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Influence of Adding Single-Joint Exercise to a Multijoint Resistance Training Program in Untrained Young Women

DOI:10.1519/JSC.0000000000002624
Authors:
Matheus Barbalho
Matheus Barbalho
Matheus Barbalho
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Paulo Gentil at Universidade Federal de Goiás
Paulo Gentil
Rodolfo Raiol at Centro Universitário do Pará (CESUPA)
Rodolfo Raiol
James Fisher at Solent University
James Fisher
  • Solent University
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Abstract

Barbalho, M, Gentil, P, Raiol, R, Fisher, J, Steele, J, and Coswig, V. Influence of adding single-joint exercise to a multijoint resistance training program in untrained young women. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2018-The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of adding single-joint (SJ) exercises to a multijoint (MJ) resistance training (RT) program on muscle strength and anthropometric measures of young women. Twenty untrained women were divided into a group that performed only MJ exercises or a group that performed both SJ and MJ exercises (MJ + SJ). Before and after 8 weeks of training, the participants were tested for 10 repetition maximum (10RM). Flexed arm circumference and triceps and biceps skinfold thickness were also measured. Both groups significantly decreased biceps (-3.60% for MJ and -3.55% for MJ + SJ) and triceps skinfold (-3.05% for MJ and -2.98% for MJ + SJ), with no significant difference between them. Flexed arm circumference significantly increased in both groups; however, increases in MJ + SJ (4.39%) were significantly greater than MJ (3.50%). Increases in 10RM load in elbow extension (28.2% for MJ and 28.0% for MJ + SJ), elbow flexion (29.8% for MJ and 28.7% for MJ + SJ), and knee extension (26.92% for MJ and 23.86% for MJ + SJ) were all significant and not different between groups. The results showed that adding SJ exercises to an MJ RT program resulted in no benefits in muscle performance or anthropometric changes in untrained women.
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... Gentil et al. described a similar improvement in elbow flexor strength following protocols containing exclusively MULTI vs SINGLE exercises in untrained men after ten weeks (13). Similar results were also reported by Barbalho et al. and Gentil et al., in which untrained participants submitted to a MULTI plus SINGLE program showed no additional increment in strength compared to an only MULTI training protocol (2,14). In addition, Giannakopoulos et al. reported a greater increase in internal and external rotation peak torque for MULTI vs. SINGLE groups (15). ...
... Additionally, differences in subjects' training levels between these two studies should be highlighted (untrained vs trained subjects). Barbalho et al. and Gentil et al. aimed to verify whether adding SINGLE exercises to an exclusive MULTI exercises program would enhance upper-and lower-limb neuromuscular adaptations in untrained women and men, respectively (2,14). One of the experimental groups performed only MULTI exercises, while the other one performed the same protocol with two additional SINGLE exercises. ...
... Authors observed no further strength increments for MULTI plus SINGLE, compared to the exclusively MULTI protocol. It is important to note that these researches, in contrast to the present study, did not have an exclusively SINGLE group and used untrained participants, which limits possible comparisons (2,14). ...
Multi-joint vs. Single-joint Resistance Exercises Induce a Similar Strength Increase in Trained Men: A Randomized Longitudinal Crossover Study
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2020
The type of exercise is a relevant resistance training-variable that might be manipulated in order to induce significant increases in muscle strength. The aim of this study was to analyze the influence of multi-joint vs single-joint resistance exercises on maximal strength. Sixteen resistance-trained men (age: 23.1 ± 4.4 years; body mass: 86.0 ± 12.8; height: 177.9 ± 6.4 cm; training experience: 4.2 ± 3.4 years) performed one of the following training protocols for 6 weeks: MULTI, consisting of only multi-joint exercises or SINGLE, consisting of only single-joint exercises. Subjects were then submitted to a 3-week washout period, before being submitted to the other protocol for another 6 weeks. A linear periodization model was adopted in which external load was increased and the repetition range was decreased every two weeks. Maximal dynamic strength of bench press (1RMBENCH) and squat exercises (1RMSQUAT), a percentage variation of total load lifted (∆TLL) and internal training load (ITL) were measured. Similar increases in 1RMBENCH (MULTI: 10.8%, p < 0.001; SINGLE: 5.5%, p < 0.001) and 1RMSQUAT (MULTI: 19.7%, p < 0.001; SINGLE: 19.0%, p < 0.001) were observed after the MULTI and SINGLE protocols. A decrease in TLL was detected for both exercise protocols; however, the SINGLE protocol induced a greater decrease, compared to the MULTI protocol (-35 ± 11% vs -42 ± 5%, respectively; p = 0.026). A greater ITL for the MULTI was observed when compared to the SINGLE (12.1%; p < 0.001). In conclusion, resistance training protocols with different exercise modalities seem to produce similar strength increases in resistance-trained men.
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... At the end of the experimental period, only the groups performing low and moderate repetitions presented significant increments in cross-sectional area (CSA) of type I, IIa and IIx muscle fibers, highlighting that lower intensities might be sub-optimal in promoting increases in muscle size. Conversely, Schoenfeld et al. (95) observed no differences in the magnitude of muscle thickness increase when comparing low (25-35RM) and moderate (8)(9)(10)(11)(12) loads. However, larger increments in maximal strength were observed for the latter condition. ...
... It is important to note that the majority of the studies assessing the effects of exercise order on muscular adaptations recruited untrained (7)(8)(9)36) or only recreationally trained (33, 99,101) International Journal of Exercise Science http://www.intjexersci.com 922 subjects. ...
Manipulating Resistance Training Variables to Induce Muscle Strength and Hypertrophy: A Brief Narrative Review
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  • Jul 2022
International Journal of Exercise Science 15(4): 910-933, 2022. The regular practice of resistance training (RT) has been shown to induce relevant increases in both muscle strength and size. In order to maximize these adaptations, the proper manipulation of RT variables is warranted. In this sense, the aim of the present study was to review the available literature that has examined the application of the acute training variables and their influence on strength and morphological adaptations of healthy young adults. The information presented in this study may represent a relevant approach to proper training design. Therefore, strength and conditioning coaches may acquire a fundamental understanding of RT-variables and the relevance of their practical application within exercise prescription.
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... At the end of the experimental period, only the groups performing low and moderate repetitions presented significant increments in cross-sectional area (CSA) of type I, IIa and IIx muscle fibers, highlighting that lower intensities might be sub-optimal in promoting increases in muscle size. Conversely, Schoenfeld et al. (95) observed no differences in the magnitude of muscle thickness increase when comparing low (25-35RM) and moderate (8)(9)(10)(11)(12) loads. However, larger increments in maximal strength were observed for the latter condition. ...
... It is important to note that the majority of the studies assessing the effects of exercise order on muscular adaptations recruited untrained (7)(8)(9)36) or only recreationally trained (33, 99,101) International Journal of Exercise Science http://www.intjexersci.com 13 subjects. ...
Manipulating Resistance Training Variables to Induce Muscle Strength and Hypertrophy: A Brief Narrative Review
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2022
International Journal of Exercise Science 15(4): X-Y, 2022. The regular practice of resistance training (RT) has been shown to induce relevant increases in both muscle strength and size. In order to maximize these adaptations, the proper manipulation of RT variables is warranted. In this sense, the aim of the present study was to review the available literature that has examined the application of the acute training variables and their influence on strength and morphological adaptations of healthy young adults. The information presented in this study may represent a relevant approach to proper training design. Therefore, strength and conditioning coaches may acquire a fundamental understanding of RT-variables and the relevance of their practical application within exercise prescription.
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... Of note, there were three out-101 comes in Barbalho et al. [74] for which the standard de-102 viation of change scores was zero (i.e., perfectly homoge-103 neous effects), meaning d z was undefined and could not be 104 included. We observed z-scores as high as 34 1. Volume women [69] 2. Volume men [70] 3. Squat vs. hip thrust [71] 4. MJ/SJ Untrained women [72] 5. MJ/SJ Trained women 2 [73] 6. MJ/SJ Trained women [74] 7. MJ/SJ Men [75] 8. MJ/SJ Bodybuilders [76] [62]. than what was observed in the real data (i.e., P < 1×10 −6 ). ...
... of Barbalho's studies[72,74] for which we had ac-238 cess to the raw data, there were patterns in the numbers. 239Specifically, the flexed arm circumference data were, in orgroup 2 245 in the second study. ...
Improbable data patterns in the work of Barbalho et al.
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Jul 2020
We describe improbable data patterns in the work of Barbalho et al.
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... To evaluate muscular hypertrophy, the CSA was calculated by measuring the skinfold and circumference of the waist, hip, triceps, biceps, and thigh [40,41]. The waist and hip circumferences were measured twice with a tapeline, with the participant standing on a flat floor, the average was used, and the unit was measured to 0.1 cm. ...
Effects of 12 Weeks of Resistance Training on Body Composition, Muscle Hypertrophy and Function, Blood Lipid Level, and Hemorheological Properties in Middle-Aged Obese Women
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2023
Background: This study investigated the effects of 12-week resistance training on body composition, blood pressure, blood lipid levels, muscle cross-sectional area (CSA), isokinetic muscle function, and hemorheological properties in middle-aged obese women. Methods: Twenty-eight obese women with a mean age of 50.79 ± 5.80 years were randomly assigned to the control (CON, n = 13) or experimental (EXP, n = 15) group. The EXP group underwent a resistance training program composed of warm-up, main resistance exercise (deadlift, barbell squat, seated leg extension, and lying leg curl, bench press, preacher bench biceps curl, barbell rowing, and dumbbell shoulder press), and cool-down. The resistance exercise consisted of three sets of 8–10 repetitions (reps) performed with 70–80% of 1-rep maximum, and reps and sets were increased every 3 weeks. The training frequency was 80 min, 3 days per week for 12 weeks. The CON group maintained their daily lifestyle without training. All participants underwent measurements of body composition (weight, body mass index, lean body mass, fat mass, and % body fat), blood pressure (systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, mean arterial pressure, and pulse pressure), blood lipid levels (triglycerides, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol), CSA of the muscles (quadriceps, hamstring, and total thigh muscle), isokinetic muscle function (peak torque [PT], relative PT, mean power, and total work [TW]), and hemorheological properties (erythrocyte deformability and aggregation) before and after 12 weeks of training. Results: The EXP group showed a significant improved muscle function, including PT (p < 0.001), relative PT (p < 0.001) in extension 60°/s, TW (p < 0.001) in extension 180°/s, and TW (p = 0.018) in flexion 180°/s. Regarding hemorheological properties, the EXP group showed significant improvement in erythrocyte aggregation (p < 0.001) and deformability (p < 0.001). Conclusions: The present study verified that our resistance training program resulted in greater muscle function, decreased fat mass, and improved hemorheological properties. Clinical Trial Registration: This study was registered with cris.nih.go.kr (No. KCT0007412).
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... In regards to RT, a study focusing on multi-joint vs. single joint RT regimens in untrained females, found no differences in strength and muscle gains between the groups (Barbalho et al., 2020). Similar results have been reported for untrained males (Gentil et al., 2013). ...
Considerations for Sex-Cognizant Research in Exercise Biology and Medicine
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2022
As the fields of kinesiology, exercise science, and human movement developed, the majority of the research focused on male physiology and extrapolated findings to females. In the medical sphere, basing practice on data developed in only males resulted in the removal of drugs from the market in the late 1990s due to severe side effects (some life-threatening) in females that were not observed in males. In response to substantial evidence demonstrating exercise-induced health benefits, exercise is often promoted as a key modality in disease prevention, management, and rehabilitation. However, much like the early days of drug development, a historical literature knowledge base of predominantly male studies may leave the exercise field vulnerable to overlooking potentially key biological differences in males and females that may be important to consider in prescribing exercise (e.g., how exercise responses may differ between sexes and whether there are optimal approaches to consider for females that differ from conventional approaches that are based on male physiology). Thus, this review will discuss anatomical, physiological, and skeletal muscle molecular differences that may contribute to sex differences in exercise responses, as well as clinical considerations based on this knowledge in athletic and general populations over the continuum of age. Finally, this review summarizes the current gaps in knowledge, highlights the areas ripe for future research, and considerations for sex-cognizant research in exercise fields.
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... Their results indicated that the group that added the isolated exercises had a greater increase in arm circumference (+5.2%) in comparison to the group that only trained with compound exercises (+4.0%). In another study employing a similar design in female participants, results also indicated that both groups increased arm circumference, but the gain was higher in the group that added the isolated exercises compared to the group that trained only with compound movements (+4.4% vs +3.5%, respectively) 20 . In a study performed with previously trained individuals, França et al. ...
Resistance training exercise selection: efficiency, safety and comfort analysis method
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Full-text available
  • Jan 2021
Manipulation of resistance training variables has been shown to have a substantial effect on muscular adaptations. A major variable in this process is exercise selection. In addition to the effectiveness of a given exercise to recruit the target muscle groups, safety considerations and individual comfort during execution of a lift should be considered. The correct biomechanics of the chosen exercise will assist in promoting desired muscle adaptations, while proper safety procedures will reduce risk of injury. Lifting comfort will facilitate enjoyment and foster adherence to the program. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to offer guidelines for selection of resistance training exercises based on the Efficiency, Safety, and Comfort Analysis Method (ESCAM).
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... The role of RT alone or combined with nutritional strategies on body composition in various populations has been vastly investigated and almost all of them reported an increase in lean mass and a decrement in fat mass or BFP [2,[48][49][50][51] through several mechanisms (e.g. myogenic pathways, hormones and cytokines, mechanical tension, muscle damage, metabolic stress, etc.) [52]. ...
Impact of saffron (Crocus Sativus Linn) supplementation and resistance training on markers implicated in depression and happiness levels in untrained young males
Article
  • Feb 2021
Background We aimed to assess the effects of six weeks of resistance training (RT) combined with saffron supplementation on markers implicated in depression as well as happiness levels in untrained young males. Materials and methods Untrained young male participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups: RT + saffron supplement (RS; n = 14) or RT + placebo (RP; n = 14). For 6 weeks, participants in the RS group took one 150 mg pill of pure saffron immediately after each RT session and at the same time on non-training days. Those assigned to the RP group took a dextrose pill. Concentrations of Anandamide (AEA), 2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), serotonin, dopamine, β-endorphin (beta-endorphin), tryptophan, happiness levels (via questionnaire), and body composition were assessed before and after the 6 weeks of whole-body supervised RT (4x/week, 3 sets using 60-70% of 1-repetition maximum [1-RM]). Results AEA (0.5 ng/ml), 2-AG (0.04 ng/ml), dopamine (0.7 ng/ml), and β-endorphin (9.4 pg/ml) concentrations significantly increased in the RS group (P<0.05) while no changes were detected in the RP group. Serotonin (RS = 0.5 ng/mL and RP = 0.09 ng/mL) concentrations and happiness levels significantly increased in both groups with greater changes in RS group while tryptophan concentrations remained unchanged (P> 0.05). In addition, both groups significantly increased muscular endurance with greater changes in RS group (P<0.05). Conclusion Six weeks of RT combined with saffron supplementation improved AEA, 2-AG, dopamine, β-endorphin, and serotonin concentrations. Moreover, the addition of saffron supplement to chronic RT results in greater improvements in happiness levels than RT alone.
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... For upper body muscles, it has been well established that SJ and MJ promote similar levels of muscle activation [15,16], as well as similar increases in muscle 2 of 10 size and strength [17,18]. Moreover, other studies showed that, in general, the addition of SJ exercises to an RT program involving MJ exercises might not be necessary to bring optimal results in terms of muscle size and strength [19][20][21][22][23][24]. This brought the suggestion that one can chose between SJ and MJ based on personal preferences and practical aspects, without any negative impact on the results obtained from the intervention. ...
Multi-and Single-Joint Resistance Exercises Promote Similar Plantar Flexor Activation in Resistance Trained Men
Article
Full-text available
The present study aimed to compare soleus, lateral, and medial gastrocnemius muscles activation during leg press and calf raise exercises in trained men. The study involved 22 trained men (27.1 ± 3.6 years, 82.7 ± 6.6 kg, 177.5 ± 5.2 cm, 3.6 ± 1.4 experience years) who performed one set of each exercise using a 10-repetition maximum (10RM) load in a counterbalanced randomized order and separated by 10 min of rest. The electromyographic signal was measured for the three major plantar flexors: soleus, medial, and lateral gastrocnemius. A comparison between exercises showed that the mean adjusted by peak values during the leg press were 49.20% for the gastrocnemius lateralis, 51.31% for the gastrocnemius medialis, and 50.76% for the soleus. Values for calf raise were 50.70%, 52.19%, and 51.34% for the lateral, medial gastrocnemius, and soleus, respectively. There were no significant differences between exercises for any muscle (lateral gastrocnemius (p = 0.230), medial gastrocnemius (p = 0.668), and soleus (p = 0.535)). The present findings suggest that both leg press and calf raises can be used with the purpose to recruit triceps surae muscles. This bring the suggestion that one can chose between exercises based on personal preferences and practical aspects, without any negative impact on muscle activation.
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... However, even measures of muscle thickness (MT) using the US may be prohibitive with respect to costs, at least in comparison to another widely used approach: Arm circumference (AC). MT has gained popularity, especially in the scientific literature [7]; however, AC is still a popular and reliable method for estimating changes in muscle size during RT [8][9][10][11][12][13][14]. Indeed, simple anthropometric measurements have been shown to be able to detect the presence of a change in muscle size similarly well compared to MRI [15]. ...
Evaluating the results of resistance training using ultrasound or flexed arm circumference: A case for keeping it simple?
Article
Full-text available
Background: The present study aimed to compare changes in muscle size when measured by ultrasound (US) muscle thickness (MT) and arm circumference (AC) using data from young men. Methods: The investigation involved data from three previous studies involving a total of 67 young men who performed resistance training (RT) for 10-12 weeks. Before and after the training period, elbow flexor MT was evaluated by US and AC was measured. We conducted two-stage individual patient data random-effects meta-analyses using both Frequentist and Bayesian hypothesis testing. One-sample analyses examined the absence or presence of a change in both MT and AC, and paired analyses examined whether these differed from one another or equivalent. Results: One-sample analysis supported that both AC (+4.9%; tp=0.0002; BF10=6,255,759,515) and MT (+3.9%; P<0.0001; BF10=7,958,241,773) suggested that change in muscle size had occurred. Frequentist paired comparisons suggested that the estimates of change between both AC and MT measures did not significantly differ (P=0.1092), but were not statistically equivalent. Bayesian paired comparisons, however, suggested that MT estimates where greater in magnitude than AC estimates for change in muscle size (BF10=16.39174). Conclusion: Both MT and AC are able to detect RT-induced changes in muscle size of the upper arm, but that the magnitude of changes may differ. Thus, care should be taken when comparing or combining estimates using either approach. Relevance for patients: The use of AC might be considered as a practical and low-cost alternative to detect changes in muscle size.
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Effects of linear and daily undulating periodized resistance training programs on measures of muscle hypertrophy: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2017
Background Periodization is an important component of resistance training programs. It is meant to improve adherence to the training regimen, allow for constant progression, help in avoiding plateaus, and reduce occurrence and severity of injuries. Previous findings regarding the effects of different periodization models on measures of muscle hypertrophy are equivocal. To provide a more in-depth look at the topic, we undertook a systematic review of the literature and a meta-analysis of intervention trials comparing the effects of linear periodization (LP) and daily undulating periodization (DUP) resistance training programs on muscle hypertrophy. Materials and Methods A comprehensive literature search was conducted through PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (NDLTD) and Open Access Theses and Dissertations (OATD). Results The pooled standardized mean difference (Cohen’s d) from 13 eligible studies for the difference between the periodization models on muscle hypertrophy was −0.02 (95% confidence interval [−0.25, 0.21], p = 0.848). Conclusions The meta-analysis comparing LP and DUP indicated that the effects of the two periodization models on muscle hypertrophy are likely to be similar. However, more research is needed in this area, particularly among trained individuals and clinical populations. Future studies may benefit from using instruments that are more sensitive for detecting changes in muscle mass, such as ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging.
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Clarity in Reporting Terminology and Definitions of Set End Points in Resistance Training
Article
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  • Jan 2017
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Frequency: The Overlooked Resistance Training Variable for Inducing Muscle Hypertrophy?
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A Review of the Acute Effects and Long-Term Adaptations of Single- and Multi-Joint Exercises during Resistance Training
Article
Full-text available
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High- and Low-Load Resistance Training: Interpretation and Practical Application of Current Research Findings
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Our current state of knowledge regarding the load (lighter or heavier) lifted in resistance training programmes that will result in ‘optimal’ strength and hypertrophic adaptations is unclear. Despite this, position stands and recommendations are made based on, we propose, limited evidence to lift heavier weights. Here we discuss the state of evidence on the impact of load and how it, as a single variable, stimulates adaptations to take place and whether evidence for recommending heavier loads is available, well-defined, currently correctly interpreted or has been overlooked. Areas of discussion include electromyography amplitude, in vivo and in vitro methods of measuring hypertrophy, and motor schema and skill acquisition. The present piece clarifies to trainers and trainees the impact of these variables by discussing interpretation of synchronous and sequential motor unit recruitment and revisiting the size principle, poor agreement between whole-muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) and biopsy-determined changes in myofibril CSA, and neural adaptations around task specificity. Our opinion is that the practical implications of being able to self-select external load include reducing the need for specific facility memberships, motivating older persons or those who might be less confident using heavy loads, and allowing people to undertake home- or field-based resistance training intervention strategies that might ultimately improve exercise adherence.
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Determining Strength: A Case for Multiple Methods of Measurement
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Full-text available
Muscle strength is often measured through the performance of a one-repetition maximum (1RM). However, we that feel a true measurement of ‘strength’ remains elusive. For example, low-load alternatives to traditional resistance training result in muscle hypertrophic changes similar to those resulting from traditional high-load resistance training, with less robust changes observed with maximal strength measured by the 1RM. However, when strength is measured using a test to which both groups are ‘naive’, differences in strength become less apparent. We suggest that the 1RM is a specific skill, which will improve most when training incorporates its practice or when a lift is completed at a near-maximal load. Thus, if we only recognize increases in the 1RM as indicative of strength, we will overlook many effective and diverse alternatives to traditional high-load resistance training. We wish to suggest that multiple measurements of strength assessment be utilized in order to capture a more complete picture of the adaptation to resistance training.
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NSCA Strength and Conditioning Professional Standards and Guidelines
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  • Oct 2017
This is the updated version of the nsca strength and conditioning professional standards and guidelines. the last update was performed in 2009.
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There are no no-responders to low or high resistance training volumes among older women
Article
  • Sep 2017
Objectives: To assess the prevalence of non-responders to different tests and to compare the effects of different resistance training (RT) volumes on muscle strength, anthropometric and functional performance of older women. Methods: Three hundred seventy six women performed 12weeks of RT with either low or high volume (LV, 71.29±5.77years and HV 69.73±5.88years, respectively). Both groups performed the same exercises, and all parameters were held constant except for the number of sets performed per week. LV performed 8-12 for upper and 4-6 for lower body, while HV performed 16-20 and 8-10, respectively. Before and after the training period, the participants were tested for bench press and leg press 1RM, 30-s chair stand, 30-s arm curl, six-minute walk test, sit and reach, body weight and waist circumference. Results: Both groups significantly improved in all strength and functional tests and reduced their body weight and waist circumference. ANOVA revealed higher gains in the leg press 1RM, 30-s arm curls and 6-min walk test for the HV group and higher increases in the results of the sit and reach test for the LV group. However, the differences were negligible and may be attributable to a type I error due to the large sample size. Non-responsiveness was not apparent in any subject, as a positive response on at least one outcome was present in every participant. Conclusions: Our results suggest that RT, even at low volume, improves waist circumference, muscle strength and physical function in the older population, with no evidence of non-responsiveness. Therefore, we should not be restrictive in prescribing this type of exercise to this population.
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Let's talk about sex: Where are the young females in blood flow restriction research?
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  • Oct 2016
Low-load resistance exercise with the blood flow restriction (BFR) has been shown to increase muscle size similar to that of traditional high-load resistance training. Throughout the BFR literature, there is a vast difference between the quantity of young females included in the literature compared to young males, older males and older females. Therefore, the purpose of this minireview is to discuss the underrepresentation of young females in the BFR literature and review the potential physiologic reasons as to why they may have been excluded. In conclusion, the female menstrual cycle, a normal physiological occurrence, is presumably the reason as to why majority of young females are excluded from participation in BFR studies. Instead of excluding females, we recommend that BFR studies should include both sexes and plot the results separately to determine whether a sex difference exists.
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The problem Of muscle hypertrophy: Revisited
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In this paper we revisit a topic originally discussed in 1955, namely the lack of direct evidence that muscle hypertrophy from exercise plays an important role in increasing strength. To this day, long-term adaptations in strength are thought to be primarily contingent on changes in muscle size. Given this assumption, there has been considerable attention placed on programs designed to allow for maximization of both muscle size and strength. However, the conclusion that a change in muscle size affects a change in strength is surprisingly based on little evidence. We suggest that these changes may be completely separate phenomena based on: (1) the weak correlation between the change in muscle size and the change in muscle strength after training; (2) the loss of muscle mass with detraining, yet a maintenance of muscle strength; and (3) the similar muscle growth between low-load and high-load resistance training, yet divergent results in strength. Muscle Nerve, 2016.
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