed countries towards sustainable buildings. In order to drive their building sector towards a sustainable future, the present work recommends that given the wide ranging close ties between the GCC countries, European Union׳s joint action on sustainable development - as is reflected from the 20-20-20 target, a set of legal binding to seek: a 20% reduction in EU greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 levels; raising the share of EU energy consumption produced from renewable resources to 20%; a 20% improvement in the EU׳s energy efficiency - can be an interesting model to be considered.
Energy security was the major driver for several countries in the world to opt for alternative sources of energy and reduce CO2 emissions. Being blessed with oil and gas reserves, the situation in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries may look different, in a way that investments on Renewable Energy (RE) projects do not create adequate short-term financial returns. However, considering the extreme increase of energy demand locally caused by the industrial and economic development in the region will make seizing the emerging opportunity to develop RE projects a strategic decision. This paper targets regional decision-makers as well as multilateral stakeholders, in an attempt to formulate a set of recommendations on policies to promote RE deployment. It presents the results of the study that covered all GCC countries (Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and Oman). The document summarizes GCC countries’ RE targets and highlights the main projects and measures established to start this transition. Furthermore, this paper provides an updated and comprehensive overview of the RE situation in the GCC countries, and it includes an assessment of the region’s RE potential, current installed RE capacity and project pipeline, institutional and market frameworks. This study analyses the main gaps concerning RE deployment in the region while discussing the financial, fiscal, political, legislative, technological and environmental aspects. Based on that, a set of recommendations is proposed to fill their gaps and help achieving their politically endorsed targets particularly in the electricity sector. The proposed recommendations will help to accelerate the development rate of GCC RE market, support governments’ efforts towards fulfilling future RE targets, and overcome potential barriers. However such policies analysis should be carried out individually for each country of the GCC region taking into consideration the specificity of each market and economic strategies with more adapted measures.
In this paper, an overview of the Kuwaiti energy sector characteristics is presented to include its generating capacity as well as its end-use consumption over the last two decades. Moreover, a detailed analysis of the total and end-use energy consumption attributed to various building types is provided. The paper presents the specific regulations of the building energy conservation code of practice using its original version of 1983 and its revised version of 2010. The code enforcement mechanism is also outlined. Based on a detailed review of the reported literature, the potential energy savings opportunities and their cost-effectiveness for Kuwaiti buildings are discussed. Using a comprehensive review for reported analyses, the paper summarizes the economical and environmental benefits of improving energy efficiency for both new and retrofitted buildings in Kuwait. It is found that the 2010 revised version of the energy conservation code of practice can provide an additional 23% savings compared to the original version of the code developed and implemented in 1983. The implementation of an energy efficiency program to achieve the energy savings level set by 2010 energy conservation code of practice can achieve.
It is found that without a gradual reduction of energy subsidies, the establishment of a mandatory energy efficiency retrofit program in Kuwaiti through implementation of basic energy efficiency measures and improved operating strategies for the existing building stock can provide significant economical and environmental benefits to Kuwait as well as the creation of significant job opportunities.
Economic diversification is important for building sustainable economic growth. Thus, an economy that is highly dependent on income from a natural resource is in danger of instability or even collapse if the price of such commodity decreases in the global market. Additionally, economic diversification contributes positively to creating jobs, fighting corruption, and improving the institutional quality of countries. The Saudi government has issued 10 development plans since 1970, each covering five years, and economic diversification is a main objective of all these plans. This paper examines the government׳s efforts to diversify the economy using four variables: oil share of gross domestic product (GDP), share of private sector in GDP, oil exports as a percentage of the country׳s exports, and oil revenues as a percentage of total revenues. The current analysis covers nine development plans from 1970 through 2013. The analysis concludes that, after more than 40 years of development plans aiming to diversify the Saudi economy, oil is still the main engine driving the economy. The Saudi government needs to fully consider economic diversification as a tool for better governance.
Global climate change will have environmental, economic, and potentially even political and security impacts on Qatar and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region. Combined with rising population levels, climate change will aggravate existing challenges regarding water scarcity and food security and raise new challenges through adverse impacts on human health, economic development and the environment. In addition, the economic importance of oil and gas makes Qatar and other GCC countries economically vulnerable to global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.While addressing climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions presents challenges for Qatar and the GCC, it is also an opportunity which could underpin a diversification of Qatar’s economy and lead to the development of low-carbon technologies such as carbon capture and storage (CCS), energy efficiency technologies and alternative energy technologies.This report reviews a wide variety of considerations for low-carbon transformation and energy reform in Qatar and the GCC region. The report contains four chapters focusing on climate change, CCS, energy efficiency, and solar and other alternative energies. Each chapter contains specific recommendations for actions that Qatar and the GCC could take to address concerns about greenhouse gas emissions while at the same time support the development of a range of new energy sources and technologies that would provide environmental and economic benefits for the region and the world.
This paper assesses the technical and economic performance of PV technology integrated into residential buildings in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. It highlights the value of PV electricity for the GCC society from the perspective of consumers, utilities and environment. Through a systematic modelling analysis it is shown that the efficiency of PV system drops by 4–6% due to high range of module temperature and also a change in power output due to high ambient temperatures. Consequently, the outputs of horizontal and vertical PV modules are found to be less than estimates based on standard test conditions. Economically, this study shows that building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems are not viable in GCC countries and cannot compete with conventional electricity sources on a unit cost basis. From a society point of view, however, the integration of PV technology into buildings would have several benefits for the GCC countries, including: first, savings in capital cost due to central power plants and transmission and distribution processes; second, an increase in the exported oil and natural gas used for electricity generation; and third, a reduction in the CO2 emissions from conventional power plants. When these considerations are taken into account then BIPV should become a feasible technology in GCC countries.
The magnitude and variability of warming of air and the solar dimming/brightening phenomenon are investigated for Bahrain. The temperature records show highly significant warming trends through six months of the year (April-September) for absolute maximum (AbsTx), and through five months (April-July and October) for absolute minimum (AbsTn). Greater warming overwhelms the daytime extremes over the nocturnal ones and the hot, dry part of the year than the cool, wet season, leading to significant widening range between AbsTx and AbsTn. The highest recorded temperature reveals an alarming warming rate of 0.60°C decade −1 . Almost exclusively above-average values characterise the last 15 years, with the year 2010 set as the hottest within the study period. Accompanying this warming climate has been increasing variability of the within-year monthly temperatures. Although two statistical tests agree on significant solar dimming only for July and November, the data do reveal a return to decreased sunshine since 2002/2003. Adoption of serious measures would be needed to overcome the anticipated future environmental insecurity resulting from climate warming.
We provide a comparison of the theoretical and actual energy requirements of forward osmosis and reverse osmosis seawater desalination. We argue that reverse osmosis is significantly more energy efficient and that forward osmosis research efforts would best be fully oriented towards alternate applications. The underlying reason for the inefficiency of forward osmosis is the draw-dilution step, which increases the theoretical and actual energy requirements for draw regeneration. As a consequence, for a forward osmosis technology to compete with reverse osmosis, the regeneration process must be significantly more efficient than reverse osmosis. However, even considering the optimisation of the draw solution and the benefits of reduced fouling during regeneration, the efficiency of an optimal draw regeneration process and of reverse osmosis are unlikely to differ significantly, meaning the energy efficiency of direct desalination with reverse osmosis is likely to be superior.
Although Gulf economic development has drawn much attention from international banks and consultancies, there is limited integrated research into the region's long-term institutional and sectoral development and hence its long term geoeconomic significance. The aim of this article, is to point out the limited diversification of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) economies. For this purpose, six indicators that quantify core concepts of GCC hydrocarbon-based economies have been integrated in a synthetic index that signalize the high concentration of GCC economies and compares them with the economies of Germany, France, and Norway.
The demand of freshwater has surpassed the renewable limit and new water sources are associated with an intensive use of energy. Coincidence between scarcity of water and availability of solar radiation makes solar energy the most suitable option to mitigate the water deficit. This paper analyzes the use of energy for decentralized water production using membrane desalination systems fed with solar energy. An analysis is performed based on experimental results from the most advanced commercial prototypes of different technologies of membrane distillation using various configurations, i.e., air-gap, permeate-gap and vacuum; with flat-plate and spiral-wound membranes. The systems operate with thermal energy, although there is some electrical consumption for pumping and in some cases for sustaining vacuum. The thermal energy requirements per unit volume of water produced are assessed in each case, considering the effect of different operational conditions like the temperature regime and the salinity of the input water.