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Influence of Peers’ Types of Trust on Trust Repair: The Role of Apologies
Abstract
This study aims to answer the question how previous trust experiences contextualize trust repair efforts. The concepts of calculus-based and relational trust are utilized to show the influence of the kind of trust on trust repair tactics, specifically apologies. We focus on a neglected referent of trust, that is trust between peers, and elucidate apology and its complements that might be effective between peers. We propose that the effectiveness of apologies and its specific complements depend not only on trust breach but also on the type of trust prior to a breach. Specifically, we claim that when apology is complemented with compensation or external attributions, these tactics repair trust more effectively in calculus-based trust. But, when apology is complemented with empathy, acknowledgment of violated norms, and extensive involvement, these tactics can effectively repair trust in relational trust. The paper aims to contribute to our understanding of apologies and the effectiveness of it under different conditions.
... Mit unserer VAUDE Academy für nachhaltiges Wirtschaften begleiten wir andere Unternehmen durch die Transformation zur Nachhaltigkeit und so hoffe ich, dass unsere Arbeit zum einen durch die nachhaltigen Produkte und ihren Einsatz in der Natur Freude bereitet, zum anderen aber auch zur sinnhaften Veränderung beiträgt. . Aktuelle Forschungsergebnisse zeigen jedoch, dass eine Entschuldigung zwar zielführend sein kann, wenn das Vertrauen im Kompetenzbereich verletzt wurde, jedoch nur bedingt, wenn das Vertrauen im Integritätsbereich gebrochen wurde (Ferrin et al., 2007;Öztürk & Noorderhaven, 2018). ...
... Ebenso wie anhand der Merkmale Integrität, Kompetenz und Wohlwollen die Vertrauenswürdigkeit einer anderen Person eruiert wird, spielen diese drei Kriterien eine zentrale Rolle beim Verlust von Vertrauen. Sie können herangezogen werden, um das erodierende Vertrauen zu analysieren und was vielleicht noch wichtiger ist: Sie geben auch Aufschluss darüber, wie wahrscheinlich es ist, dass Vertrauen nach einem Verlust oder Bruch wiederaufgebaut werden kann (Tomlinson & Mayer, 2009;Öztürk & Noorderhaven, 2018). ...
... Warum ist es möglich, dass in wissenschaftlichen Studien das Leugnen (denial) oder das Zurückhalten von Informationen (reticence) unter bestimmten Voraussetzungen als kluge Lösung diskutiert wird? Im Alltag, in der Praxis, ist die Entschuldigung die Technik, die am häufigsten eingesetzt wird, um Vertrauensbrüche wieder gut zu machen, weshalb diese im Zentrum der folgenden Diskussion stehen wird (Öztürk & Noorderhaven, 2018). ...
People-Oriented Leadership (Menschenfreundliche Führung)
... An apology is a primary means by which an offender explains misconduct across diverse cultures, willingly acknowledging their wrongdoing and expressing remorse and empathy toward the victim, sometimes accompanied by a promise of restitution [31,32]. This form of response, referred to as a full apology [33,34], represents a repair ...
... For an apology to effectively repair trust, it should incorporate multiple components, such as acknowledgement of violated norms, a commitment to restitution, and expressions of understanding and empathy towards victims [19,64]. Incorporating these multi-dimensional components into an apology has been shown to significantly enhance its effectiveness [32,36,65]. Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed: H1: Apologies positively influence the repair of brand trust. ...
Brand crises frequently lead to the erosion of consumer trust, with corporate apologies serving as a widely utilised strategy for trust repair. While existing research supports the effectiveness of apologies in repairing brand trust, limited attention has been given to the underlying psychological mechanisms from the consumer perspective. Drawing on the Stereotype Content Model (SCM), a dual-path trust repair mechanism was proposed to systematically examine how corporate apologies influence brand trust repair through perceived warmth and perceived competence. Unlike previous studies, the SCM framework was employed to provide a more comprehensive explanation, demonstrating how corporate apologies in brand crisis contexts impact trust recovery via both emotional (perceived warmth) and cognitive (perceived competence) dimensions. Utilising structural equation modelling (SEM) to analyse questionnaire data from consumers of new energy vehicles (n=412), the findings indicate that corporate apologies not only directly enhance brand trust but also indirectly facilitate trust repair by increasing perceived warmth and perceived competence, which function as mediating variables in the repair process. These insights extend the theoretical framework of brand crisis management and trust repair research while offering empirical support for optimising corporate apology strategies. Doi: 10.28991/HEF-2025-06-01-07 Full Text: PDF
... Scholars have emphasized the sensitivity of the public to trust repair strategies during re-evaluation, emphasizing that the effectiveness of these strategies is contingent upon the types of trust damage. Successful trust repair hinges on the alignment of repair strategies with the specific types of trust that have been compromised (Öztürk & Noorderhaven, 2018). ...
... According to attribution theory, individuals distribute responsibilities for events to mitigate anxiety and uncertainty (Nekmat & Kong, 2019). Integrity-based trust damage is typically perceived as stemming from controllable, stable, and internal factors, whereas competence-based trust damage can be attributed to varying levels of controllability and responsibility (Öztürk & Noorderhaven, 2018). Therefore, the public's response to trust-damaging posts may stem from suspicions about the authorities' intentions and potential corruption, whereas trust repair efforts often highlight the authorities' competence, thereby deflecting responsibility. ...
The vulnerability of mega infrastructure projects (MIPs) has generated online public opinion crises, leading to public trust damage. However, few studies focused on the online dynamic trust of MIPs in such crises from the perspective of multiple users. Based on situational crisis communication theory, this study aims to explore the dynamic public trust in MIPs during online public opinion crises of extreme climate emergencies. The extreme heavy rainstorm event in Zhengzhou City, China, was selected as the case. Content analysis, the curve fitting method, and sentiment analysis were conducted to process the collected data from multiple users. The results indicated that the opinions of trust damage were set by “media practitioners” and led by “elites,” whereas the opinions of trust repair were directed by “elites,” led by “media practitioners,” and defended by “individuals.” Besides, trust dimensions would change over time; integrity‐based and competence‐based trust diffused alternatively. “Diminish,” “deny,” and “rebuild” strategies were proved to be the most effective strategies in integrity‐based, competence‐based, and competence and integrity–based trust repair, respectively. The findings can contribute to the authorities monitoring online public opinions in extreme climate emergencies and repairing trustworthy images.
... Our study shows that the unfavorable social exchanges manifested in academic bullying negatively affect victims' affect-based trust in their colleagues. Additionally, we also respond to Öztürk and Noorderhaven (2018), who urge further investigation into benevolence-based breaches, since such breaches will negatively impact peers with relational trust. Further, our study addresses Rai and Agarwal's (2018) call for uncovering more mediators in the relationship between bullying and silence in the workplace. ...
Purpose
A workplace bullying dynamic involving multiple individuals targeting victims can lead to the victim losing emotional bonds or affect-based trust with their colleagues, resulting in employee silence. The literature has largely ignored this negative aspect of social dynamics. This study aims to examine the relationship between workplace bullying and employee silence behaviors and determine whether affect-based trust mediates this relationship and whether climate for conflict management moderates the mediated relationship.
Design/methodology/approach
Hypotheses are tested using surveys and scenario-based experiments among faculty members in Indian Universities. There were 597 participants in the survey and 166 in the scenario-based experiment.
Findings
Results revealed that workplace bullying correlated positively with silence behaviors, and affect-based trust mediated the bullying-silence relationship. The hypothesized moderated mediation condition was partially supported as moderated the mediating pathway, i.e. indirect effects of workplace bullying on defensive silence and ineffectual silence via affect-based trust were weaker for employees with high climate for conflict management. However, the study failed to support the moderation of climate for conflict management in the relationship between workplace bullying and affect-based trust and workplace bullying and relational silence. The results of this moderated effect of climate for conflict management were similar in both studies.
Originality/value
This study is one of the few attempts to examine employee silence in response to workplace bullying in academia. Additionally, the study revealed a critical area of trust depletion associated with bullying and the importance of employee perceptions of fairness toward their institutions’ dispute resolution processes.
Trust is a critical yet fragile component of interpersonal interactions, often leading to significant consequences when compromised. This has propelled trust repair to the forefront of academic research. Despite extensive investigations, effective strategies and optimal timing for trust repair have remained poorly understood. This study aimed to identify the most effective timing for trust repair and to evaluate how different apology attribution modes impact its effectiveness at various timings. In Study 1, our research explored the dynamics between trust repair timing and apologies through scenario simulation. We found that later apologies were more effective. However, a further decline in trust occurred if victims did not receive an apology after they had expressed their emotions and thoughts. In Study 2, we divided apologies into distinct attribution modes and observed a significant interaction with trust repair timing. In early trust repair, the apology attribution modes demonstrated comparable effectiveness, but during the later trust repair, internally attributed apologies significantly outperformed externally attributed ones. Study 3 reinforced these findings by altering the types of interpersonal relationship and the consequence of trust breach in a trust game, thereby solidifying our conclusions. This research provides empirical support for how to make more targeted apologies in real-life situations.
In daily life, individuals can exhibit different behaviors in order to influence the opinions of people in their social environment about themselves. This situation is seen in business life as well as in personal life and employees’ resort to various tactics to influence individuals’ impressions about themselves. In terms of senior management, CEOs represent their companies and are followed by their interested parties. Considering the effects of CEOs’ statements on both internal and external stakeholders, the impression management tactics in their messages can play an important role in influencing the audience’s opinions about the company. Therefore, this study aims to conduct a literature research to identify the impression management tactics in the texts of CEOs’. Twenty-nine articles examined on the subject reveal that CEOs’ personality and demographic characteristics, founder status, recognition and culture have an impact on how CEOs manage their impressions. In addition, impression management plays a role in communicating with stakeholders in times of crisis, influencing the forecasting behavior of financial analysts, and providing insight to followers about the possibility of CEOs leaving their positions. Moreover, impression management tactics may differ depending on the type of reports containing CEO messages and the company’s performance. Research also reveals similarities and differences in the messages written by CEOs and board chairs. When the studies are analyzed, it is seen that in addition to topics such as sustainability and intellectual capital in CEOs’ statements, negative expressions are also discussed within the scope of impression management.
Prior studies have found that emojis can contribute to rebuilding customers’ trust when after-sale staff apologize to them, but studies on the different types of emojis and their different levels of effectiveness in rebuilding trust are still needed. In this paper, we explore the different types and frequencies of emojis and their effectiveness in rebuilding trust based on commercial discourses. Our data are collected from conversations between after-sale staff and customers during Ali Trademanager after-sale service. We find three types of emojis frequently used when after-sale staff apologizing to customers: face-related emojis, gesture-related emojis, and object-related emojis. Moreover, face-related emojis are the most frequently used, as their nature is to express emotion and attitude. The most effective emojis are the whimper emoji and kiss emoji, which are used by after-sale staff for sajiao (literally, ‘playing cute’). On the other hand, we show that the least effective emojis are the sorry emoji and happy emoji, which are deemed insincere because they violate the quality maxim and quantity maxim in the Cooperative Principle. This paper thus contributes to understanding the nature and function of emojis in commercial communication.
Purpose
A rash of security incidents in ride-sharing have made discovering the mechanisms to repair consumers' trust essential for the information technology (IT)-enabled ride-sharing platforms. The purpose of this paper is to explore how the two response strategies (i.e. security policies [SPs] and apologies) of platforms repair passengers' trust and whether the two implementation approaches of SPs (i.e. pull and push) lead to different results in repairing passengers' trust in the platforms.
Design/methodology/approach
A field survey based on a real scenario ( n = 238) and an experiment ( n = 245) were conducted to test the hypotheses empirically. Structural equation modeling and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) are employed in the data analyses.
Findings
This study finds that (1) both SPs and apologies aid in repairing trust; (2) repaired trust fully mediates the influence of SPs on continuance usage and partially mediates the influence of apologies on continuance usage; (3) security polices and the three dimensions of apologies play different roles in repairing trust and retaining passengers and (4) both pull-based and push-based SPs can repair the violated trust; however, the effect of the pull approach is greater than that of the push approach.
Practical implications
The findings provide guidelines for ride-sharing platforms in taking appropriate actions to repair users' trust after security incidents.
Originality/value
The findings reveal the mechanism of trust repairing in the fields of ride-sharing and extend the contents of the trust theory and pull–push theory.
Trust has a central role in healthcare encounters. This review explored concepts relevant to trust in dentist-patient relationships. The findings were demonstrated by drawing visual system maps for better understanding of the inherent complexity. A pragmatic approach was employed to search for evidence. The approach was initiated with a systematised searching protocol and followed by an iterative process of drawing maps and complementing references. The analysis-synthesis process found relevant key concepts and sub-concepts presented within three frameworks: the continuum of studying trust (utilisation, measurement, and establishment); beneficiaries of trust utilisation (patients, dentists, and oral health system); and a transformational model of trust development (identification-based, knowledge-based, and deterrence/calculus-based trust). Trust in dentist-patient relationships needs to be assessed in a multidisciplinary approach for interconnectedness among relevant concepts. The findings are represented in patient-centred care and quality of care with common underlying values. Despite the centrality of trust in medical/dental contexts, empirical evidence is insufficient beyond normative suggestions from previous studies. Based on the implications of thematic analysis and interpretation of the system maps, this paper can serve as a guide and source of information for further research of trust in dentist-patient relationships.
Trust repair between the communicative participants hinges not only on the cognitive
analysis of offence attribution and trustworthiness evaluation on the trustor's part, but also on the emotion management rendered necessary by the negative behavior. Based on authentic data, this research investigates the strategic efforts of pragmatic identity construction and its linguistic representation employed by the violator for trust repair. It is argued that analysis from the cognitive perspective alone fails to present a complete picture of trust reconstruction; emotion management is an integral part of trust repair strategies, and in eliminating the displeasure caused by the transgressor, it turns out to be important groundwork for trust restoration. This cognitive⁃emotional approach can shed light on studies on interpersonal pragmatic relation, in that it takes both trustor and trustee into consideration, and reveals the mechanism pertinent to the dynamic process of trust building.
This article presents a series of editorials in response to articles published in the issue as well as in previous issues, including the article “Negative affectivity and coping with job loss,” by J. M. George and A. P. Brief and “An integrative model of organizational trust,” by R. C. Mayer, J. H. Davis, and F. D. Schoorman. Topics of discussion include organizational behavior, industrial management, executive ability, and professional ethics.
An apology, as an expression of remorse, can be an effective response from a transgressor to obtain forgiveness from a victim. Yet, to be effective, the victim should not construe the transgressor’s actions in a cynical way. Because low-power people tend to interpret the actions of high-power people in a cynical way, we argue that an apology (versus no apology) from high-power transgressors should be relatively ineffective in increasing forgiveness from low-power victims. We find support for this moderated mediation model in a critical incidents study (Study 1), a forced recall study (Study 2) among employees from various organizations and a controlled laboratory experiment among business students (Study 3).
These studies reveal the limited value of expressions of remorse by high-power people in promoting forgiveness.
Purpose
The aim of the present research was to investigate how a negative decision outcome generated by a leader in a hasty, timely, or delayed manner impacts upon the need for, and the effectiveness of apologies to restore followers’ trust.
Design/Methodology/Approach
Data were collected using five studies in which the effects of timing of an incorrect decision on the trust repair process were investigated.
Findings
In the aftermath of a leader’s failure, followers experienced a delayed incorrect decision as a more severe transgression than a hasty or a timely incorrect decision. This effect was mediated by procedural fairness concerns (Study 1). The present findings also revealed an interesting paradox. Specifically, in the delayed condition followers expressed the highest need for an apology (Studies 2 and 3), but at the same time expected an apology to be less effective for enhancing trustworthiness than in the timely and the hasty condition (Study 3). Moreover, we also showed that the actual provision of an apology was effective for restoring both trustworthiness (Study 4) and trust (Studies 4 and 5) in the timely and the hasty condition, but ineffective in the delayed condition.
Implications
The present research shows that when the outcome of a decision is uncertain, it is better to make a decision (too) soon rather than (too) late.
Originality/Value
Despite the ubiquity of timing errors in daily life, our studies are the first to focus on the role of timeliness of decisions in the trust repair process.
In this chapter, we review some of the work on trust and show its relevance to effective conflict management. We also extend some of this work to a broader understanding of the key role of trust in relationships, and how different types of relationships can be characterized according to the levels of trust and distrust that are present. Finally, we describe procedures for rebuilding trust that has been broken, and for managing distrust in ways that can enhance short-term conflict containment while rebuilding trust over the long run. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Despite the widespread interest in forgiveness across a diversity of disciplines, the study of forgiveness has been strongly influenced by a psychological (i.e. individual-level) approach. Although this has provided many fruitful insights, it has also resulted in a fragmented literature that has underemphasized the multilevel and contextual nature of this phenomenon. Drawing upon a broad multidisciplinary approach, we provide a singular definition of forgiveness and integrate research on forgiveness into a multilevel systems approach. In doing so, we demonstrate that a deeper understanding can be realized by conceptualizing forgiveness as a part of a system of interconnecting psychological, social, structural, and cultural relations. By embedding forgiveness into context, our systems perspective provides novel insights into the factors that facilitate and constrain forgiveness at multiple levels of analysis, how the interplay between contextual levels can shape forgiveness at lower levels (e.g. individual level), and how examining forgiveness in organizational contexts can highlight the importance of examining other outcomes (e.g. reconciliation, peaceful co-existence, and détente) as well as facilitate the development of actionable theory.
Through a six-year qualitative study of medical residents, we build theory about professional identity construction. We found that identity construction was triggered by work-identity integrity violations: an experienced mismatch between what physicians did and who they were. These violations were resolved through identity customization processes (enriching, patching, or splinting), which were part of interrelated identity and work learning cycles. Implications of our findings (e.g., for member identification) for both theory and practice are discussed.
In this article we advance a distinctly relational view of negotiation. We delineate the conditions through which relational self-construals (RSC) become accessible in negotiations and the conditions that inhibit their use, and we illustrate mechanisms through which RSC affects negotiation processes and outcomes. We introduce four relational dynamics--arelational trading, relational satisficing, relational distancing, and relational integrating--and discuss their consequences for the accumulation of economic and relational capital in negotiation.
In this article we offer a dynamic relational perspective in which frames and framing work together in the practice of leadership development. Mead’s (1932) notion of sociality is introduced as a way of engaging with movements within and between frames, where it is these framing movements that we argue hold the potentiality of emergent practice. The article responds to a growing interest in the delineation, conceptualization and practice of leadership as opposed to leader development, where we understand leadership development in terms of the creation of social capital, relational capacity and collaboration. However, there is little, if any, research into how these dimensions may be developed intentionally in practice. Using online forum data from an 18-month-long leadership development programme, we demonstrate three different sociality movements, which we have labelled kindling, stretching and spanning. Our analysis positions sociality at the core of leadership development interventions, and practice more generally.
In this study, the authors examined the findings and implications of the research on trust in leadership that has been conducted during the past 4 decades. First, the study provides estimates of the primary relationships between trust in leadership and key outcomes, antecedents, and correlates (k = 106). Second, the study explores how specifying the construct with alternative leadership referents (direct leaders vs. organizational leadership) and definitions (types of trust) results in systematically different relationships between trust in leadership and outcomes and antecedents. Direct leaders (e.g., supervisors) appear to be a particularly important referent of trust. Last, a theoretical framework is offered to provide parsimony to the expansive literature and to clarify the different perspectives on the construct of trust in leadership and its operation.
We propose a future-oriented model that focuses on the reconciliation of the supervisor—subordinate relationship after a workplace injustice. First, we propose factors associated with the victim’s sensemaking process that influence the need for relationship reconciliation efforts: the seriousness of the violation, blame attribution, and equity sensitivity. We address the moderating effects of relationship characteristics, such as the existing trust reservoir and level of interdependence. Next, we propose that relationship outcomes will be influenced by characteristics of the relationship repair effort. Lastly, we examine the outcomes of successful reconciliation: forgiveness and restored trust and the moderating effects of victim characteristics.
Why do people choose to apologize or withhold apology, and what are the consequences of these decisions? We addressed these questions in two within-participants studies of undergraduates. Participants consistently reported more regret about non-apology than apology. Regrets about apology were linked with mutual grudges, protests of innocence, unsafe relationships, and apologies seen as insincere, premature, or fear-based. Regrets about non-apology were linked with persistent remorse, self-punishing attitudes, and seeing the offended party as innocent of wrongdoing. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.
Guided by Robinson’s general belief that polite language yields trust from others, the authors examined the likelihood of apology acceptance in two cultures (Japan and the United States).Prior to reading a scenario in which they were to imagine being mistreated by their classmates, the participants were randomly assigned to one of three perspective-taking conditions: (a) recall times when they mistreated or hurt others in the past; (b) imagine how the victimized classmate would think, feel, and behave in the scenario; or (c) imagine the situation as the personal victim. Participants then read the scenario, which was followed by an elaborate apology from the classmate. Results from both cultures indicated that, compared with the participants in the control condition, the participants in the recall-self-as-wrongdoer condition were significantly more likely to accept the apology from the classmate and forgive the transgression. Expected and unexpected cultural differences also were found.
Work relationships have come to form the very foundation of organizations and the contemporary embodiment of how most work gets accomplished, and there has been increased scholarly interest in this area. Although research has investigated the nature of high-quality and low-quality work relationships, few attempts have taken that next important step in more precisely articulating the actual dimensions that underlie work relationships, how they relate to one another, and how, as contextual background, they frame and influence organizational phenomena. In an effort to help address this gap in our understanding of relationships at work, this study briefly reviews the relevant literature on work relationships, extracting what is currently known about the specific aspects or underlying dimensions of such relationships. Then, the authors introduce an integrative multidimensional conceptualization of dyadic work relationships, which specifies the critical foundational dimensions and processes, and discusses the implications for future theory and research.
We propose a new theoretical framework for understanding simultaneous trust and distrust within relationships. grounded in assumptions of multidimensionality and the inherent tensions of relationships. and we separate this research from prior work grounded in assumptions of unidimensionality and balance. Drawing foundational support for this new framework from recent research on simultaneous positive and negative sentiments and ambivalence. we explore the theoretical and practical sig- nificance of the framework for future work on trust and distrust relationships within organizations.
This article reports a test of a longitudinal model linking interpersonal conflict communication and relationship quality. The model stresses episodic factors that function to mediate the conflict-relationship link. In particular, the competence-based model specifies that assessments of competence and one's own communication satisfaction filter the effects of conflict on relational quality when measured concurrently at Time 1 (T1). In addition, the competence-based model includes the hypothesized impact of relational features at T1 on conflict strategies weeks later at Time 2 (T2), which indicates a reciprocal causal connection between message behavior and relational features. Structural equation modeling analyses support the mediational role of episodic assessments, which constitutes the heart of the model. However, relational quality at T1 did not predict conflict behavior at T2. Instead, analyses revealed that conflict behavior at T1 and partner conflict at T2 predict conflict behavior at T2.
This study addressed the nature and functioning of relationships of interpersonal trust among managers and professionals in organizations, the factors influencing trust's development, and the implications of trust for behavior and performance. Theoretical foundations were drawn from the sociological literature on trust and the social-psychological literature on trust in close relationships. An initial test of the proposed theoretical framework was conducted in a field setting with 194 managers and professionals.
Developing and maintaining trust in work relationships The past decade has seen dramatic changes in the modern organization. New organizational linkages, strategic alliances, partnerships, and joint ventures are being formed to achieve and maintain competitive advantage in the marketplace. New linkages require organizations to move away from the more traditional hierarchical forms and toward networks and alliances. These new forms are designed to be more responsive to rapid change, enable entrepreneurial activity to flourish within the organization and across its boundaries, and increase the effectiveness of communication and problem solving across departments, locations, functional responsibilities, and organizational boundaries. In their recent work, Managing the New Organization , Limerick and Cunnington (1993) emphasize nine crucial competencies for managing networks, within and across organizational boundaries. Interpersonal dynamics between key actors within a network or alliance are critical elements in this list of competencies, and trust is central to this list: The key ...
Social exchange theory (SET) is one the most influential conceptual paradigms in organizational behavior. Despite its usefulness, theoretical ambiguities within SET remain. As a consequence, tests of the model, as well as its applications, tend to rely on an incompletely specified set of ideas. The authors address conceptual difficulties and highlight areas in need of additional research. In so doing, they pay special attention to four issues: (a) the roots of the conceptual ambiguities, (b) norms and rules of exchange, (c) nature of the resources being exchanged, and (d) social exchange relationships.
Previous work has explored the influence that apologies have on the settlement of civil legal disputes. This study explored 2 aspects of apologies that commonly arise in the legal setting-the fact that many apologies may be negotiated with or requested from a wrongdoer in the context of settlement discussions and the possibility that an apology may be offered by a wrongdoer's attorney rather than personally by the offender. In general, apologies given following a negligent action were found to improve perceptions of the offender and the situation. Full apologies that were given in response to a request by the injured party or at the suggestion of a mediator were viewed in ways that were similar to the same apology given spontaneously. On the other hand, full apologies that were offered by an attorney on behalf of the wrongdoer, although improving perceptions somewhat, were less effective than apologies offered directly by the wrongdoer. The motives attributed to the apologizer and general attitudes toward the civil litigation system also influenced perceptions of apologies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Trust is critical for building and maintaining relationships and for effectively working together. When trust is broken is has serious consequences for both individuals and organizations. In this review we examine the research on how to repair broken trust. We begin by defining trust, how it is broken, how the actor’s violation is attributed, and what it means to repair it. We then discuss two dominant trust repair strategies: short-term and long-term. Short-term strategies include verbal statements such as excuses, apologies, and denials, and compensatory arrangements such as repayment for a loss. Longer-term strategies include structural rearrangements of the relationship (e.g., contracts, monitoring), reframing the violation (e.g., attempts to shift blame, mitigate perceptions of harm), granting forgiveness, and remaining silent. Lastly, we discuss concerns for the future of trust research such as construct clarity, measurement, and contextual considerations. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior Volume 4 is March 21, 2017. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to apply insights from social role theory to trust repair, highlighting the underexplored implications of gender. Trust repair may be more difficult following violations that are incongruent with the transgressor’s gender role.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper reviews research on trust repair, particularly Kim et al. ’s (2004, 2006) discovery that apologizing with internal attributions is best for ability-related violations and denying responsibility is best for integrity-related violations. Propositions about trust repair are grounded in attribution and social role theory.
Findings
Trust violations may incur a bigger backlash when they are incongruent with gender roles, particularly for individuals in gender-incongruent professions and cultures with low gender egalitarianism. Men may find ability-related violations more difficult to repair. Women may find repairing benevolence and integrity-related violations more difficult. When apologies are offered, attributions that are consistent with gender roles (internal attributions for men, external attributions for women) may be most effective.
Practical implications
Gender can be a relevant factor in trust repair. Policies and training addressing conflict should consider how these differences manifest.
Originality/value
Gender role differences have largely been overlooked in trust repair. By integrating social role theory and exploring benevolence-based violations, this paper offers a more complete understanding of trust repair.
Trust plays a fundamental role in facilitating social exchange, yet recent global events have undermined trust in many of society’s institutions and organizations. This raises the pertinent question of how trust in organizations and institutions can be restored once it has been lost. The emerging literature on trust repair is largely focused at the micro level, with limited examination of how these processes operate at the macro level and across levels. In this introductory essay, we show how the papers in this special issue each advance our understanding of macro-level trust repair. We draw on these papers, as well as the extant interdisciplinary literature, to propose an integrated conceptual model of six key mechanisms for restoring trust in organizations and institutions, highlighting the merits, limits and paradoxes of each. We conclude that no single mechanism can be relied on to rebuild organizational trust and identify a future research agenda for advancing scholarly understanding of organizational and institutional trust repair.
Although trust is an underdeveloped concept in sociology, promising theoretical formulations are available in the recent work
of Luhmann and Barber. This sociological version complements the psychological and attitudinal conceptualizations of experimental
and survey researchers. Trust is seen to include both emotional and cognitive dimensions and to function as a deep assumption
underwriting social order. Contemporary examples such as lying, family exchange, monetary attitudes, and litigation illustrate
the centrality of trust as a sociological reality.
Despite a significant amount of theoretical and empirical attention, the connection between justice and trust remains poorly understood. Our study utilized Mayer, Davis, and Schoorman's (1995) distinction between trustworthiness (the ability, benevolence, and integrity of a trustee) and trust (a willingness to be vulnerable to the trustee) to clarify that connection. More specifically, we drew on a theoretical integration of social exchange theory, the relational model, and fairness heuristic theory to derive predictions about the relationships among justice, trustworthiness, and trust, with supervisors as the referent. A longitudinal field study stretching over two periods showed that informational justice was a significant predictor of subsequent trust perceptions, even when analyses controlled for prior levels of trust and trustworthiness. However, the relationship between justice and trustworthiness was shown to be reciprocal. Procedural and interpersonal justice were significant predictors of subsequent levels of benevolence and integrity, with integrity predicting subsequent levels of all four justice dimensions. We describe the theoretical implications of these results for future research in the justice and trust literatures.
How can relationships be repaired after being damaged? There is a small but growing body of work on the topic from a number of different disciplinary perspectives using different theoretical lenses and at different levels of analysis. We begin by examining the existing streams of work on relationship repair and organizing them into a conceptual framework. We then consider four questions that probe assumptions or overlooked issues in existing research with the intent of moving toward a more comprehensive conceptual foundation.
We examine the repair of one party's trust in another via repairing trustworthiness (Mayer, Davis, & Schoorman, 1995). Based on Weiner's (1986) causal attribution theory, we posit that causal attributions (i.e., locus of causality, controllability, and stability) for the cause of a negative outcome in a trusting relationship explain when trustworthiness is in need of repair and how trustworthiness may be repaired by the trustee's efforts. We also discuss the role of specific emotional reactions of the truster in this process.
Scholars have called for examinations of trust at the dyadic level, but only recently have we begun to see trust examined as a dyadic phenomenon from multiple perspectives. This review examines three approaches to understanding dyadic trust: reciprocal trust, wherein one party's trust influences the other party's trust; mutual trust, wherein both parties share a given level of trust that has important consequences for the dyad; and asymmetric trust, wherein each party has a different level of trust, and this disparity has consequences for the dyad. We provide a critical analysis of the empirical research addressing these three approaches and suggest future research directions to provide a more comprehensive view of dyadic trust.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of damage incurred by the trustor as a result of a trust violation and the impact of different levels of post-violation trust repair behaviours by the trustee on the subsequent erosion of trust.
Design/methodology/approach
– Data were collected from 232 middle to senior level managers using a two-part scenario-based experimental design to test the impact of damage incurred (avoided) and post-violation repair behaviour. Respondents’ levels of trust were measured pre- and post-violation as well as forgiving and a range of demographic variables.
Findings
– Results showed that trust eroded independent of the level of damage that may have been caused. Further, post-violation trust repair behaviour by the trustee led to a significantly lower erosion of trust as compared to not engaging in such behaviours. Furthermore, erosion of trust was minimized, when the trustee engaged in increasing levels of trust repair behaviour. Results also showed that trustors who were relatively more forgiving were less likely to lose trust in the trustee after a violation.
Research limitations/implications
– In this study we focused on two key factors influencing the erosion of trust. Further factors need to be identified and empirically tested in order to get a more holistic view on how trust erodes. The results serve as one step towards building an integrated model of trust erosion.
Practical implications
– For practicing managers, the results imply that the actual incurrence or avoidance of damages from a trust violation appears to be peripheral – trustors are more concerned about the violation as a principle and a harbinger of similar future incidents. Further, quickly engaging in trust repair behaviours, such as offering an a good explanation, a heartfelt apology, and appropriate remedy, helps minimize the erosion of trust.
Originality/value
– This paper addresses an under-investigated facet of trust research in organizations – erosion of trust – which is especially crucial in light of the growing awareness that most organizational relationships actually start off with high levels of trust rather than low trust. Thus, this study offers insights into maintaining (as opposed to building) trust.
Eighty subjects viewed a videotaped simulated debate between an incumbent candidate and his challenger for a fictitious post of County Commissioner. In a 2 × 2 × 2 design, either the incumbent candidate or his subordinate was accused of sexual or financial misconduct, and the incumbent candidate either denied the misconduct charges or apologized for the misconduct. Consistent with Schlenker's (1980) theory of "impression management," denial of misconduct charges was a more effective strategy in obtaining votes than apologizing for misconduct. The candidate was also viewed more negatively if he was directly accused of misconduct than if his subordinate was accused. Voting patterns of subjects in the study were consistent with ratings of the honesty, ethics, and trustworthiness of the incumbent candidate.
This paper examines the interactive effects of apology source (i.e., whether an apology is given by a chief executive officer or employee) and apology components (i.e., acknowledgment, remorse, and compensation) on forgiveness. Results revealed a significant source by component interaction. A remorseful employee apology was more successful than a remorseful CEO apology because consumers felt more empathy for the employee. Furthermore, a compensatory CEO apology was more effective than a compensatory employee apology because CEOs could significantly affect consumer perceptions of justice. No significant differences were found between apology source and the apology component of acknowledging violated rules and norms.
Trust is critical for organizations, effective management, and efficient negotiations, yet trust violations are common. Prior work has often assumed trust to be fragile-easily broken and difficult to repair. We investigate this proposition in a laboratory study and find that trust harmed by untrustworthy behavior can be effectively restored when individuals observe a consistent series of trustworthy actions. Trust harmed by the same untrustworthy actions and deception, however, never fully recovers-even when deceived participants receive a promise, an apology, and observe a consistent series of trustworthy actions. We also find that a promise to change behavior can significantly speed the trust recovery process, but prior deception harms the effectiveness of a promise in accelerating trust recovery. (c) 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
120 undergraduates were asked to imagine themselves as the central character in a scenario in which they inadvertently bumped into another person in a public place. The actor's responsibility for the incident and the amount of harm done to the "victim" were systematically manipulated. As hypothesized, apologies were used in a perfunctory manner (saying "Pardon me" and then going about one's business) when the consequences of the event were minor. As the consequences became more negative, Ss employed an increased number of apology components, such as saying they were sorry, expressing remorse, and offering to help the victim. When high responsibility and high consequences coexisted, Ss were most likely to employ self-castigation and explicitly request forgiveness. Results support the hypothesis that as the severity of a social predicament increases, so does both the use of nonperfunctory apologies and the number of components employed in apologies. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recognizing gaps in our present understanding of leader apologies, this investigation examines how followers appraise leader apologies and how these perceptions impact work-related outcomes. Results indicate that followers who viewed their leader as trustworthy or caring before a leader wrongdoing were more likely to perceive their leader’s apology to be sincere, as compared to followers who previously doubted their leader’s trustworthiness and caring. Attributions of apology sincerity affected follower reactions, with followers perceiving sincere apologies reporting greater trust in leadership, satisfaction with supervision, leader–member exchange quality, affective organizational commitment, and forgiveness than those reporting insincere or no apologies. A mediation model was supported, showing that attributions of apology sincerity fostered perceptions of humility, which enhanced perceptions of transformational leadership, and consequently garnered more positive follower reactions.
Compared to prior trust repair research that has focused on reactions by the trustor to social accounts or actions by the trustee, this research examines two contextual factors posited to affect the perceived need for and difficulty of repairing trust after a negative outcome. Based on interdependence theory, propositions involving the unique and joint effects of relationship dependence and outcome severity are developed.
This paper presents a model of trust and its interaction with information flow, influence, and control, and reports on an experiment based on the model to test several hypotheses about problem-solving effectiveness. The subjects were managers and the independent variable was the individual manager's initial level of trust. Groups of business executives were given identical factual information about a difficult manufacturing-marketing policy problem; half the groups were briefed to expect trusting behavior, the other half to expect untrusting behavior. There were highly significant differences in effectiveness between the high-trust groups and the low-trust groups in the clarification of goals, the reality of information exchanged, the scope of search for solutions, and the commitment of managers to implement solutions. The findings indicate that shared trust or lack of trust apparently are a significant determinant of managerial problem-solving effectiveness.
Recent research has emphasized the effectiveness of excuses in protecting the self from the implications of failures and transgressions. The disadvantages of excuses have been relatively neglected. The triangle model of responsibility provides a conceptual framework to analyze how excuses disengage the self from events and the conditions under which advantages and disadvantages accrue. On the disadvantage side, excuse-makers risk being seen as deceptive, self-absorbed, and ineffectual; they are viewed as unreliable social participants with flawed character These undesired consequences result when excuses are used in ways that lower credibility (e.g., fail to receive corroboration), lower goodwill (e.g., blamefailures on team members), and produce long-term disengagement (e.g., lead to failures to correct personal deficiencies). It is proposed that excuses are effective in the long run only if they balance short-term disengagement of the self and long-term engagement. Excuses are especially problematic when used to disengage the self from important, recurring tasks.
DOI:https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.34.601
Building on Goffman's (1967) notion of interaction rituals, we propose a process model, a causal model, and several propositions about effective relationship restoration behavior following relationship conflict. We conceptualize relationship restoration as a ritualistic process triggered by a violation. We identify two types of relationship violations and show how they are linked to different restoration processes. We also argue that culture governs restoration rituals for different violations. Therefore, effective relationship restoration results from an interaction of the disputants' cultures, the violation type, and the type of restoration mechanism offered.
The classical exchange theorists proposed that trust is more likely to develop between partners when exchange occurs without explicit negotiations or binding agreements. Under these conditions, the risk and uncertainty of exchange provide the opportunity for partners to demonstrate their trustworthiness. This study develops the theoretical implications of this proposition and conducts an experimental test that compares levels of both trust and commitment in two forms of direct exchange, negotiated and reciprocal. The results support the classical proposition, showing that reciprocal exchange produces stronger trust and affective commitment than negotiated exchange, and that behaviors signaling the partner's trustworthiness have greater impact on trust in reciprocal exchange.
Data from 263 individuals who had been hurt by something a dating partner said or did offered support for the interpersonal forgiveness model—forgiveness associated positively with integrative communication and negatively with de-escalation and distributive communication. When hurt individuals believed the partner had sincerely apologized they were more likely to grant forgiveness and report using the direct strategies of integrative and distributive communication, and less likely to report using de-escalation and loyalty. Among the various hurtful events investigated, breaking up with the partner and being sexually unfaithful were reportedly the least forgivable offenses.