The Negative Effects of Digital Technology Usage on Children’s Development and Health

Abstract

Today, children and adolescents are growing up exposed to both traditional and modern technology. While it is known that the increase in the use of traditional technology, such as television and its content, have negative effects on children’s development and health, studies have shown such modern technologies as smartphones, tablets, and computers that have been developed and become increasingly widespread over the past decade to be beneficial and to constitute health risks for children. It seems that children’s inappropriate use of such technological devices in terms of content, duration, frequency, and the posture they adopt while using them pose a variety of health risks, including developmental problems, musculoskeletal problems, physical inactivity, obesity, and inadequate sleep quality. This study reviews the literature on the clinical problems that digital technology use has on children. In order for children and adolescents to
adopt a healthy life style, it is important to monitor the time, frequency, and content viewed while using technological devices and to ensure that children have or develop adequate physical activity opportunities, healthy eating habits, proper sleep cycles, and nurturing social environment.

Full text

ADDICTA: THE TURKISH JOURNAL ON ADDICTIONS
Copyright © 2018  Turkish Green Crescent Society
http://addicta.com.tr/en/
ISSN 2148-7286  eISSN 2149-1305
Autumn 2018  5(2)  13–21
Extended Abstract
Abstract
Today, children and adolescents are growing up exposed to both traditional and modern technology. While
it is known that the increase in the use of traditional technology, such as television and its content, have
negative effects on children’s development and health, studies have shown such modern technologies as
smartphones, tablets, and computers that have been developed and become increasingly widespread over the
past decade to be beneficial and to constitute health risks for children. It seems that children’s inappropriate
use of such technological devices in terms of content, duration, frequency, and the posture they adopt
while using them pose a variety of health risks, including developmental problems, musculoskeletal
problems, physical inactivity, obesity, and inadequate sleep quality. This study reviews the literature on
the clinical problems that digital technology use has on children. In order for children and adolescents to
adopt a healthy life style, it is important to monitor the time, frequency, and content viewed while using
technological devices and to ensure that children have or develop adequate physical activity opportunities,
healthy eating habits, proper sleep cycles, and a nurturing social environment.
Keywords
Health • Technology • Child • Risk • Addiction
To cite this article: Mustafaoğlu, R., Zirek, E., Yasacı, Z., & Razak Özdinçler, A. (2018). The negative effects of digital
technology usage on children’s development and health. Addicta: The Turkish Journal on Addictions. Advance online
publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.15805/addicta.2018.5.2.0051
The Negative Effects of Digital Technology Usage on
Children’s Development and Health*
* This is an extended abstract of the paper entitled “Dijital Teknoloji Kullanımının Çocukların Gelişimi ve Sağlığı Üzerine
Olumsuz Etkileri” published in Addicta: The Turkish Journal on Addictions.
Manuscript Received: November 29, 2017 / Accepted: March 15, 2018 / OnlineFirst: April 30, 2018.
1 Department of Neurological Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Division of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Faculty of
Health Sciences, Istanbul University, Istanbul Turkey. Email: ahiska_1944@hotmail.com
2 Division of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Institute of Health Sciences, Istanbul University, Istanbul Turkey. Email:
zireke@gmail.com
3 Correspondence to: Zeynal Yasacı, Department of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Institute of Health Sciences, Istanbul
University, İstanbul Turkey. Email: zeynalyasaci@gmail.com
4 Department of Neurological Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Division of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Faculty of
Health Sciences, Istanbul University, Istanbul Turkey. Email: arzuozdincler@hotmail.com
Rüstem Mustafaoğlu1
Istanbul University
Emrah Zirek2
Istanbul University
Zeynal Yasacı3
Istanbul University
Arzu Razak Özdinçler4
Istanbul University

ADDICTA: THE TURKISH JOURNAL ON ADDICTIONS
14
Digital technology’s integration into the daily lives of children and its inuence
on their cognitive, emotional, and social development continues to increase day by
day. Technology offers many opportunities for children to play, explore, and learn
(Linebarger & Piotrowski, 2009). Since children’s brains are extremely exible in
this period, these learning opportunities constitute a critical developmental point in
children and through the natural exploration and discovery of their own world, new
connections between neurons are formed and existing connections are strengthened
(Blanchard & Moore, 2010).
Use of Digital Technology among Children
In the United States, more than 1,000 parents reported on a nationwide telephone
interview that their children under the age of 6 used digital technology an average of
1.58 hours a day, played outside an average of 2.01 hours, and spent 39 minutes reading.
In the study, it was found that 36% of the children lived in a house where the television
was constantly on, 45% of the parents used television as a means to keep their children
occupied when they had important jobs to complete, and 27% of the children between
4 and 6 used a computer every day (Rideout, Vandewater, & Wartella, 2003).
Technological Tools and Their Effects
Television. Television plays an active role in children’s world due to its visually
and auditory captivating and entertaining nature. Watching an excessive amount of
television and videos by children less than two years of age has been reported to
signicantly inuence language development and behavioral disturbances (Chonchaiya
& Prusanandaonda, 2008; Mistry, Minkovitz, Strobino, & Borzekowski, 2007).
Computer. Similar to television, computers have become an indispensable element
in children’s lives. Spending too much time on the computer from an early age can
negatively affect academic success due to the low concentration, lack of attention
and disorganization, undeveloped language skills, creativity, and imagination seen in
children as a result of excess computer use (Cordes & Miller, 2000; Palmer, 2015).
Internet. Studies on the internet’s possible effects on early literacy activities
have explored whether the internet offers intentional and unintentional learning
opportunities, and the impact of the internet on early literacy is still not fully understood
(Coiro, Knobel, Lankshear, & Leu, 2008). Easy access to illegal, violent, and sexual
content, communication with dangerous people, and excessive dependence on games
constitute only a few of these signicant risks (Iscibasi, 2011).
Video games. Although much has been written about the effects of video games
on children and adolescents, there has been little work done on the effects of video
games on young children (Bailey, West, & Anderson, 2011). Violent video games

Mustafaoğlu, Zirek, Yasacı, Razak Özdinçler / The Negative Effects of Digital Technology Usage on Children’s Development...
15
can lead children to aggressive behavior and inhibit creative game play (Provenzo,
1992). Studies have shown that there is a strong link between violence in video
games and real life violence, and that these games lead to social isolation and lack of
communication and communication with children (Kutner & Olson, 2008).
Smart phones. An increased use of smartphones has been reported to be associated
with passive aggressive, unprotected, socially incompatibility, obsession, addiction,
and anxiety. It has been reported that those children engaged with their smartphone
during school negatively affect both own and their classmates’ attention (Sevi,
Odabaşıoğlu, Genç, Soykal, & Ozturk, 2014; Yen et al., 2009).
Digital toys. As digital toys multiply and become an indispensable part of
children’s daily lives, the increasingly restricted use of outdoor playgrounds may
negatively affect the normal development of children. For normal development,
children need to spend their time with their peers (Rosen et al., 2014).
Developmental and Health Risks of Digital Technology Usage
Digital Technology Usage and Developmental/Behavioral Risks
The use of digital technology has been associated with lack of attention, aggressive
behaviors, physical inactivity, obesity, and sleep problems in preschool and school
age children. The overuse of digital technology causes children to use their time
inefciently. Concern should also be paid to the cognitive and emotional effects that
these technologies have on the development of children (Brown, 2011). The overuse
of technology in early childhood has been found to be related to cognitive, language,
and social/emotional delays in community-based researches (Pagani, Fitzpatrick,
Barnett, & Dubow, 2010).
Digital Technology Usage and Musculoskeletal System
A steady increase in the use of digital technology at home and in school environments
has been reported to cause an increase in musculoskeletal problems (Harris &
Straker, 2000; Kelly, Dockrell, & Galvin, 2009). In addition to psychological factors
such as monitoring anxiety and somatic complaints (headache and abdominal pain)
(Harris, Straker, Pollock, & Smith, 2015), musculoskeletal disorders are associated
with such physical factors as sex, age, body mass index (BMI), and exposure to
sedentary activities. For this reason, playing with toys should be encouraged in
place of watching screens in order to minimize the risks of potential musculoskeletal
disorders and sedentary lifestyles, and conscious instruction manuals for tablets and
other technological devices should be provided to parents and caregivers (Howie,
Coenen, Campbell, Ranelli, & Straker, 2017).

ADDICTA: THE TURKISH JOURNAL ON ADDICTIONS
16
Digital Technology Usage and Physical Inactivity
Evidence that the use of technology has changed physical activity is doubtful, but
it is being investigated as to whether the use of excessive technology, in particular,
takes the place of night’s sleep. In a study on children aged 4-11 years, it was found
that 37% of the children had a low active play level, 65% had high screening time
(television, computer, tablet, etc.), and 26% had a combination of these two (Anderson
& Whitaker, 2010). Another study found that only 4 out of 10 children aged 6-11 years
met the recommendations of the guidelines for both physical activity and screening
duration, further showing that increased age was associated with decreased physical
activity in children (Fakhouri, Hughes, Brody, Kit, & Ogden, 2013).
Digital Technology Usage and Obesity
The rate of obesity in children has tripled in the last 20 years. For healthy
development of children, 3-4 hours of daily physical activity and social interaction
are needed (Hancox & Poulton, 2006). Excessive use of technology is linked to
lifetime obesity and cardiovascular risk and this relationship is now observed starting
from early childhood (Bel-Serrat et al., 2013). The excessive use of social media
during the pre-school period is associated with low, but signicant increases in BMI,
laying the groundwork for weight gain in later childhood (Cox et al., 2012).
Digital Technology Usage and Sleep Quality
Keeping a television, computer, or mobile phone in the bedroom during early
childhood is associated with less sleep (Cespedes et al., 2014). Children who make
excessive use of social media or who sleep with mobile devices in their bedrooms
are at increased risk of experiencing sleep disturbances (Levenson, Shensa, Sidani,
Colditz, & Primack, 2016). Poor sleep quality in adolescents is associated with
extreme mobile phone use while the number of devices in a bedroom and poor sleep
quality are associated with excessive internet use and duration of digital technology
usage prior to sleep in pre-adolescents (Bruni et al., 2015). The use of electronic
devices during the daytime can also affect sleep quality (Hysing et al., 2015).
Conclusion
It is clear that the developments in digital technology and research on these products
will continue. Technological developments are largely variable, and the effects also
depend on the type of device, the type of use, the amount and extent of use, and
the characteristics of the child or adolescent. Since children are currently growing
up using highly personalized technology, parents should strive to ensure that they
are able to implement and benet from the principles of balanced nutrition, quality
sleep, adequate physical activity, and positive social interaction for healthy growth

Mustafaoğlu, Zirek, Yasacı, Razak Özdinçler / The Negative Effects of Digital Technology Usage on Children’s Development...
17
and development by making plans according to the age, health status, character, and
level of development of their children. However, parents should also be aware of
their duties and responsibilities in modeling appropriate technology use while also
striking a balance between technology usage and other activities.
Parents should be aware that their technological device use may also have negative
effects on their children. It should be known that children under the age of four
playing games alone rather than being exposed to technological devices will help
the child develop creative thinking and individual problem solving skills. The total
technology usage time during the day (e.g., watching television and playing games
on computers, tablets, and mobile phones) should be limited to 1-2 hours. Care must
be taken that children aged 2 years or younger not be allowed to face the screen.
Television and technological equipment connected to the internet should be kept
away from the child’s bedroom. If one’s children are allowed to use technological
devices, the use of these devices must be subject to certain rules. Enforce a mealtime
and bedtime “ban” for technological devices, including cell phones. Reasonable, but
rm, rules for cell phones, television, computer games, internet, and social media use
should be established and these rules should not be compromised.
Kaynakça/References
Adams, M. (2005). The promise of automatic speech recognition for fostering literacy growth in
children and adults. In M. McKenna, L. Labbo, R. Kieffer, & D. Reinking (Eds.), Handbook of
literacy and technology (Vol. 2., pp. 109–128). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Akçay, D. & Özcebe, H. (2012). Okul öncesi eğitim alan çocukların ve ailelerinin bilgisayar oyunu
oynama alışkanlıklarının değerlendirilmesi. Çocuk Dergisi, 12(2), 66–71.
Anderson, S. E., & Whitaker, R. C. (2010). Household routines and obesity in US preschool-aged
children. Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics, 125(3), 420–428.
Arısoy, Ö. (2009). İnternet bağımlılığı ve tedavisi. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 1(1), 55–67.
Arnas, Y. A. (2005). 3-18 yaş grubu çocuk ve gençlerin interaktif iletişim araçlarını kullanma
alışkanlıklarının değerlendirilmesi. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology,
4(4), 59–66.
Bailey, K., West, R., & Anderson, C. A. (2011). The inuence of video games on social, cognitive,
and affective information processing. In J. Decety & J. Cacioppo (Eds.), The Oxford handbook
of social neuroscience (pp. 1001–1011). Oxford University Press.
Bel-Serrat, S., Mouratidou, T., Santaliestra-Pasías, A. M., Iacoviello, L., Kourides, Y. A., Marild,
S., & Stomfai, S. (2013). Clustering of multiple lifestyle behaviours and its association to
cardiovascular risk factors in children: The IDEFICS study. European Journal of Clinical
Nutrition, 67(8), 848–854.
Blanchard, J., & Moore, T. (2010). The digital world of young children: Impact on emergent
literacy. London, UK: Pearson Foundation.
Bracken, S. S., & Fischel, J. E. (2008). Family reading behavior and early literacy skills in preschool
children from low-income backgrounds. Early Education and Development, 19(1), 45–67.

ADDICTA: THE TURKISH JOURNAL ON ADDICTIONS
18
Braithwaite, I., Stewart, A. W., Hancox, R. J., Beasley, R., Murphy, R., Mitchell, E. A., & Group,
I. P. T. S. (2013). The worldwide association between television viewing and obesity in children
and adolescents: Cross sectional study. Plos One, 8(9), 1–8.
Breen, R., Pyper, S., Rusk, Y., & Dockrell, S. (2007). An investigation of children’s posture and
discomfort during computer use. Journal of Ergonomics, 50(10), 1582–1592.
Brown, A. (2011). Media use by children younger than 2 years. Journal ofthe American Academy
of Pediatrics, 128(5), 1040–1045.
Bruni, O., Sette, S., Fontanesi, L., Baiocco, R., Laghi, F., & Baumgartner, E. (2015). Technology
use and sleep quality in preadolescence and adolescence. Journal of clinical sleep medicine:
Ofcial Publication of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, 11(12), 1433.
Cameron, A., Stralen, M., Brug, J., Salmon, J., Bere, E., ChinAPaw, M., & Moreno, L. (2013).
Television in the bedroom and increased body weight: Potential explanations for their
relationship among European schoolchildren. Pediatric Obesity, 8(2), 130–141.
Cespedes, E. M., Gillman, M. W., Kleinman, K., Rifas-Shiman, S. L., Redline, S., & Taveras, E.
M. (2014). Television viewing, bedroom television, and sleep duration from infancy to mid-
childhood. Journal ofthe American Academy of Pediatrics, 133(5), 1163–1171.
Chaput, J. P., Klingenberg, L., Astrup, A., & Sjödin, A. M. (2011). Modern sedentary activities
promote overconsumption of food in our current obesogenic environment. Obesity Reviews,
12(5), e12–e20.
Chassiakos, Y. L. R., Radesky, J., Christakis, D., Moreno, M. A., & Cross, C. (2016). Children and
adolescents and digital media. Journal ofthe American Academy of Pediatrics, 138(5), 3–6.
Chonchaiya, W., & Pruksananonda, C. (2008). Television viewing associates with delayed language
development. ActaPaediatrica, 97(7), 977–982.
Coiro, J., Knobel, M., Lankshear, C., & Leu, D. J. (2008). Central issues in new literacies and
new literacies research. In J. Coiro, M. Knobel, C. Lankshear, & D. J. Leu (Eds.), Handbook of
research on new literacies (pp. 1–21). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Taylor & Francis.
Cordes, C., & Miller, E. (2000). Fool’s gold: A critical look at computers in childhood. Maryland,
MD: Alliance for Childhood.
Cox, R., Skouteris, H., Rutherford, L., Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M., & Hardy, L. L. (2012). Television
viewing, television content, food intake, physical activity and body mass index: A cross-
sectional study of preschool children aged 2-6 years. Health Promotion Journal of Australia,
23(1), 58–62.
De Jong, E., Visscher, T., HiraSing, R., Heymans, M., Seidell, J., & Renders, C. (2013). Association
between TV viewing, computer use and overweight, determinants and competing activities of
screen time in 4-to 13-year-old children. International Journal of Obesity, 37(1), 47–53.
Della Sofferenza, O. C. S., & Rotondo, S. G. (2006). Age-dependent association of exposure to
television screen with children’s urinary melatonin excretion. Neuroendocrinology Letters,
27(1), 73–80.
eMarketer. (2016, November 23). Mobile phone, smartphone usage varies globally. Retrieved from
https://www.emarketer.com/Article/Mobile-Phone-Smartphone-Usage-Varies-Globally/1014738
Fakhouri, T. H., Hughes, J. P., Brody, D. J., Kit, B. K., & Ogden, C. L. (2013). Physical activity and
screen-time viewing among elementary school-aged children in the United States from 2009 to
2010. Jama Pediatrics, 167(3), 223–229.

Mustafaoğlu, Zirek, Yasacı, Razak Özdinçler / The Negative Effects of Digital Technology Usage on Children’s Development...
19
Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Fossella, J., Flombaum, J. I., & Posner, M. I. (2005). The activation of
attentional networks. Neuroimage, 26(2), 471–479.
Fields, D. A., & Kafai, Y. B. (2009). A connective ethnography of peer knowledge sharing and
diffusion in a tween virtual world. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative
Learning, 4(1), 47–68.
Gortmaker, S. L., Must, A., Sobol, A. M., Peterson, K., Colditz, G. A., & Dietz, W. H. (1996).
Television viewing as a cause of increasing obesity among children in the United States, 1986-
1990. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 150(4), 356–362.
Granic, I., Lobel, A., & Engels, R. C. (2014). The benets of playing video games. American
Psychologist, 69(1), 66–78.
Grifths, M. (1995, February). Technological addictions. Clinical Psychology Forum, 71, 14–19.
Gürcan, A., Özhan, S. & Uslu, R. (2008). Dijital oyunlar ve çocuklar üzerindeki etkileri. Ankara:
Başbakanlık Aile ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Genel Müdürlüğü.
Hancox, R. J., & Poulton, R. (2006). Watching television is associated with childhood obesity: But
is it clinically important? International Journal of Obesity, 30(1), 171–175.
Harris, C., & Straker, L. (2000). Survey of physical ergonomics issues associated with school children’s
use of laptop computers. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 26(3), 337–346.
Harris, C., Straker, L., Pollock, C., & Smith, A. (2015). Children, computer exposure and
musculoskeletal outcomes: The development of pathway models for school and home computer-
related musculoskeletal outcomes. Journal of Ergonomics, 58(10), 1611–1623.
Hinkley, T., Verbestel, V., Ahrens, W., Lissner, L., Molnár, D., Moreno, L. A., & Russo, P. (2014).
Early childhood electronic media use as a predictor of poorer well-being: A prospective cohort
study. Jama Pediatrics, 168(5), 485–492.
Howie, E. K., Coenen, P., Campbell, A. C., Ranelli, S., & Straker, L. M. (2017). Head, trunk and
arm posture amplitude and variation, muscle activity, sedentariness and physical activity of 3
to 5 year-old children during tablet computer use compared to television watching and toy play.
Applied Ergonomics, 65, 41–50.
Hysing, M., Pallesen, S., Stormark, K. M., Jakobsen, R., Lundervold, A. J., & Sivertsen, B. (2015).
Sleep and use of electronic devices in adolescence: Results from a large population-based study.
BMJ Open, 5, e006748.
İşçibaşı, Y. (2011). Bilgisayar, internet ve video oyunları arasında çocuklar. Selçuk Üniversitesi
İletişim Fakültesi Akademik Dergisi, 7(1), 122–130.
Jacobs, K., Hudak, S., & McGiffert, J. (2009). Computer-related posture and musculoskeletal
discomfort in middle school students. Work, 32(3), 275–283.
Johnson, J. E., & Christie, J. F. (2009). Play and digital media. Computers in the Schools, 26(4), 284–289.
Kelly, G., Dockrell, S., & Galvin, R. (2009). Computer use in school: Its effect on posture and
discomfort in schoolchildren. Work, 32(3), 321–328.
King, A. L. S., Valença, A. M., Silva, A. C., Sancassiani, F., Machado, S., & Nardi, A. E. (2014).
“Nomophobia”: Impact of cell phone use interfering with symptoms and emotions of individuals
with panic disorder compared with a control group. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in
Mental Health, 10, 28–35.
Kutner, L., & Olson, C. (2008). Grand theft childhood: The surprising truth about violent video
games and what parents can do. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

ADDICTA: THE TURKISH JOURNAL ON ADDICTIONS
20
Laurson, K. R., Eisenmann, J. C., Welk, G. J., Wickel, E. E., Gentile, D. A., & Walsh, D. A. (2008).
Combined inuence of physical activity and screen time recommendations on childhood
overweight. The Journal of Pediatrics, 153(2), 209–214.
Levenson, J. C., Shensa, A., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., & Primack, B. A. (2016). The association between
social media use and sleep disturbance among young adults. Preventive Medicine, 85, 36–41.
Li, S., Jin, X., Wu, S., Jiang, F., Yan, C., & Shen, X. (2007). The impact of media use on sleep
patterns and sleep disorders among school-aged children in China. Sleep, 30(3), 361–367.
Linebarger, D. L., & Piotrowski, J. T. (2009). TV as storyteller: How exposure to television
narratives impacts at–risk preschoolers’ story knowledge and narrative skills. British Journal of
Developmental Psychology, 27(1), 47–69.
Mistry, K. B., Minkovitz, C. S., Strobino, D. M., & Borzekowski, D. L. (2007). Children’s television
exposure and behavioral and social outcomes at 5.5 years: Does timing of exposure matter.
Journal ofthe American Academy of Pediatrics, 120(4), 762–769.
Mitchell, J., Pate, R., Beets, M., & Nader, P. (2013). Time spent in sedentary behavior and changes
in childhood BMI: A longitudinal study from ages 9 to 15 years. International Journal of
Obesity, 37(1), 54–60.
Morahan-Martin, J. (2005). Internet abuse: Addiction? Disorder? Symptom? Alternative
explanations. Social Science Computer Review, 23(1), 39–48.
Nathanson, A. I., Sharp, M. L., Aladé, F., Rasmussen, E. E., & Christy, K. (2013). The relation
between television exposure and theory of mind among preschoolers. Journal of Communication,
63(6), 1088–1108.
Oates, S., Evans, G., & Hedge, A. (1998). A preliminary ergonomic and postural assessment of computer
work settings in American Elementary Schools. Computers in the Schools, 14(3), 4–12.
Pagani, L. S., Fitzpatrick, C., Barnett, T. A., & Dubow, E. (2010). Prospective associations between
early childhood television exposure and academic, psychosocial, and physical well-being by
middle childhood. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 164(5), 425–431.
Pala, F. K., Pala, F. K. & Erdem, M. (2015). Dijital oyun tercihi ve oyun tercih nedeni ile cinsiyet,
sınıf düzeyi ve öğrenme stili arasındaki ilişkiler üzerine bir çalışma. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi
Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 12(2), 53–71.
Palmer, S. (2015). Toxic childhood: How the modern world is damaging our children and what we
can do about it. Los Angeles, CA: Orion.
Pearson, N., & Biddle, S. J. (2011). Sedentary behavior and dietary intake in children, adolescents,
and adults: A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 41(2), 178–188.
Plowman, L., McPake, J., & Stephen, C. (2010). The technologisation of childhood? Young children
and technology in the home. Children & Society, 24(1), 63–74.
Provenzo, J. E. (1992). What do video games teach. Education Digest, 58(4), 56–58.
Rideout, V., Saphir, M., Tsang, V., & Bozdech, B. (2011). Zero to eight children’s media use in
America. San Francisco, CA: Common Sense Media.
Rideout, V. J., Vandewater, E. A., & Wartella, E. A. (2003). Zero to six: Electronic media in the
lives of infants, toddlers and preschoolers. California, CA: Henry J Kaiser Family Foundation.
Rosen, L. D., Lim, A., Felt, J., Carrier, L. M., Cheever, N. A., Lara-Ruiz, J., & Rokkum, J. (2014). Media
and technology use predicts ill-being among children, preteens and teenagers independent of the
negative health impacts of exercise and eating habits. Computers in Human Behavior, 35, 364–375.

Mustafaoğlu, Zirek, Yasacı, Razak Özdinçler / The Negative Effects of Digital Technology Usage on Children’s Development...
21
Sandercock, G. R., Ogunleye, A., & Voss, C. (2012). Screen time and physical activity in youth:
Thief of time or lifestyle choice? Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 9(7), 977–984.
Sevi, O. M., Odabaşıoğlu, G., Genç, Y., Soykal, İ. & Öztürk, Ö. (2014). Cep telefonu envanteri:
Standardizasyonu ve kişilik özellikleriyle ilişkisinin incelenmesi. Bağımlılık Dergisi, 15(1), 15–22.
Sevindik, T. (2011). Determining the attitudes of the preservice teachers about distance education
applications. Energy Education Science and Technology Part B-Social and Educational Studies,
3(4), 527–534.
Sisson, S. B., Broyles, S. T., Baker, B. L., & Katzmarzyk, P. T. (2010). Screen time, physical
activity, and overweight in US youth: National Survey of Children’s Health 2003. Journal of
Adolescent Health, 47(3), 309–311.
Straker, L. M., Coleman, J., Skoss, R., Maslen, B. A., Burgess-Limerick, R., & Pollock, C. M.
(2008). A comparison of posture and muscle activity during tablet computer, desktop computer
and paper use by young children. Ergonomics, 51(4), 540–555.
Strasburger, V. C., Jordan, A. B., & Donnerstein, E. (2010). Health effects of media on children and
adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics, 125(4), 756–767.
Toran, M., Ulusoy, Z., Aydın, B., Deveci, T. & Akbulut, A. (2016). Çocukların dijital oyun kullanımına
ilişkin annelerin görüşlerinin değerlendirilmesi. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 24(5), 22–63.
Tuncer, A., & Yalçın, S. (1999). Multimedia and children in Turkey. Journal ofthe American
Academy of Pediatrics, 41, 27–34.
Tüzün, Ü. (2002). Gelişen iletişim araçlarının çocuk ve gençlerin etkileşimi üzerine etkisi. Düşünen
Adam, 15(1), 46–50.
Van den Bulck, J., & Van Mierlo, J. (2004). Energy intake associated with television viewing in
adolescents: A cross sectional study. Appetite, 43(2), 181–184.
Vandewater, E. A., Rideout, V. J., Wartella, E. A., Huang, X., Lee, J. H., & Shim, M.-S. (2007).
Digital childhood: Electronic media and technology use among infants, toddlers, and
preschoolers. Journal ofthe American Academy of Pediatrics, 119(5), 1006–1015.
Vijakkhana, N., Wilaisakditipakorn, T., Ruedeekhajorn, K., Pruksananonda, C., & Chonchaiya, W.
(2015). Evening media exposure reduces night–time sleep. ActaPaediatrica, 104(3), 306–312.
Wen, L. M., Baur, L. A., Rissel, C., Xu, H., & Simpson, J. M. (2014). Correlates of body mass index
and overweight and obesity of children aged 2 years: Findings from the healthy beginnings trial.
Obesity a Research Journal, 22(7), 1723–1730.
Wethington, H., Pan, L., & Sherry, B. (2013). The Association of screen time, television in the
bedroom, and obesity among school–aged youth: 2007 National Survey of Children’s Health.
Journal of School Health, 83(8), 573–581.
Yavuzer, H. (2003). Çocuğu tanımak ve anlamak. İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi.
Yen, C.-F., Tang, T.-C., Yen, J.-Y., Lin, H.-C., Huang, C.-F., Liu, S.-C., & Ko, C.-H. (2009).
Symptoms of problematic cellular phone use, functional impairment and its association with
depression among adolescents in Southern Taiwan. Journal of Adolescence, 32(4), 863–873.
Yüzer, T. V. (2006). Günlük yaşamda internet ve medya ilişkileri. Selçuk Üniversitesi İletişim
Fakültesi Akademik Dergisi, 4(2), 86–96.
Zimmerman, F. J., & Christakis, D. A. (2007). Associations between content types of early media
exposure and subsequent attentional problems. Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics,
120(5), 986–992.