Principals’ Attitudes towards International Exchange Activities in the Context of Taiwan

Abstract

Globalization has rendered frequent and convenient cross-country interaction and thus led to the emergence of international education. Drawing on an international education white paper specifically designed for students at primary and secondary schools in Taiwan, this study explores attitudes of principals towards the advantages, disadvantages and implementation challenges of the white paper. A self-developed questionnaire was utilized and distributed to 120 principals in Taiwan with a return rate of approximately 74%. The results indicate that while many benefits brought by international exchange activities have been recognized, some unexpected outcomes have also been identified as possible hindrances for students’ learning and development. Extra exchange activities may increase students’ pressure for learning; instructors’ subjective international outlook may cause misleading international cognition, and focusing on powerful countries may lead to a narrowed international outlook. In addition, some implementation challenges explored in this research also manifest the existing administrative problems embedded in school systems such as lack of qualified teaching staff and administrators and lack of mutual cooperation among faculty. These findings can be referenced by Taiwanese policy makers to improve or revamp the white paper in the future.

Full text

International Journal of Business and Management; Vol. 13, No. 6; 2018
ISSN 1833-3850 E-ISSN 1833-8119
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education
97
Principals’ Attitudes towards International Exchange Activities in the
Context of Taiwan
Wei-Ting Huang1
1 The University of Edinburgh, UK
Correspondence: Wei-Ting Huang, The University of Edinburgh, UK. E-mail: pooh04193324@gmail.com
Received: March 20, 2018 Accepted: May 4, 2018 Online Published: May 15, 2018
doi:10.5539/ijbm.v13n6p97 URL: https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v13n6p97
Abstract
Globalization has rendered frequent and convenient cross-country interaction and thus led to the emergence of
international education. Drawing on an international education white paper specifically designed for students at
primary and secondary schools in Taiwan, this study explores attitudes of principals towards the advantages,
disadvantages and implementation challenges of the white paper. A self-developed questionnaire was utilized
and distributed to 120 principals in Taiwan with a return rate of approximately 74%. The results indicate that
while many benefits brought by international exchange activities have been recognized, some unexpected
outcomes have also been identified as possible hindrances for students’ learning and development. Extra
exchange activities may increase students’ pressure for learning; instructors’ subjective international outlook may
cause misleading international cognition, and focusing on powerful countries may lead to a narrowed
international outlook. In addition, some implementation challenges explored in this research also manifest the
existing administrative problems embedded in school systems such as lack of qualified teaching staff and
administrators and lack of mutual cooperation among faculty. These findings can be referenced by Taiwanese
policy makers to improve or revamp the white paper in the future.
Keywords: globalization, international education, international exchange activities, internationalist, globalist
1. Introduction
With the advance of modern transportation and electronic communication devices, cross-border interaction has
become exponentially convenient and frequent as geographical distance has gradually ceased to be an obstacle
(Kotz, 2002). The blurring boundaries between countries have stimulated global flows of human capital,
economics, politics, knowledge, fashion and culture (Stier, 2003). Under such a globalised society, an academic
field has emerged – international education.
While many practitioners recognize that international education helps cultivate a global mind-set and
intercultural competences for future generations, opponents consider this form of education an instrument for
affluent groups to strive forth in the ever-burgeoning globalised society (Joris, 2006). Nevertheless, the idea of
internationalising education systems has been identified by numerous academics as a fundamental step for
succeeding generations to function in the globalised world (Yang, 2002; Qiang, 2003; Altbach and Knight, 2007;
Kreber, 2009).
Despite existing debates, Taiwan remains in need of international education considering its limited opportunities
for international activities and cultural exchanges (Chen, 2015). To cultivate an international mind-set and
competencies in human capital, the government of Taiwan has recognised the need to implement educational
reform targeting young students for international education as the up-coming globalised generation.
Consequently, the government published a white paper on international education for primary and secondary
schools in 2012, declaring a determination to establish a foundation of international education (ibid.); including,
the promotion of internationalised curriculum, additional training for qualified teachers, implementing
international exchange activities and an internationalisation of learning environments.
Informed by a thorough review of previous research on this policy, while the evaluation in its practice has been
widely discussed, attitudes of individuals among the senior hierarchy of schools towards the effects of this policy
have been underestimated, especially the perceived negative effects. In addition, although some challenges for
the implementation are raised in the white paper, there is also no research focusing on exploring individuals’

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attitudes towards these challenges. With the White Paper (2012) in mind, this study focuses on ‘international
exchange activities’ as this aspect has been the most widely implemented by schools in recent years (Huang,
2015). To explore this aspect three research questions have emerged:
1. What are the attitudes of Taiwanese principals towards the positive effects of international exchange
activities for students of primary and secondary education?
2. What are the attitudes of Taiwanese principals towards the negative effects of international exchange
activities for students of primary and secondary education?
3. What are the attitudes of Taiwanese principals towards the challenges to undertake international exchange
activities for students of primary and secondary education?
4. Do the attitudes of these principals differ significantly by their gender, educational backgrounds, type of
schools and level of schools?
2. Literature Review
2.1 Development of International Education
The establishment of the Spring Grove School in London (1866) and the International School of Geneva (1924)
are deemed as examples of the founders of international education (Hayden and Thompson, 2000; Hill, 2001).
According to Sylvester (2002), the Spring Grove School in London was founded based on curriculums that
explicitly espoused the ideals of internationalism, which has strived to provide students with opportunities to
participate in a programme that instils greater fraternity, more tolerance and world peace in students. While for
the International School of Geneva, the primary task is to assist students in securing employment in the League
of Nations (International School of Geneva, 2015). In addition, it is claimed that there was a need to cater for
students with diverse socio-cultural backgrounds and prepare them for higher education (ibid.). This context
represents a perspective that lays emphasis on the development of individual competency. However, the ideology
of international education was not fostered until the second world war when there was a commitment to avoid
further conflict by means of international education (Goodings and Lauwery, 1964). In 1950, Kurt Hahn
collaborated with some commandants and founded the Atlantic College. At that time, with an aim to eliminate
national prejudice, young people aged 16 to 18 from different national backgrounds were gathered together to
study and learn about values and beliefs from other cultures.
In the mid-1970s, the swift progression of globalisation stimulated significant growth of international schools
(Bunnell, 2005). According to Wylie (2008), the market for international education has developed tremendously
over the past few decades with countries increasingly starting to establish policies and strategies to implement
international education and even promote their schools overseas. As the global trade of goods continues to
develop, there is a growing number of emigrant workers seeking international schools for their children (Hayden
and Thompson, 2013). However, the lack of a unified international programme for students had presented direct
challenges for teachers coping with students with mixed backgrounds; specifically, difficulties in preparing
learning materials suitable for culturally diverse students. To address such problems, many international schools
have highlighted the need to establish a mutual international programme. This has helped in the creation of the
International Baccalaureate (IB) programme. By deliberately gathering students aged 16 to 18 to study and live
together, this non-profit educational foundation, albeit in highly contested position, helps to engage others in
critical thinking through the lens of various international perspectives (Hayden, 2006). Despite its original aim to
provide an internationally standardised education system, it does not escape opposition and criticism. As Wright,
Lee and Tang (2016) point out, IB schools focus on cultivating groups of highly competitive students for
entering elite higher education institutions. In addition, other critics assert that students’ minds may be shaped
towards globalism; that is, if students fail to submit to a ‘globalist’ way of thinking for the examinations, their
chances in obtaining adequately high scores to enter elite schools is compromised (Mathews, 2001). This
long-lasting tension also exerts an influence on the approach to define international education, which is
discussed below.
2.2 Defining International Education
In the evolutionary history of educational research, international education is viewed as a more recent
phenomenon with preliminary study first appearing in the early 1960s (House, 2015). Consequently, there is a
general recognition that international education lacks a unanimous definition (Crossley and Watson, 2003;
Hunter and Godbey 2006; Dolby and Rahman, 2008). Currently, definitions of international education differ
from broad to specific descriptions. Hayden and Thompson (1995, p.17) state that “international education is a
dynamic concept that involves a journey or movement of people, minds, or ideas across political and cultural

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frontiers.” This statement is considered by Hansen (2002) as the most appropriate definition that encapsulates the
many aspects that people may experience. Others, like Husen and Postlethwaite (1995) assert that international
education refers to all educational efforts that intend to foster an international-oriented awareness and mind-set.
Similarly, Watson (1999) argues that these efforts should be organised to gather students, practitioners,
policy-makers and academics around the globe to exchange perspectives towards international affairs. Hall (1990)
provided a more specific description in terms of the locations that international education takes place. He stated
that international education not only occurs abroad through the provision of overseas programmes or educational
visits to other countries, it can also happen within domestic environments through integrating culturally
divergent content into course curriculums. Emert and Pearson (2007) summarise and synthesise these statements,
claiming that international education is composed of educational efforts that inculcate internationally-oriented
themes, outlooks and experiences within and across countries to raise awareness and a deeper understanding of
our diverse world. However, from a less positive perspective, Sung and Park (2013) examined a national
curriculum in South Korea and found that equipping students with global visions has been appropriated as a key
factor for the design of the curriculum. In the curriculum they examined, they found that international education
in this context is in fact regarded as a tool for South Korea to survive and strive towards the globalised era. In
their definition, international education is primarily an instrument of the authorities to restore national pride.
Little consideration has been given to the fundamental role of education in cultivating students to become
individuals with responsibilities for global affairs. They assert that this economically-centred perspective of
international education would ultimately obstruct students from professionally considering social, environmental
and other dimensions of globalisation. This argument has been supported by a previous research of Roman
(2003), which concludes that international education is business-focused and a process of taking advantage of
the inequalities generated from Western dominance. Nevertheless, Young (2010) holds a contradictory
perception towards these arguments in his review of various conceptualisations of the term. It is argued that
international education concerns universal welfare and the interconnected relationships between humans and
environmental systems, rather than the narrower concerns with national economic interest and domestic pride.
2.3 Research on Attitudes towards International Education
As international education has exerted not only positive but negative effects, it is crucial to identify a wide range
of stances or thoughts in its outcomes from different stakeholders. Some findings from previous research are of
particular relevance to my study in terms of positive and negative attitudes towards this kind of education, which
are now outlined.
2.3.1 Positive Attitudes
In a study of the correlation between international education and students’ employability in Australia by
Crossman and Clarke (2009), it was concluded that international education helps increase students’ opportunities
for transnational employment. Students are cultivated with competencies that global recruiters require, such as
problem-solving and critical thinking in diverse cultural settings. Crossman and Clarke (2009) uphold this
assertion qualitatively by synthesising perceptions gained in interviews involving three stakeholders (employers,
academics and students). Here, a shared perception was found in that possessing international experience or
mind-set does enhance critical analysis ability, sociability with a learned respect towards other cultures, which
are crucial elements required to survive in a globalised labour market. This argument is supported by Thomas
and Inkson’s (2004) research on cultural intelligence, which stresses the importance of abilities to effectively and
inclusively work with people from diverse cultural backdrops, especially in the era of globalisation.
Carley, Cheurprakobkit and Paracka (2006) conducted a survey with faculty from the Kennesaw State University
in America. In this survey, the faculty’s attitudes towards benefits of international learning were examined. The
findings indicate that international education renders students more appreciative and more concerned about other
cultures and global affairs. As informed by Leach’s (1969) conceptualisation of internationalism, an exchange of
students between countries can serve as a gateway to foster international cooperation. On the other hand,
students also develop a national identity and understanding of their respective cultures. This is supported in
Umar’s exploration of the definition of international education (2013). She claims that students may make keen
observations about their own nation under their sense of identity as ‘foreigners’ in foreign country, and thus
foster the sense of belonging to their home countries.
Parmenter et al.’s, (2000) research in national identity development of elementary school children in Japan,
Macau and Hong Kong concurs with Umar (2013). They claim that school has a responsibility to provide
students with opportunities to construct, not only global or regional identities, but also a national identity.
Therefore, if these various identities are recognised, the concept of multiple identities would not be conflictual,

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despite globalisation being regarded as a threat to national identity (Hobsbawm, 1996).
In terms of whether international education is truly promoted, especially in international schools, Hayden,
Thompson and Williams (2003) conducted a large-scale survey to gather views of students from 72 different
nationalities by six international programmes in the UK. The results show that the questions relating to language
speaking ability were scored highly by all sub-groups. The justifications for this result were manifold, but the
respondents all evidently attached much weight to issues relating to language, indicating that international
education is considered to enhance intercultural communication skills.
While much of the literature has explored positive sides of international education, a review of its potential
negative influences can help understand the comprehensive phenomenon. The following section provides a
review of recent research exploring negative attitudes towards international education.
2.3.2 Negative Attitudes
A recent study that adopting surveys and focus groups has identified the attitudes of 29 teachers toward
international education in an international school in Thailand (Deveney, 2007). Although a strong consensus
exists among the participants, that the only way to develop diverse cultural responsiveness is ‘on the job’ rather
than taking extra workshops on ‘how to be an international-minded teacher’, it was recognised that teachers’
values can dictate the way in which messages are interpreted and conveyed to students. As Boysen (2012) has
stated, teachers are human beings that they are not immune from bias. Therefore, teachers who bring their
misconceptions of international issues may misguide their students. Deveney (2007) concluded that if teachers
can recognise the importance of learning from one another and actively participate in forums in which
information is shared and teacher collaboration is supported, misleading international recognition caused by
instructors’ subjective international outlook would be avoided. In another study, carried out by Volet and Ang
(1998), eleven semi-structured focus groups were utilised to research the attitudes of 17 Australian students and
23 international students who were invited to complete two academic assignments in culturally mixed groups.
The findings indicate that both the Australian and international students were inclined to complete the
assignments with others that shared a similar national identity, and it was concluded that the lack of interaction
between domestic students and international students should not be underestimated. Volet and Ang (1998) also
recognised that the difficulties in adapting to a foreign culture, not only cause feelings of isolation, but also
impede individual students from achieving satisfactory learning outcomes. The difficulties in interaction between
domestic and international students are maintained in a further report by Yefanova, Baird and Montgomery (2015)
in which a series of focus groups and individual interviews elicited the views of 121 domestic and international
students and 47 faculty members at the University of Minnesota. Here, the majority of students and faculty
surveyed were found to encounter difficulties in cross-national interactions due to language and cultural barriers.
Other factors such as “bias, prejudice and pressure to succeed in academics” also cause ineffective interaction
among students and teachers (ibid., p.3). The researchers suggest that a purposefully organised curriculum
encouraging collaborative learning is required to foster effective interactions. Regarding the issue of adaptation
encountered by students, Wu, Garza and Guzman (2015) conducted qualitative research with 10 international
students in America. The data reveal that participants devoted most of their time discussing academic related
challenges during interviews. Most students admitted that the excessive pressure resulting from physical,
psychological, cultural and social relationships has impaired their will to learn. Wu, Garza and Guzman conclude
by suggesting that the challenges faced by international students should be addressed and more support should
be provided to enhance their learning outcomes.
2.4 The Context of Taiwan
Taiwan is a country that has long strived to obtain international recognition. Since its loss of seat with the United
Nations in 1971, Taiwan’s international activities and cultural exchanges with other countries have been
restricted. Additionally, as encircled by sea, the economic development of Taiwan is heavily dependent on
international trade. With this background, to avoid being marginalised, broadening a global outlook and fostering
international competitiveness of human capital, is fundamental to Taiwan’s continued growth. Motivated by
these purposes, the government has embarked on educational reform targeting students of primary and secondary
education. In 2012, an official document named A White Paper on International Education for Primary and
Secondary Schools was released. Students are anticipated to raise their awareness of how Taiwanese people are
connected and influenced by international networks; they are also expected to become more concerned about
international affairs and respecting people of diverse cultural backgrounds.
In this policy, international education is divided into four major aspects: Curriculum Integration, International
Exchange Activities, Administrator/Teacher Professional Development and School Internationalisation. Given

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the differentiation in individual schools (i.e., urban-rural gap, wealth and poverty gap), a School-based
International Education Project has been adopted. Firstly, administrative faculty conduct a SWOT analysis to
evaluate their school and select one to four aspects of international education to focus upon. Afterwards,
proposals must be submitted to the Ministry of Education for additional subsidy support. However, this policy is
not compulsory for every primary and secondary school; the decision to follow up the policy is afforded to
individual schools.
Having examined relevant research on this policy, most of the studies focus on an evaluation of its effectiveness.
Little exploration has been carried out on the attitudes of practitioners. Considering this research gap, the present
study will focus on the attitudes of principals among primary and secondary schools. In addition, while the
theme is centred around international education, this research is not restricted to primary and secondary schools
that already international school status. As argued by Hayden and Thompson (1995), international education may
be experienced by students who have never attended schools that claim to be international; likewise,
international schools may provide education that not internationally minded at all.
3. Methodology
3.1 Sampling
Firstly, after considering certain practical criteria such as accessibility and geographical proximity, I decided to
conducted this research in Taiwan. The population of this research is the principals of elementary schools
(primary), junior high schools (secondary) and senior high schools (secondary) across three cities of southern
Taiwan: Yunlin County, Chiayi City (including Chiayi County) and Tainan City. Then, stratified random
sampling of respondents is adopted to ensure a greater level of representativeness and reduce the extent of
sampling errors (Gray, 2014). Based on the information provided by the official website of the Educational
Bureau, the full name of each school was collected and coded (509 elementary schools; 122 junior high schools;
76 senior high schools), then, Microsoft Excel 2010 was used to generate 3 random number tables for each
educational level of school. The first 40 schools from each table were drawn, generating a total of 120 schools.
Informed consent forms were sent to principals of the 120 schools, ensuring their rights to decide whether to
participate in the research were understood and agreed. After receiving replies, essential details including the full
name of the principals and school addresses were gathered from official websites. Then, I administered the
inform consent form, questionnaire, recommendation letter and self-addressed stamped envelope by post.
3.2 Development of Research Instrument
The questionnaire adopts a five-point Likert scale method for data collection. After completing the first draft of
the questionnaire, three experts in the field were included to provide critical appraisal of the instrument.
According to Gray (2014), this can demonstrate at least face validity, which ascertains when an instrument
appears to assess the intended measures. The breadth and appropriateness of the questionnaire content is
examined by two scholars in the field and one practitioner. The questionnaire was then modified based on the
suggestions provided by these experts.
The final draft of the questionnaire includes the first section, which deals with individual demographic
information (gender and academic degree) and background information of their serving schools (level and type).
Gender is divided into male and female; academic degree is classified by Bachelor’s, Master’s and Doctorates.
Level of school includes primary, junior high and senior high; school type is categorised by public and private.
The second section investigates the positive effects that international exchange activities can bring to students,
while the third looks at negative aspects. The last section deals with the challenges in implementing international
exchange activities; the items of this part were collected based on the implementation challenges raised in the
White Paper (2012), aiming to identify whether these challenges raised in the document are felt by the principals.
Each section is composed of nine items. In addition, all questionnaire items were translated into Chinese by the
researcher and checked by a native Chinese person for accuracy. The questionnaire was administered at the end
of May 2017, and replies were received three weeks later.
3.3 Validity
The construct validity of the questionnaire is further estimated by factor analysis. Considering the unobservable
and abstract essence of researched construct of interest (i.e., attitudes towards international exchange activities),
a requirement for solid validity is evident. Table 1 represents that the KMO value of section B (.831) and section
D (.843) are meritorious, while section C (.742) is acceptable. As for Bartlett’s test of Sphericity, each section
has achieved statistical significance (.000). These results also indicate that the questionnaire is suitable for
further factor analysis. The result of factor analysis for each section is illustrated in Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4.

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Table 1. KMO and Bartlett’s test
Section B Section C Section D
KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy .831 .742 .843
Bartlett’s Test. Approx. Chi-Square 300.127 246.875 383.806
Sig. .000 .000 .000
Table 2. Factor analysis results of section B
Item Factor Loadings Eigenvalues % of Variance
B01 .632
B02 .732
B03 .753
B04 .679
Section B B05 .648 4.246 47.18%
B06 .617
B07 .706
B08 .699
B09 .703
Table 3. Factor analysis results of section C
Item Factor Loadings Eigenvalues % of Variance
C01 .609
C02 .693
C03 .487
C04 .166
Section C C05 .462 3.453 38.36%
C06 .680
C07 .769
C08 .729
C09 .747
Table 4. Factor analysis results of section D
Item Factor Loadings Eigenvalues % of Variance
D01 .818
D02 .794
D03 .733
D04 .759
Section D D05 .680 4.655 51.72%
D06 .590
D07 .775
D08 .666
D09 .623
3.4 Reliability Analysis
The reliability of the questionnaire is examined by Chronbach’s alpha. Regarding the interpretation of
Chronbach’s alpha, a commonly accepted rule for the resulting alpha coefficient of reliability ranges from 0 to 1.
A reliable questionnaire should have an Alpha coefficient over 0.8 of the whole instrument; and the Alpha
coefficient of each section should be higher than 0.7 (George and Mallery, 2003; DeVellis, 2012).
Table 5 demonstrates that Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient is .806, which indicates a good extent of internal
consistency for the scale with the representative sample. After analysing the reliability of the whole scale, each
section was further examined separately. From Table 6, Table 7 and Table 8, Cronbach’s Alpha of each section
has fulfilled the requirement of at least 0.7. The column ‘Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted’ presents the value
that the Alpha coefficient may be if the particular item was deleted from the scale. Table 6 and Table 8 show that
no items in Cronbach's Alpha in this column were higher than that of their respective section, indicating that no

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items should be removed. While for Table 7, Cronbach's Alpha (.804) of item C04 in this column was higher
than that of section C (.773). However, according to Goforth (2015), Cronbach's Alpha simply provides an
overall reliability coefficient for a set of items. Therefore, theoretical and substantive knowledge should also be
considered to decide whether an item should be discarded. Given that item C04 (“excessive pressure may impair
students’ willingness of learning”) was induced from previous literature regarding negative effects of
international education on students (Wu, Garza and Guzman, 2015) and was a highly probable negative effect in
a logical sense, this item was retained.
Table 5. Reliability statistics of the whole questionnaire
Cronbach’s Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based
on Standardised Items
N of Items
.806 .795 27
Table 6. Reliability statistics of section B
Questions Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted Cronbach’s Alpha of section B
B01 .848
.857
B02 .836
B03 .834
B04 .842
B05 .846
B06 .850
B07 .839
B08 .841
B09 .841
Table 7. Reliability statistics of section C
Questions Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted Cronbach’s Alpha of section C
C01 .750
.773
C02 .737
C03 .766
C04 .804
C05 .770
C06 .734
C07 .723
C08 .733
C09 .727
Table 8. Reliability Statistics of Section D
Questions Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted Cronbach’s Alpha of section D
D01 .856
.879
D02 .859
D03 .865
D04 .862
D05 .870
D06 .876
D07 .859
D08 .871
D09 .873
To conclude, the reliability analysis demonstrates that the instrument used in my research has satisfactory
internal consistency and thus proves to be reliable.
3.5 Statistical Analysis
The quantitative data collected from the questionnaire was manually imputed into Microsoft Excel 2010. This
was in a ‘flat-file’ format with each respondent assigned a numerical value ranging from 1-120. Each returning

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questionnaire was coded to identify individual respondent answers and to help check data omissions or errors.
The variables of section A were assigned a value for category data; values from 1 to 5 represent the level of
agreement (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree) for section B, section C and section D.
The error check for whether the total variables match the number of respondents was also completed. The keyed
data was analysed using Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) 22.0. The statistical approach is
illustrated below:
1). Descriptive Statistics
The demographic background information is presented by frequency, percentage of respondent category, mean
and Standard Deviation to identify data distribution.
2). Independent Sample T-Test
The independent sample T-Test was adopted to assess statistical significance of the answers by gender (male and
female), and type of school (public or private).
3). One Way ANOVA
Statistical significance by academic degree (Bachelor, Master and Doctorate) and level of school (elementary
school, junior high school and senior high school) were examined by one-way ANOVA. Below (Figure 2.) is the
structure for data analysis
T test
Descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics
ANOVA
Descriptive statistics
Figure 2. Framework of statistical analysis
3.6 Ethical Issues
Regarding ethical considerations in the present study, basic ethical principles of research conduction have been
complied with following the guidelines of the British Education Research Association (BERA). These include
sending informed consent forms, respecting rights to decide whether to respond, and ensuring anonymity and
confidentiality for data analysis. Also, the returning questionnaire is stored securely and will be disposed after
three years. Another ethical involved is promises and reciprocity (Gray, 2014). Promises were made in the
introduction of the questionnaire that the research findings will be reported to the respondents. This ensures that
people cooperating with the research can gain the newest information regarding the project. Any suggestions
may also ultimately help them to improve policy implementation.
3.7 Limitations
The question items were included based on the researcher’s decision of what is required to answer the research
questions. This may involve a certain degree of researcher imposition and cause some important information to
be omitted. Consequently, to ensure errors in the questionnaire are reduced, pre-testing is recommended with
follow-up debriefing sessions. However, it is unpractical considering the time constraint of fieldwork. As a
consequence, this research adopts three scholars in the field to examine whether there is ambiguity in the words,
misinterpretation of questions, or any other problems associated with the questionnaire.
4. Research Findings
4.1 Demographic Backgrounds of the Respondents
The questionnaire was distributed to 120 principals in Taiwan, of which, 89 were retrieved and resulted in a
return rate of approximately 74%. The breakdown of these respondents includes: 69 (77.5%) male and 20
(22.5%) female; 80.9% respondents have a Master’s degree, which occupies the highest proportion. This is
Demographic Information
1. Gender
2. Type of school
Demographic Information
3. Academic Degree
4. Level of school
Levels of Agreement
1. Positive effects of international education
2. Negative effects of international
education
3. Challenges to implement international
education

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followed by Doctorate (10.1%) and Bachelor degrees (9%). Distribution by level of school is as follows:
elementary schools (39.3%), junior high schools (38.2%) and senior high schools (22.5%). Over half of the
respondents (89.9%) serve in public schools while only one tenth (10.1%) in private schools.
4.2 Descriptive Analysis of Each Question Item
Due to the different nature of the question items in each section, every item is analysed individually. The mean
of each item in section B (positive effects of international exchange activities) is presented in Table 4-1. Every
item has a mean over 4, indicating that the benefits of international exchange activities are generally recognised
by all participating principals. Agreement is strongest in item B08 ‘Respecting and appreciating different
cultures’ (4.46) and item B01 ‘Enhancing intercultural communication skills’ (4.36). However, for item B03
‘Increasing opportunities for transnational employment’ (3.88), the value is between ‘neutral’ to ‘agree’.
Possible reasons for this result may be the uncertainty among the principals whether international exchange
activities can influence on future careers, as entering the workforce may not be a current concern of students at
these ages.
Table 9. Mean of each item in section B (positive effects)
Section Item Mean Std. Deviation
B01 4.36 .69
B02 4.27 .64
B03 3.88 .77
B04 4.21 .61
B B05 4.13 .71
B06 4.03 .75
B07 4.16 .71
B08 4.46 .60
B09 4.22 .62
Results on a set of items asked of the respondents regarding perceived negative effects of international exchange
activities are presented in Table 10. Based on these findings, it appears that respondents are generally not in
agreement with the statements. However, item C04 ‘Excessive pressure may impair students’ will of learning’
(4.02) is the exception, which received the most agreement. This may probably due to the existing
examination-oriented education system in Taiwan. Students have been placed under excessive pressure that they
are likely to be overwhelmed by extra pressure from international exchange activities. In addition, item C05
‘Instructors’ subjective international outlook may cause misleading international cognition’ (3.48) and item C06
‘International activities focusing on a small number of powerful countries may cause narrowed international
outlook’ (3.20) also receive high agreement.
Table 10. Mean of each item of section C (negative)
Section Item Mean Std. Deviation
C01 2.34 .75
C02 2.70 .90
C03 2.55 .92
C04 4.02 .64
C C05 3.48 .93
C06 3.20 .93
C07 3.10 .97
C08 2.24 1.08
C09 2.52 .92
Results of attitudes towards the issues regarding implementation challenges are presented in Table 11. A key
finding emerged whereby respondents maintain a stance of neutrality towards most of the statements in this
section. Nevertheless, item D05 ‘Lack of consistent funding from the authorities’ (4.44) and item D06 ‘Students
with inferior social background usually cannot afford to participate international exchange activities’ (4.27)
received a higher extent of agreement. Possible explanations to this might be the fact that monetary factors are

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widely considered fundamental when organising an event or activity. This may account for the high scores
placed on these two money-related issues. In addition, principals were also inclined to agree on the item D07
‘lack of qualified teaching staff and administrators for international exchange activities’ (3.94). The most
probable reason may be associated with the content of teacher training courses in Taiwan. As ‘international
education’ has not been included in the subjects of the courses, a large proportion of practicing teachers have not
received training for international education. Besides, it is interesting to note that a high standard deviation exists
in D08 ‘Lack of mutual cooperation among school staff’ (1.05). This may due to differences of institutional
culture, which will be explored further in the Discussion.
Table 11. Mean of each item of section D (implementation challenges)
Section item Mean Std. Deviation
D01 3.38 .85
D02 3.46 .91
D03 3.26 1.03
D04 3.52 .91
D D05 4.44 .69
D06 4.27 .84
D07 3.94 .87
D08 3.31 1.05
D09 3.58 .85
4.3 Results of Independent T-Tests
A series of independent t-tests were conducted to examine levels of statistical differences between mean scores.
Firstly, whether attitudes towards ‘positive effects, negative effects and implementation challenges’ of
international exchange activities differ significantly between genders is assessed. The result indicates that the
score of each item in section B, section C and section D has not achieved significance level (p < .05) by gender.
This reveals similar attitudes between male and female principals in all parts of the questionnaire. Afterwards, an
independent t-test was conducted again to determine statistical differences between types of school. The results
reveal that there is no statistical difference among the attitudes, irrespective of public or private schools.
In terms of perceived negative effects, Table 12 indicates that attitudes towards item C01 ‘Culture shock may
cause unsatisfactory learning outcome’ has statistical significance (p = .03<.05) by type of school. The results
show that agreement among principals of private schools is significantly higher than that of public schools.
Table 12. Independent t-test between type of school (negative effects)
Type Mean Std. Deviation t p
C01 public
private
2.29
2.78
.73
.83
-1.90 .03
C02 public
private
2.69
2.78
.87
1.20
-.29 .39
C03 public
private
2.56
2.44
.90
1.13
.36 .36
C04 public
private
4.04
3.89
.65
.60
.66 .26
C05 public
private
3.49
3.44
.93
1.01
.13 .45
C06 public
private
3.20
3.22
.93
.97
-.07 .48
C07 public
private
3.08
3.33
.96
1.00
-.76 .23
C08 public
private
2.18
2.78
1.02
1.48
-1.2 .14
C09 public
private
2.46
3.00
.87
1.22
-1.3 .12

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4.4 Results of One-Way ANOVA
One-way ANOVA is conducted to determine whether there are statistically significant differences (at the 0.05
level) among the mean scores of different educational backgrounds. An analysis of variance shows that attitudes
towards item B03 ‘Increasing opportunities for transnational employment’ are significantly different, F (2, 87) =
5.40, p= .01. Post hoc analysis using the Scheffé’s post hoc criterion for significance indicates that the average
scores are significantly higher in principals with Master’s degrees (M = 4, SD = 0.69) than in those with
Doctorate degrees (M = 3.33, SD = 1.12). Besides, significant differences are seen in item B05 ‘Cultivating
cultural adaptability in the workplace’ (p= .02), item B06 ‘Developing national identity’ (p= .02) and item B09
‘Deepening foreigners’ understanding of Taiwanese culture’ (p= .01). Post hoc analysis suggests that, for these
three items, the average scores are all significantly higher in teachers with a Master’s degree than for principals
with a Bachelor’s degrees. Results appear in Table 4-5.
Table 13. ANOVA of educational background (positive effects)
Item Level Mean Std. Deviation F Sig. Post Hoc
Tests
B01
(1) Bachelor
(2) Master
(3) Doctorates
4.13
4.39
4.33
.64
.68
.87
.521
.59
NS
B02
(1) Bachelor
(2) Master
(3) Doctorates
4.00
4.33
4.00
.53
.63
.71
1.93
.15
NS
B03
(1) Bachelor
(2) Master
(3) Doctorates
3.38
4.00
3.33
.52
.69
1.12
5.40
.01
(2) > (3)
B04
(1) Bachelor
(2) Master
(3) Doctorates
3.88
4.26
4.11
.64
.58
.78
1.62
.21
NS
B05
(1) Bachelor
(2) Master
(3) Doctorates
3.50
4.22
4.00
.53
.65
1.00
4.19
.02
(2) > (1)
B06
(1) Bachelor
(2) Master
(3) Doctorates
3.38
4.13
3.89
.74
.75
.33
4.10
.02
(2) > (1)
B07
(1) Bachelor
(2) Master
(3) Doctorates
3.75
4.25
3.78
.89
.67
.67
3.44
.04
NS
B08
(1) Bachelor
(2) Master
(3) Doctorates
4.00
4.54
4.22
.76
.56
.67
3.92
.02
NS
B09
(1) Bachelor
(2) Master
(3) Doctorates
3.88
4.32
3.78
.35
.60
.67
4.89
.01
(2) > (1)
One-way analysis of variance is repeated to detect significant differences among responses of principals from
elementary, junior and senior high school. Table 13 reveals that attitudes towards item B01 ‘Enhancing
intercultural communication skills’ are significantly different, F (2, 87) = 4.52, p= .01. Scheffé’s post hoc
criterion for significance indicates that the average scores are significantly higher in principals from senior high
schools (M = 4.75, SD = .55) than in principals from junior high schools (M = 4.21, SD =.73). This may result
from an international-related policy implemented in senior high schools, which will be detailed in the discussion
chapter. For item B03 ‘Increasing opportunities for transnational employment’, attitudes are also of significant
difference, F (2, 87) = 5.53, p= .01. Post hoc results show that the average scores were significantly higher in
elementary school principals (M = 3.59, SD = .70) than in junior high school principals (M = 3.85, SD =.93). It
is interesting to note that this item has the lowest mean in section B, while has significance differences in the
responses.

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Table 13. ANOVA level of school (positive effects)
Item Level Mean Std. Deviation F Sig. Post Hoc
Tests
B01
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
4.29
4.21
4.75
.67
.73
.55
4.52
.01
(3) > (2)
B02
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
4.40
4.06
4.40
.65
.55
.68
3.18
.05
NS
B03
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
4.17
3.59
3.85
.62
.70
.93
5.53
.01
(1) > (2)
B04
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
4.17
4.12
4.45
.62
.54
.69
2.04
.14
NS
B05
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
4.29
4.06
4.00
.67
.65
.86
1.36
.26
NS
B06
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
4.14
3.85
4.15
.69
.82
.67
1.64
.20
NS
B07
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
4.31
3.91
4.30
.68
.71
.66
3.53
.03
NS
B08
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
4.51
4.35
4.55
.61
.65
.51
.90
.41
NS
B09
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
4.31
4.15
4.20
.53
.56
.83
.65
.53
NS
Regarding the implementation challenges, attitudes towards item D07 ‘Lack of qualified teaching staff and
administrators for international exchange activities’ reached significant difference, F (2, 87) = 4.53, p= .01. Post
hoc results show that the average scores are significantly higher for elementary school principals (M = 4.06, SD
= .84) than for senior high school principals (M = 3.45, SD =.83). In addition, the average scores are also
significantly higher for junior high school principals (M = 4.12, SD = .84) than in senior high school principals
(M = 3.45, SD =.83). This reveals a tendency that principals in schools of higher educational stage agreed less on
the lack of qualified teaching staff and administrators for the activities.
Likewise, attitudes towards item D08 ‘Lack of mutual cooperation among school staff’ reached significant
difference, F (2, 87) = 8.01, p= .00. Post hoc results show that the average scores are significantly higher for
elementary school principals (M = 3.49, SD = .92) than for senior high school principals (M = 2.55, SD = 1.05).
Average scores are also significantly higher for junior high school principals (M = 3.59, SD = .99) than senior
high school principals (M = 2.55, SD = 1.05). This indicates a situation that disengagement among faculty
members is more urgent in schools of lower educational levels. The findings are presented in Table 14.

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Table 14. ANOVA level of school (implementation challenges)
Item Level Mean Std. Deviation F Sig. Post Hoc
Tests
D01
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
3.51
3.41
3.10
.74
.74
1.12
1.58
.21
NS
D02
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
3.49
3.56
3.25
.66
.93
1.21
.75
.48
NS
D03
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
3.26
3.38
3.05
1.04
1.02
1.05
.65
.52
NS
D04
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
3.54
3.62
3.30
.85
.89
1.03
.79
.46
NS
D05
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
4.40
4.50
4.40
.74
.56
.82
.22
.81
NS
D06
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
4.34
4.35
4.00
.73
.81
1.03
1.35
.26
NS
D07
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
4.06
4.12
3.45
.84
.84
.83
4.53
.01
(1) > (3)
(2) > (3)
D08
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
3.49
3.59
2.55
.92
.99
1.05
8.01
.00
(1) > (3)
(2) > (3)
D09
(1) elementary
(2) junior
(3) senior
3.60
3.71
3.35
.85
.87
.81
1.12
.33
NS
5. Discussion
5.1 What Are the Attitudes of Taiwanese Principals towards the Positive Effects of International Exchange
Activities for Students of Primary and Secondary Education?
The most significant finding in this section was arguably that most of the principals held a neutral stance towards
the possibility that students’ opportunities for transnational employment can increase through participating
international exchange activities. This result is different from the finding of a study conducted by Crossman and
Clarke (2009). In their interview with employers, academics and students, these three groups of stakeholders
possess a strong agreement that the fundamental competencies to enhance transnational employability can be
cultivated through experiences of international activities. These competencies, argued by them, are critical
analysis ability, sociability and adaptability in the setting with diverse culture. In addition, in the research on the
extent to which participation in international programs abroad influences the opportunities of their subsequent
employment, Pietro (2015) found that taking programs or exchange activities overseas has a relatively large
effects on the chances of being in employment afterward. These perspectives gained from studies of Crossman
and Clarke (2009) and Pietro (2015) indicate a slight discrepancy in the agreement from the finding of my
research. This discrepancy might due to the fact that the implementation objects are students at primary and
secondary education levels. Head-teachers of my study may be uncertain of whether international exchange
activities can have a far-reaching impact on the future employment of these young students. However, this
finding is contrary to that of a nine-year longitudinal study conducted in South Carolina (2014). A career
counselling was brought into its public primary schools in a view to better connecting graduating students to
their future career. Students in these schools were asked about their interests and academic preferences.
Afterwards, the counsellor met with the student and parents to develop a plan that help clarify which elective
course should be taken in high schools to bolster specific interests. The finding revealed that a majority of
graduates surveyed years ago agree they had benefited from the counselling as they had already enrolled in
courses related to their potential career. This research implies the importance to exposing students to their

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professional career as early as possible, which is not consistent with the attitudes of the head-teachers in the
present study.
However, among these items, agreement is strongest in the statement that students can learn to respect and
appreciate different cultures, as this found to be the primary goal of international exchange activities. This
positive effect is embedded in the purpose of an internationalist international education, which believes that
students can be cultivated into citizens with positive attitudes towards the world through the inculcation of core
values such as respect and appreciation towards other cultures (James, 2005). In addition, if relating this finding
here in my research back to Kurt Hahn’s (1950) primary goal of international activities, which has been
discussed in the Literature chapter, it is to eliminate national prejudices through gathering diverse-cultural young
students to study and work together. From this point, it is evident that the abilities to respect and appreciate
another person irrespective of their culture backgrounds, has long been advocated. The general agreement on this
effect is also in lines with the previous study of Carley, et al., (2006) which is a survey was conducted to
examine a group of faculty members’ attitudes towards international learning in Kennesaw State University in
America. Of this survey, the results revealed that international education activities enable students to be more
appreciative and more concerned about other cultures and affairs.
A further issue that also received broad agreement is that international exchange activities can be an effective
way to practice intercultural communication skills. In Taiwan, foreign language classes often focus on the
practice of reading and vocabulary memorisation. Thereafter, opportunities for practicing listening and speaking
are scarce. This argument is substantiated in Fu’s (2013) project that was designed for teachers to help enhance
English listening and speaking skills of their 4th graders in Taiwan. Fu (2013) asserts that while communicative
language teaching is the main principle that adopted by most of the English curriculums, there is actually a gap
between what is claimed to be accomplished and the performance of students’ listening and speaking proficiency.
She further explains that as English is the most crucial foreign language for college or university application and
career development, a curriculum or activities targeting English listening and speaking abilities should be
developed. Under this context, as listening and speaking abilities are two components that often considered as
the most important parts of communication; this reason may explain why the principals in my research are more
likely to believe that international exchange activities can offer ample opportunities for students to communicate
with people from other countries. This widely recognised benefit among the principals is consistent with the
findings of Hayden, et al. (2003) indicating a general agreement on an enhanced communication ability among
students from 72 different nationalities participating six international programs in the UK. Hansen (2002, p.7)
supported the abovementioned argument of the obtained abilities of international students in the review of the
definition and effects of international education exchange. She asserted that students can become proficient in
the language spoken in the host country and thus boosting their confidence with ‘a can-do attitude’ and a sense of
independence. Additionally, the importance of cultivating intercultural communication skills is highlighted by
The World-Readiness Standards for Learning Languages (2015, p. 16): “Learners who add another language and
culture to their preparation are not only college- and career-ready, but are also ‘world-ready’”. This helps explain
why international exchange activities help prepare students with the capabilities to interact among diverse groups
of people, which received agreement among principals in this research.
Besides, the results in my research indicate that academic backgrounds were found to play a key role in
head-teachers’ attitudes towards other positive effects of international exchange activities such as increasing
opportunities for transnational employment, cultivating cultural adaptability in the workplace, developing
national identity and deepening foreigners’ understanding of Taiwanese culture. It is inferred that people with
higher educational background tend to be more critical towards the benefits that one policy can bring to a society.
This inference can be partly supported with the report on perceptions of higher education reform by The Gallup
Organisation (2007). The result of one survey question regarding the benefit of private funding to university
reveals that participants with only a Master’s degree are the most likely to agree with the statement, while
respondents at doctoral level have the least confidence that more private funding can help universities to obtain
additional earnings. Based on the finding of this report, the grounds for the result of the present research is
speculative.
5.2 What Are the Attitudes of Taiwanese Principals towards the Negative Effects of International Exchange
Activities for Students of Primary and Secondary Education?
A higher agreement among the principals can be witnessed on the risk that international exchange activities may
impair students’ willingness for learning. This result may be highly associated with the credentialism culture (i.e.,
excessive reliance on academic degrees in determining employment) that has persistently existed in the
education system of Taiwan. Bray (2003) links this situation of Taiwan with the outcome of an

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examination-oriented learning environment. He explains that this learning environment has long been considered
a major factor for the emergence of private supplementary tutoring in Taiwan and other East Asian countries.
According to Kwok (2004, p. 66), as most of these extra fee-paying tutoring provides pedagogical guidelines for
examination preparation or university entrance examinations; thus many parents have paid these tutoring fees for
their children in the hope that they can obtain higher levels of education and “climb up the social ladder after
graduation”. To meet parents’ high expectation, many students in Taiwan have already been placed under
excessive pressure (Liu, 2012). Consequently, if participating in additional international exchange activities,
these students may be overwhelmed by overloaded pressure as they must spend extra time preparing for the
activities and adapt to cultures of the host countries. This pressure resulted from staying in foreign countries
could be detrimental to students’ willingness to learn, as substantiated by a previous research by Wu, et al.,
(2015). Interviews were adopted to explore the learning obstacles and issues of adjustment of 10 international
students in America; most of these international students in America maintain that their willingness of learning
has been impaired as excessive pressure from physical, psychological, cultural and social relationship have
compounded their existing academic pressure.
Among the other negative effects of international exchange activities, the principals in my study also highly
believed that the instructors’ subjective international outlook may cause misleading international cognition in
students. This result matches the observed in earlier study of Deveney (2007). The data obtained from his survey
and focus groups with 29 international school teachers in Thailand reveals that teachers’ values may dictate the
approach of how information is interpreted and conveyed to students. Deveney (2007) further suggests that
teachers may possess misconceptions of international issues which would misguide the students they teach. From
this finding, the result emerged from my study can be explained and substantiated.
The final finding regarding the attitudes toward the negative effects of international exchange activities in my
research is that the question item ‘International activities focusing on a number of powerful countries may cause
narrowed international outlook’ also received a widely agreement among the principals. This imbalance in the
selection of visiting countries has been illustrated by Johnstone and Lee (2016). Adopting Canada as a case study,
they examine the governance strategies in the international education policy of Canada. The result reveals that
most of the visiting countries for international education or exchange activities are western-dominated.
Johnstone and Lee (2016) further argue that this situation has fostered the position of western countries for
global dominance and economic expediency. Therefore, if students received this kind of international education,
they may ultimately fail to embrace cultures from other countries marginalized in the world.
5.3 What Are the Attitudes of Taiwanese Principals towards the Challenges to Undertake International Exchange
Activities for Students of Primary and Secondary Education?
Among the implementation challenges raised in my questionnaire, the majority of principals held that a lack of
consistent funding from the government exerts the greatest influence on the undertaking of international
exchange activities. Besides, ‘students with inferior social background usually cannot afford to participate
international exchange activities’ also received a high agreement. These findings reveal that issues related to
money are often key elements for the implementation of a policy. As discussed in Apple’s (2002) paper,
monetary factors are fundamental when planning an event or activity, especially in these years that numerous
affairs in education at all levels are associated with economic problems. In the case of my research, because most
of the respondents of this research are principals of public schools (89.9%), which often rely on funding from the
authorities. However, due to financial constraints of the government in recent years in Taiwan (Mok, 2000),
funding for international exchange activities has been reduced. Under this condition, the subsidy provided for
travelling expenses only covers half the flight ticket fee. Consequently, only those students with a superior
economic background can afford extra expenditure on the exchange activities. Students with an inferior financial
status are thus deprived of the right to participate in these activities. This finding is consistent with Yemini and
Goren (2016) and participant teachers at an international school and a local public school in Israel. One
participant made an impressive expression during the interview by claiming that “If an Israeli person is busy
struggling to survive, how can he care that the rainforests are being cut down in Brazil?” (p.844). This assertion
implies that economic underprivileged students may not be able to afford extra activities regarding international
education as it is unrealistic given practical financial concerns. Consequently, as numerous resources are
required, international education or even the exchange activities are not for everyone. With reference to the
limitations of the two perspectives towards international education reviewed earlier in the Literature chapter, this
challenge again manifests Bunnell‘s (2005) critique of ‘internationalist’ international education as unrealistic
since most students may not have enough money to receive this kind of education. On the other hand, the
challenge can also be regarded as an aftermath of ‘globalist’ international education, which is often used by

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privileged parents to enhance individual competition and personal economic advancement of their children to
ensure social and economic reproduction (Ball, 2003). Therefore, international education has become a
fee-paying phenomenon, and the focused aspect of this study—international exchange activities, —is no
exception. As Cambridge (2003) argues, wealthy parents are often willing to pay for exclusive activities as they
are vigorously in pursuit of economic advantages for their children. This phenomenon has been described as
drawing a clear line between students who are potential global citizens and ‘others’ (Yemini and Goren, 2016).
Furthermore, this gap between the haves and have-nots has made it difficult to promote international exchange
activities for every student.
Another challenge for the implementation of international exchange activities raised by principals in my study is
the lack of qualified teaching staff and administrators. The underlying reason may be associated with the subjects
of teacher training programmes in Taiwan. As ‘international education’ has not been included in the content of
programmes, a substantial proportion of Taiwanese practice teachers have not received related training (Lin and
Gorrell, 2001). According to Hayden et al., (2002), the major influence on students is through their interaction
with the teaching faculty and other administrators. Additionally, even the syllabus is designed to cater for
international education, it still depends largely on the abilities of the teaching faculty to convey the information
to students (Webster, 2010) and assistance from administrators in operations management (Stockard and Lehman,
2004). Consequently, the importance of recruiting groups of teaching faculty and administrators qualified for
targeted subjects should not be underestimated (Barrick, 2017). In the case of the present research, the result
indicates that most faculty members are not directly qualified for the programmes of international exchange.
Indeed, they are often recruited from a background in national standardised teacher training programmes,
therefore, they have received scare training concerning the international component of their role. This situation is
also discussed in Hayden (2001), who states that science graduates are trained to be science teachers, however,
there is no similar group of graduates majoring in international-related subjects to be trained specifically as
international teachers. Lovett (2003) adds that contemporary schools are discipline-centred and tend to recruit
faculty specialising in a topical field rather than those with broad, overseas experiences. With respect to the
context in Taiwan, the discipline-centred recruiting is more evident in senior high schools since students at this
stage are striving to prepare for specialised subjects for higher education entrance examinations, thus faculty in
senior high schools often possess expertise in different academic subjects (Wang, 2013). Under this circumstance,
a lack of qualified school staff for international exchange activities is deemed serious than for the situation in
schools of other educational levels. However, it is interesting to note that the finding of ANOVA that represents a
contradictory scenario; principals in elementary schools agreed on this challenge significantly more than that of
senior high schools. This reflects the findings in the research of Chang and Shen (2011) that exploring the
stresses faced by 54 elementary school teachers in Taiwan. As teachers at this educational level have to teach all
subjects, for instance, a Chinese teacher is also required to teach Mathematics, Social Science, and other subjects,
many elementary school teachers are found exhausted and not specialized enough in certain subject. This
situation may help explain the finding in my study that elementary school head-teachers agree more on a lack of
qualified school staff for international exchange activities. As elementary school faculty members often take on
numerous tasks at the same time; they can hardly specialize in and even concentrate on the affairs related to
international exchange activities.
A final finding regarding the implementation challenge is a high standard deviation within the responses of the
head-teachers — ‘lack of mutual cooperation among faculty’. The underlying reasons for this result may due to
the differences across institutional cultures (Bray et al., 2004). As Donald (2007) states, depending on the
organisational environment, faculty members can both become contributors and inhibitors, either facilitating or
impeding an international education policy. Numerous factors can determine the operation of a school and
further impact the extent of willingness of cooperation among the members. Friesen (2012) conducted research
following a phenomenological approach to explore the attitudes of five Canadian faculty members in different
schools towards involving in the process of internationalisation. The results demonstrate three types of situation
where one participant expressed a compatibility of personal values with institutional rationales for
internationalising their school; while the other two participants held a compromising attitude towards
cooperating with the institution as their personal motivations for international work were, to some extent,
divergent from the institutional rationales. However, considering the personal profitability of international
activities, they kept engaging in the process. On the other hand, the remaining two participants indicated a strong
unwillingness to collaborate. They perceive the quantified assessment of international activities as not only
irrelevant to their personal career, but also directly threatening their efforts. In direct reference to these findings
from Friesen (2012) with that of my research, these three distinct situations of faculty cooperation assist in
explaining the high divergence among responses of the principals. It is concluded that as faculty members may

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possess different perceptions towards international exchange activities, variations are all likely to contribute to
the differences of faculty morale and thus lead to different extents of willingness for cooperation.
5.4 Implications
From this research of principals’ attitudes, several implications can be provided for policy-makers in Taiwan and
other practitioners striving towards international exchange activities. The key implications are discussed below.
The findings of principals’ attitudes towards the positive and negative effects of international exchange activities
can be referenced by Taiwanese policy makers to evaluate the effectiveness of this international education policy.
As not every positive effect is widely agreed by the principals; policy-makers can further examine the underlying
reasons causing these responses, and thus modify the implementation procedures of the existing policy. On the
other hand, the attitudes towards the negative effects of international exchange activities found in this research
can also reflect the gap between what is expected by the policy-makers and the actual situation experienced by
students. Consequently, this gap can be the motivation for policy-makers to cooperate with school practitioners
to deal with the problems brought from international exchange activities to the students.
In addition, as indicated from the findings of the perceived implementation challenges, issues related to financial
resources are highly considered as hindrances for conducting international exchange activities. Given the current
financial constraints in the governmental funding for education in Taiwan, international education seems to be
restricted for financially privileged groups and has led to inequality in the provision of international education.
This inequality can be regarded as an imbalance between internationalist and globalist international education.
Therefore, it involves the need for policy-makers to debate how to maintain an international outlook in students
with limited financial resources. For these concerns, ways to overcome the implementation challenges of
international education should be further explored and addressed by government in order to maximise the
potential of all students to be benefitted by international education.
5.5 Future Research
The area that warrants further investigation is to include other educational stakeholders such as teaching faculty
and administrators to compare their perspectives with that of their leaders. Other opinions from scholars can also
offer more breadth of belief about the effects of international exchange activities and examine whether a gap
exists between academia and practitioners. Additionally, given that part of the research purpose in this research
was to explore the effects on students, to allow more practicalities, it would be most helpful to directly examine
the attitudes of students. A final suggestion concerns the methodology. Quantitative data can be supplemented
with qualitative methods such as focus groups and interviews, to identify common themes that may explain the
statistical relationships found in the questionnaire.
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