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Abstract

Much has been written about the potential benefits of translational research in behavior analysis, but a lack of consensus about what constitutes “translational” creates a barrier to effective knowledge–practice innovation within the discipline and across other sciences. We propose a tiered system, adapted from a biomedical translational pathway, for classifying behavior analysis research on a basic–applied spectrum. Tier 0 is blue sky basic science in which the subjects, behaviors, stimuli, and settings are selected for convenience. Tier 1 is use-inspired basic science with a socially important end game and research subject. Tier 2 is solution-oriented research that attempts to solve a specific problem in a socially important subject, but 1 or more aspects of the research are selected for purposes of experimental control rather than social importance. Tier 3 is applied behavior analysis research that studies a problem of social significance for the subject and involves behaviors, stimuli, and settings that are socially important. Tier 4 is impact assessment in which behavioral technology is applied with a direct benefit to society. We provide examples of behavior–analytic research in each tier and evaluate the potential benefits of organizing behavior analysis in this way.

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... In the field of behavior analysis, discussion related to the continuum of the research process has included the importance of ecological validity. Kyonka and Subramaniam (2018) proposed a tiered spectrum to conduct research. In lower tiers (i.e., tier 0-tier 2), they suggested that the research emphasis should be placed on internal validity and experimental control, whereas in higher tiers (tiers 3 and 4), less emphasis is placed on internal validity and a much greater emphasis placed on ecological validity and societal relevance. ...
... Variables that were assessed for ecological validity included several that align with the definition proposed by Schmuckler (2001) along with other variables that appear to be outside the bounds of the definition (e.g., cost, stakeholder report, technological description of the study, etc.). Nevertheless, they concluded that there were a limited number of studies that assessed ecological validity that further highlight the need for tier 3 and tier 4 research in behavior analysis (Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018). Taken together, it is critical that the behavior-analytic community investigates both the effectiveness of intervention along with the ecological validity of "real-world" interventions to support populations who are in dire need of support (Ishler et al. 2023). ...
... Based upon Fahmie et al.'s findings and their proposed tool that structures the detection to which research is ecologically valid, we propose that collaboration between researchers and clinicians is crucial to advance synthetic behavior-analytic research that places primary emphasis on effectiveness and ecological validity. Furthermore, this proposed collaborative research effort between clinicians and researchers is consistent with tiers 3 and 4 as described by Kyonka and Subramaniam (2018). ...
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Objectives Individuals diagnosed with intellectual and/or developmental disabilities (IDDs) are often excluded from community-based activities. One common reason for exclusion is the occurrence of severe challenging behavior in the community. The objective of this study was to support this population’s inclusion in community-based activities. Methods We evaluated the effectiveness and ecological validity of two multicomponent behavior interventions aimed to reduce challenging behavior in community-based contexts using a single-case experimental design for two participants. Prior to intervention, both youths with IDD were restricted from community outings due to challenging behavior in those settings and challenging behavior previously resulted in police intervention. Results For both individuals and based upon visual analysis, multicomponent behavior intervention resulted in successful community outings when progressing from a practice context to a community-based context. Furthermore, multicomponent intervention gains were identified across a variety of local community stores when parents implemented intervention. Conclusions These findings (a) highlight the importance of ecologically valid research in behavior analysis and (b) support the use of multicomponent behavior intervention implemented by parents in community-based contexts.
... Several authors in behavior analysis have traced the origin of the distinction between basic and applied research to a report by Vannevar Bush, the director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development under U.S. President Roosevelt (e.g., Hantula, 2019;Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018;Virués-Ortega et al., 2014). In this report, Bush (1945) introduced the definitions of basic and applied research to a broader community: ...
... Behavior analysis and other fields such as the biomedical sciences have lacked pathways for translational research (Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018). Hake (1982) acknowledged the importance of bridge research in promoting interactions between the basic and applied ends of the continuum. ...
... Inspired by the biomedical model of translational research mentioned above, Kyonka and Subramaniam (2018) proposed a tiered spectrum model that captures the bidirectional or multidirectional process involved in research in behavior analysis (Mace & Critchfield, 2010). The five-tier model brings more nuance to the simplistic basicapplied dichotomous spectrum and focuses on organizing the research by its methods. ...
Article
Several barriers may inhibit the growth of behavior analysis as a more integrated and collaborative field. Two such barriers are siloed environments that reinforce a basic-applied distinction, and a lack of translational research pathways. We describe the perils of silos, and elaborate on potential solutions to increase reciprocal relations among subfields in behavior analysis. We promote a five-tiered system to classify research in behavior analysis, and discuss literature on cultivating effective intra and cross-disciplinary collaborations, including using the framework of metacontingencies to understand collaborations. We also propose quantitative and qualitative measures to examine whether the potential solutions increase intra and interdisciplinary interactions. These measures include bibliometric (e.g., citations across fields), sociometric (e.g., social network analysis), and narrative analysis. We apply some of these measures to publications from 2011–2022 from the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior and Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, and argue that behavior analysis overall may benefit from a more collaborative approach. Read more here: https://rdcu.be/dhQdd
... That is, applied research rarely involves responses that are distinct from the problem of interest (e.g., questionnaire responses as an index of depression). When applied researchers have studied behavioral proxies, or arbitrary responses, the research is often referred to as "translational" instead of "applied" (Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018). However, other features of applied research, such as the study setting, implementer, materials, experimental design, and components of the independent variable (e.g., antecedents and consequences) are more often contrived. ...
... In contrast, when the goal of research is optimal societal change, higher degrees of ecological validity become important to demonstrating treatment efficacy under natural conditions (Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018). For example, Lora et al. (2020) taught problem-solving skills to four adolescents with autism spectrum disorder to improve independence and ultimately increase employment opportunities. ...
... Because ecological validity is not always an important outcome of behavioral research, the extent to which ecological validity is sought or achieved is balanced with other constructs (e.g., internal validity), constraints (e.g., time), and purposes (e.g., discover basic processes) of the study. For example, ecological validity may be intentionally sacrificed to improve the safety, feasibility, efficiency, or precision of a study (Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018). Therefore, the tool was not intended to measure ecological validity as a metric of the study's contributions relative to the available literature, so we avoided formats that assigned values or scores to the study. ...
Article
Ecological validity refers to how closely an experiment aligns with real‐world phenomena. In applied behavioral research, ecological validity may guide decisions about experimental settings, stimuli, people, and other design features. However, inconsistent use of the term ecological validity in the published literature has led to a somewhat disjointed technology. The purposes of this paper were to review current uses of the term “ecological validity” in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, propose ways to make a study more ecologically valid, and develop a checklist to assist in identifying the type and degree of ecological validity in any given study.
... Yet, some do not see a problem here, positing that perhaps the principle of positive reinforcement discovered through decades of basic research is sufficient for application (Baer, 1981), or that ABA and EAB have speciated as a natural consequence of changing social values (Rider, 1991)-c'est la vie. Others do see a problem and propose various schemes for translational research reminiscent of Bush's (1945) expanded definition of basic research (Critchfield, 2011;Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018;Mace & Critchfield, 2010). ...
... However, in behavior science as well as in medical science, a science-application feedback loop appears to be more necessary (Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018). Perhaps it is because behavior science and medical science are not as highly developed as physical sciences and the solutions themselves are less robust, or perhaps it is because behavior science and medical science are tackling more difficult problems. ...
... This can be difficult for samples with more sociodemographic restrictions and additional intersectional contexts like medical co-morbidities and diagnoses (Andrade, 2018). Further, previous critiques of ecological validity have found that when research objectives center on promoting societal change, an emphasis on ecological validity becomes increasingly important to demonstrate sustainability of findings (Fahmie et al., 2023;Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018). One identified method for increasing ecological validity in research is using participant-informed sources, such as openended surveys directly sampling the population of interest (Fahmia et al., 2023). ...
... The esoteric nature of EAB (Poling, 2010) can make our scientific conclusions relatively inaccessible. The indirect nature of benefits of EAB to individuals and society (Critchfield, 2011;Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018;Mace & Critchfield, 2010) can mean that dissemination occurs over a long time frame and in ways that make the important contributions of EAB research difficult to recognize. Finally, asymmetrical citations of nonhuman and human operant research (Perone, 1985) and disciplinary centrism (Kirby et al., 2022;Neuringer, 1991) place additional boundaries around basic research. ...
Article
The principles of social justice, equity, diversity, inclusion (JEDI) have received increasing attention in behavior analysis circles, but the conversation has largely centered on implications for applied behavior analysis practice and research. It may be less clear to researchers who conduct basic and translational research how JEDI principles can inform and inspire their work. This article synthesizes publications from behavior analysis and other scientific fields about tactics of JEDI‐informed research. We organized this scholarship across five stages of research from developing the research question to sharing findings and curated sources for an audience of behavioral science researchers. We discuss reflexive practice, representation, belongingness, participatory research, quantitative critical theory, and open science, among other topics. Some researchers may have already adopted some of the practices outlined, some may begin new practices, and some may choose to conduct experimental analyses of JEDI problems. Our hope is that those actions will be reinforced by the behavior analysis scientific community. We conclude by encouraging the leadership of this journal to continue to work toward the structural changes necessary to make the experimental analysis of behavior just, equitable, diverse, and inclusive.
... Chapter 17 (Conducting and Disseminating Research) closes the Guidebook by highlighting the bidirectional relationship between research and practice. It is helpful to view research as a spectrum rather than a dichotomy between basic and applied research, which spans from basic laboratory research to implementation research in real-world settings (Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018). Although translation across the research spectrum is valued in behavior analysis (e.g., the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis has a special editor for translational research, the Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior provides grant opportunities for translational research), there is scant research conducted in nonuniversity settings, where practitioners may face unique barriers to service provision (e.g., insurance funding, licensure laws and regulations) that may not be accounted for in ABA research. ...
Article
The second edition of Applied Behavior Analysis Advanced Guidebook: A Manual for Professional Practice (Luiselli, 2023) covers 17 chapters on topics that are relevant to applied behavior analysis practitioners. In this review, we discuss the purpose and intended audience of the Guidebook, briefly summarize the contents of the Guidebook, and critically evaluate the contents with respect to breadth and depth, audience fit, organization, and cohesion. In addition, we discuss emerging areas that are highlighted in the Guidebook (i.e., technology and telehealth, diversity and multiculturism, and practice-oriented research).
... Behavior analytic methods provide a robust means to assess functional outcomes, which is highly useful for translational science. Some have argued that behavior analysis needs to adopt a stronger translational pipeline (Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018), which will require considerations for the biases that emerge from the single-subject approach. In nomothetic designs, issues can occur when generalizing from population-level effects to individuals (Fisher et al., 2018). ...
Article
A core feature of behavior analysis is the single-subject design, in which each subject serves as its own control. This approach is powerful for identifying manipulations that are causal to behavioral changes but often fails to account for individual differences, particularly when coupled with a small sample size. It is more common for other subfields of psychology to use larger-N approaches; however, these designs also often fail to account for the individual by focusing on aggregate-level data only. Moving forward, it is important to study individual differences to identify subgroups of the population that may respond differently to interventions and to improve the generalizability and reproducibility of behavioral science. We propose that large-N datasets should be used in behavior analysis to better understand individual subject variability. First, we describe how individual differences have been historically treated and then outline practical reasons to study individual subject variability. Then, we describe various methods for analyzing large-N datasets while accounting for the individual, including correlational analyses, machine learning, mixed-effects models, clustering, and simulation. We provide relevant examples of these techniques from published behavioral literature and from a publicly available dataset compiled from five different rat experiments, which illustrates both group-level effects and heterogeneity across individual subjects. We encourage other behavior analysts to make use of the substantial advancements in online data sharing to compile large-N datasets and use statistical approaches to explore individual differences.
... The purpose of this special issue is to highlight ways that behavior analysis can contribute to and support the development of evidence-based applications with animals from multiple positions on the spectrum (Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018) from the experimental analysis of behavior (EAB) to practice. There is a need for replications and extensions of technologies derived from basic research to applied animal settings. ...
Article
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Though operant learning has been applied to socially significant animal behavior for many years, connections between these practical applications and the basic science that supports them have weakened over time. There is a need for replications and extensions of technologies derived from basic research to applied animal settings, and for practical questions to be taken back to the lab where they can be modeled and studied under controlled conditions before incorporating the results in applied behavior‐change research and practice. This special issue highlights ways that behavior analysis can contribute to and support the development of evidence‐based applications with animals. Articles in this issue provide context for the relationship between basic research and practice in animal behavior, apply basic principles to animal behavior practice, and investigate practical problems using basic research techniques. Each of these is important for a robust interchange between basic science and practice. Here we comment on the contributions of each article to the literature and identify directions for future research.
... Our approach suggests that basic and applied research are extremes on a spectrum, and the differences between these areas can be viewed in terms of scale. While this idea of a spectrum is not novel (Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018), by presenting this as a difference in scale we hope that readers will (potentially more clearly) see how the skills and approaches brought by basic and applied areas 1) not only complement one another, but are similar in nature and different in scale, 2) can be used to create more effective practice, and 3) create a deeper understanding of behavior. This perspective aims to demonstrate how valuable this kind of approach can be for those willing to seek it out. ...
Article
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Traditional discussions involving ‘basic’ and ‘applied’ behavioral research often focus on the differences, or gaps, between these areas. They take place in different environments, use different methods, ask different questions, and have different objectives. Applied animal behavior is no exception. Focusing on the differences in these areas is to the detriment of a cohesive and complete understanding of animal behavior. This paper instead focuses on the similarities between these two sides, and presents them as a matter of scale. A series of real‐life examples experienced by the authors is used to highlight how the skills and knowledge of both the applied and the basic sides are valuable and necessary to not only further both fields independently, but to develop a comprehensive understanding of animal behavior.
... Although the fields of basic and applied behavior analysis share a common theoretical orientation and research methodology, their goals are distinct (Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018). Basic research asks general questions about environmentbehavior relations in an attempt to isolate the effects of independent variables. ...
Article
Nathan H. Azrin (1930-2013) contributed extensively to the fields of experimental and applied behavior analysis. His creative and prolific research programs covered a wide range of experimental and applied areas that resulted in 160 articles and several books published over a period of almost 6 decades. As a result, his career illustrates an unparalleled example of translational work in behavior analysis, which has had a major impact not only within our field, but across disciplines and outside academia. In the current article we present a summary of Azrin's wide ranging contributions in the areas of punishment, behavioral engineering, conditioned reinforcement and token economies, feeding disorders, toilet training, overcorrection, habit disorders, in-class behavior, job finding, marital therapy, and substance abuse. In addition, we use scientometric evidence to gain an insight on Azrin's general approach to treatment evaluation and programmatic research. The analysis of Azrin's approach to research, we believe, holds important lessons to behavior analysts today with an interest in the applied and translational sectors of our science. Supplementary information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40614-020-00278-4.
... A influência exercida pela pesquisa básica e aplicada sobre o pesquisador translacional pode não ser de equidade (ver Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018, para uma tentativa de classificação de diferentes tipos de pesquisa translacional de acordo com o ponto que ocupam no espectro pesquisa básica-aplicada). Isto é, um estudo translacional pode ter mais em comum com a pesquisa básica ou aplicada a depender de como é feita a pergunta de pesquisa. ...
Chapter
O livro “Análise do Comportamento e suas aplicações: desafios e possibilidades”, surgiu do interesse de apresentar alguns recortes das mais diversas áreas de atuação do Psicólogo, em que tem sido aplicada a tecnologia comportamental exatamente com o intuito de entender essas relações e o fenômeno comportamental que vigora em torno delas, divulgando e esclarecendo sobre a prática do analista do comportamento na pluralidade de áreas de atuação da psicologia. Este livro dá uma amostra excelente do que é atualmente o trabalho profissional do analista do comportamento no Brasil. São 11 capítulos neste primeiro volume reunindo grandes nomes que se destacam em sua geração.
... With this proposed in mind in addition with the premise where the psychology have a special interest in human behavior analysis and it modification with direct intervention (Biglan, Zettle, Hayes, & Barnes-Holmes, 2016); it would be possible underline certain analytic and technological approaches from the fields of Behavior Analysis (e.g., experiential analysis of behavior and applied behavioral analysis, respectively) (Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018;Peña-Correal, 2016). Within those, there is the Relational Frame Theory (RFT), which proposes a language and cognition explanation in terms of contingency relations between individual behavior and environment. ...
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The aim of this translational research was to investigate the effect of differential training in three types of rule-governed behavior (RGB) on compliance and transgression with pedestrian traffic rules. Participants were 231 university students divided in three groups defined by the type of training (pliance, tracking and augmenting). The design consisted of pre-tests and post-tests, in addition of a training phase with direct reinforcement that defined by the group each participant belonged. The results showed a general trend of compliance to the rule in all phases, particularly with tracking-consequences in pre and post-training. In all experimental groups, training in RGB increased compliance of traffic rules. These findings allow the formulation of evidence-based guidelines for the design, implementation and evaluation of road programs to accident prevention.
... Kyonka & Subramaniam, 2018 ...
... Taxonomy, n. 1. Classification, especially in relation to its general rules or principles 2. The science of classification 3. The theory and practice of delimiting kinds of organisms and classifying them Burrows, 2011 John Van Hoorst biodiversitylibrary.org/page/12839768 Kyonka & Subramaniam (2018) proposed a new taxonomy of behavior analysis. A basic-applied spectrum divided into five tiers based on whether research subjects, target behaviors, study stimuli and data collection setting are "convenient" or "socially important." ...
Conference Paper
The scientific activities of behavior analysts are governed by the same principles that govern all behavior. Employing techniques from other fields to study behavior analysis research and education can clarify our identities and suggest avenues for advancing our field. Ecology is the study of how organisms relate to one another and to their physical environment. Insights from ecology can be applied to behavior analysis within the ecosystem of modern academic science. For example, taxonomy is a branch of ecology concerned with the description and classification of organisms. Organizing empirical research into a taxonomy can provide direction to behavior analysts by identifying knowledge gaps and emerging areas of enquiry. In population dynamics, an r-selective breeding strategy involves little investment in a large number of offspring and a K-selective breeding strategy involves large investments in few offspring. One strategy is not inherently better than the other; each is successful in different circumstances. Similar tradeoffs exist in graduate education and professional development. Using an r/K selection heuristic may help behavior analysts (whether they are foxes, hedgehogs, or something else) make career choices. Viewing academia as an ecosystem can enable us to apply successful methods of science to our own affairs. Slides and other information available at qablab.com/science
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The behavioral repertoire grows and develops through a lifetime in a manner intricately dependent on bidirectional connections between its current form and the shaping environment. Behavior analysis has discovered many of the key relationships that occur between repertoire elements that govern this constant metamorphosis, including the behavioral cusp: an event that triggers contact with new behavioral contingencies. The current literature already suggests possible integration of the behavioral cusp and related concepts into a wider understanding of behavioural development and cumulative learning. Here we share an attempted step in that progression: an approach to an in-depth characterization of the features and connections underlying cusp variety. We sketch this approach on the basis of differential involvement of contingency terms; the relevance to the cusp of environmental context, accompanying repertoire, or response properties; the connections of particular cusps to other behavioral principles, processes, or concepts; the involvement of co-evolving social repertoires undergoing mutual influence; and the ability of cusps to direct the repertoire either toward desired contingencies or away from a growth-stifling repertoire. We discuss the implications of the schema for expanded applied considerations, the programming of unique cusps, and the need for incorporating cultural context into the cusp. We hope that this schema could be a starting point, subject to empirical refinement, leading to an expanded understanding of repertoire interconnectivity and ontogenetic evolution.
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Pairing discriminative stimuli with unique reinforcers provides an additional cue to correct responding. In the current study, we evaluated the effectiveness of the differential outcomes procedure in teaching novel tacts and facilitating transfer of tacts to novel discriminative stimuli. Four children diagnosed with developmental or intellectual disability were taught a unique pair of related tacts both under a differential outcomes condition and under a nondifferential outcomes condition where the reinforcers were uncorrelated with the sample stimuli. In the former, the different outcomes were two forms of the same reinforcer. Three out of four participants met the mastery criterion sooner under the differential outcomes condition. Two participants also generalized to novel stimuli under the differential outcomes condition. When we tested for the inclusion of the reinforcers in the stimulus class, three participants demonstrated the acquisition of emergent stimulus–outcomes and response–outcomes relations. The study provides support for the use of the differential outcomes procedure as a cost-effective means of enhancing the acquisition of discriminated responses in an applied setting.
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Basic research on derived stimulus relations reveals many effects that may be useful in understanding and resolving significant and complex societal problems. Applied research on derived stimulus relations has done little to fulfill this promise, focusing instead mainly on simple demonstrations of well-known phenomena. We trace the research tradition of derived stimulus relations from laboratory to wide-scale implementation, and put forward several suggestions for how to progress effective and impactful research on derived relational responding to issues of immense social importance. To advance a science of behavior from relative social obscurity to the developing world-saving technologies, we must evaluate our own behavior as scientists in the grander social context.
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Some twenty-five years ago The Behavior Analyst published a paper by David Rider (The Behavior Analyst, 14, 171–181, 1991) titled “The speciation of behavior analysis.” Rider’s thesis was that basic and applied behavior analysis, for a variety of reasons, are destined to become independent species. In a commentary on this paper I pointed out, for example, that scientists and engineers are interdependent, especially at the frontiers of application. I was sanguine about a continuing analogous relationship between basic and applied behavior analysis. However, especially in the last decade, indications are that basic and applied behavior analysis may indeed be emerging as distinct species. I discuss several themes in a review of the “literature of survival” addressing the evolving complex relations between basic and applied behavior analysis, including constraints on training leading to narrow foci of application, our often self-imposed isolation from those with whom we could productively collaborate, and the difficulties of obtaining sufficient support for our science. All these challenges reflect a briar-patch of interlocking contingencies; each one depends crucially on the others and we cannot effectively address any in isolation. Thus solutions will not be easy, but our long-term survival as a coherent discipline absolutely depends on finding some.
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We assessed the effects of (a) stimulus fading, (b) verbal feedback, and (c) superimposition training on college students’ skill acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of accurate pours of a standard serving of beer (12 oz). Participants were 18 college students who failed to pour within 10% of a standard serving of beer (less than 10.75 oz or greater than 13.25 oz) during baseline assessment. Thirteen participants were assigned to 1 of 3 training methods (verbal feedback, stimulus fading, or superimposition) and were assessed immediately following training and at 1-week and 30-day follow-ups. Five participants were included in a control group. Compared with the control group, all 3 training methods were effective in improving the accuracy of college students’ pours of standard servings immediately following training; most participants showed skill maintenance and generalization at 1-week follow-up. About half of the participants, particularly those that received 2 types of training, showed skill maintenance and generalization at 30-day follow-ups. Results support the use of pour training in conjunction with 1 or more specific feedback training strategies as an important component of university alcohol education.
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Many diverse species have demonstrated interval timing, the ability to respond appropriately to time in the range of seconds to minutes, suggesting that an ability to time is adaptive. The peak procedure is a common method of studying interval time perception. In the peak procedure, animals experience a mix of fixed-interval (FI) and extinction (EXT) trials. On EXT trials, responding typically increases to a peak at the time the FI schedule would normally deliver reinforcers before decreasing. Responding on different FI schedules within the peak procedure has been found to conform to Weber's law, whereby response variability is proportional to the length of the fixed interval. We conducted possibly the first investigation of the timing abilities of a marsupial common to Australia and New Zealand, the brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula), using FI 15-, 30-, and 60-s schedules of reinforcement in the peak procedure. Response rates on EXT trials peaked at the time of usual reinforcer delivery, decreasing at longer time intervals, and were well fit by 3-parameter Gaussian curves, demonstrating the ability of possums to respond to time-based stimuli. Coefficients of variation suggested that the ability of possums to time was less accurate than that of mammals, but similar to that of birds, invertebrates, and reptiles. Coefficients of variation did not differ consistently over increasing FI intervals, showing that timing responses of possums likely conforms to the scalar property of timing also shown by other species. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Delay discounting refers to the decrease in subjective value of an outcome as the time to its receipt increases. Across species and situations, animals discount delayed rewards, and their discounting is well-described by a hyperboloid function. The current review begins with a comparison of discounting models and the procedures used to assess delay discounting in nonhuman animals. We next discuss the generality of discounting, reviewing the effects of different variables on the degree of discounting delayed reinforcers by nonhuman animals. Despite the many similarities in discounting observed between human and nonhuman animals, several differences have been proposed (e.g., the magnitude effect; nonhuman animals discount over a matter of seconds whereas humans report willing to wait months, if not years before receiving a reward), raising the possibility of fundamental species differences in intertemporal choice. After evaluating these differences, we discuss delay discounting from an adaptationist perspective. The pervasiveness of discounting across species and situations suggests it is a fundamental process underlying decision making. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Learning Skinner’s (1957) verbal behavior taxonomy requires extensive study and practice. Thus, novel classroom exercises might serve this goal. The present manuscript describes a classroom exercise in which two students analyzed Lady Gaga’s song Applause in terms of its metaphorical arrangements. Through the exercise, students identified various verbal operants and their subtypes, including those seldom researched by the behavioral community (see Sautter and LeBlanc 2006, The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 22, 35–48), which helped them conclude that Lady Gaga’s Applause is comprised of two themes: the artist taking control, and the artist-as-art.
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Recent interest has focused on the advantage of intensely handling young horses, as a good tool for improving emotional reactivity and thence trainability. Its effectiveness remains controversial, suggesting it might depend on the right timeframe to do so. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of 3-handling sessions in foals, during eventual optimal periods − the day of birth (2-3 hours after it) and the day after weaning − to be compared to handling in an unspecific period (at 50 ± 7 days old), or no handling. Lusitano breed foals (n = 50) were divided into five experimental groups with three being submitted to handling (consisting in desensitization, socialization and sensitization): at birth (Imp-H), at weaning (Wean-H), or at 50 ± 7 days old (Ex-H); and two not-handled groups: one not-handled and submitted to a 4-sessions training schedule (Not-H); and another left undisturbed (Control) until the end of the study (that finished when the foals reached 12 ±1 months old). Training, consisted in four 12-min sessions, where foals were taught to be lead-in-hand finishing with exhibition of trot. Handling effects, regarding skills to face new situations and environments in the presence of and on human demands, were evaluated twice: two months after weaning, just before starting the training; and one month after it ended, when they were submitted to a final performance test. Previous to training, handling effects were not found in the foals’ behavioural responses when facing a motionless person. When approached, differences were shown: animals handled at birth or at weaning displayed less fearfulness, showed less locomotor activity and tolerated a closer approach, when compared to Controls.
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Pigs reared in barren conditions are exposed to many different stressors, compromising their welfare and producing physiological and behavioural changes. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of environmental enrichment (EE) consisting of natural hemp ropes, sawdust, rubber balls, and a herbal compound (HC) of Valeriana officinalis and Passiflora incarnata on the behaviour and performance of growing pigs. Fifty-six pigs were used to assess four different treatments divided in two pens of seven animals per treatment (14 pigs/treatment). The treatments tested were: a) pigs reared with EE, b) pigs supplemented with HC, c) pigs provided with both EE and HC, and d) control group (CG, neither EE nor HC). Body weight and lesions were measured before starting the experiments (week 15) and at 18, 20, 22 and 24 weeks of age. Weekly instantaneous scan and continuous focal sampling were used to record behavioural patterns of activity, social interactions and abnormal behaviours. Three novel tests were carried out at 16, 19 and 23 weeks of age. Body weight at the end of the experiment was found to be significantly lower for the pigs reared in the control group compared to the other treatments (p = 0.0009). Furthermore, pigs reared with EE presented less stereotypies (p = 0.016) and redirected behaviour (0.0188), but more exploratory behaviour (p = 0.008). However, pigs supplemented with HC presented less social interactions (p = 0.048), a trend to present less negative social behaviour (p = 0.09) and less skin lesions (P = 0.0433) than pigs not supplemented. Finally, no remarkable differences were reported in any of the three novel tests. Thus, both EE and HC positively influenced some animal welfare indicators and performance of growing pigs in the present experiment.
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Smoking is associated with a number of chronic health conditions, including cardiovascular disease and various types of cancer. The decision to smoke can be conceptualized as preference for small, immediate rewards (e.g., relief from withdrawal) over larger, delayed rewards (e.g., good health). Contingency management (CM) takes advantage of this preference for immediate outcomes by delivering incentives, usually financial, for making the healthier choice to abstain from smoking. The current study tested the feasibility of harnessing naturally occurring social contingencies associated with smoking cessation to increase the promise of CM in initiating and sustaining long-term abstinence. Pairs of smokers with an existing relationship (i.e., friends, roommates, family, significant others) were recruited to quit together in the context of a smartphone-delivered, group CM intervention. Approximately 50% of interested participants identified a partner who also met criteria to participate, and five pairs (N = 10) completed the study. Using a within-subject design, participants could earn individual financial incentives for submitting breath carbon monoxide (CO) samples twice daily that met targeted goals for abstinence, and they could earn bonus incentives when both members of the pair met their targets together. Nine participants (90%) successfully reduced their mean breath CO during the intervention relative to baseline conditions. Individuals within a pair performed similarly to one another, for better or worse (i.e., both participants abstained, smoked, or missed samples at the same time). The social contingencies of quitting with someone with whom the smoker has an existing relationship may be helpful, but may also introduce unique challenges, particularly with regard to recruitment and treatment retention.
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High-fat (HF) diets result in weight gain, hyperphagia, and reduced dopamine D2 signaling; however, these findings have been obtained only under free-feeding conditions. This study tested the extent to which HF diet affects effort-dependent food procurement and the extent to which dopamine signaling is involved. Male Sprague-Dawley rats consumed either a HF (n=20) or a standard-chow (n=20) diet. We assessed the sensitivity to effort-based reinforcement in 10 rats from each group by measuring consumption across a series of fixed-ratio schedules (FR 5-FR 300) under a closed economy and quantified performance using the exponential-demand equation. For each FR, acute injections of 0 or 0.1 mg/kg of haloperidol, a D2 antagonist, were administered to assess dopamine-related changes in consumption. Rats fed a HF diet consumed more calories and weighed significantly more than rats fed standard-chow. Food consumption decreased in both groups in an effort-dependent manner, but there were no group differences. Haloperidol reduced responding in an FR-dependent manner for both groups. Animals exposed to a HF diet showed an altered sensitivity to haloperidol relative to rats fed a standard diet, suggesting that HF diet alters sensitivity to DA signaling underlying effort-based food procurement.
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Theoretical discussion often have assumed that positive and negative reinforcement differ but the literature contains little unambiguous evidence that they produce differential behavioral effects. To test whether the two types of consequences control behavior differently, we pitted money-gain positive reinforcement and money loss-avoidance negative reinforcement, scheduled through identically programmed variable-cycle schedules, against each other in concurrent schedules. Contingencies of response-produced feedback, normally different in positive and negative reinforcement, were made symmetrical. Steeper matching slopes were produced compared to a baseline consisting of all positive reinforcement. This free-operant differential outcomes effect supports the notion that that stimulus-presentation positive reinforcement and stimulus-elimination negative reinforcement are functionally "different." However, a control experiment showed that the feedback asymmetry of more traditional positive and negative reinforcement schedules also is sufficient to create a "difference" when the type of consequence is held constant. We offer these findings as a small step in meeting the very large challenge of moving negative reinforcement theory beyond decades of relative quiescence.
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A seven-­‐dimension framework, introduced in an iconic article by Baer, Wolf, and Risley, has become the de facto gold standard for identifying "good" work in applied behavior analysis. By examining the framework's historical context we show how its overarching attention to social relevance arose and then subsequently fueled the growth of applied behavior analysis. Ironically, however, in contemporary use the framework serves as a bottleneck that prevents many socially important problems from receiving adequate attention in applied behavior analysis research. The core problem lies in viewing the framework as a conjoint set in which "good" research must reflect all seven dimensions at equally high levels of integrity. We advocate a bigger-­‐tent version of applied behavior analysis research in which, to use Baer and colleagues' own words, "The label applied is determined not by the procedures used but by the interest society shows in the problem being studied." Because the Baer-­‐Wolf-­‐Risley article expressly endorses the conjoint-­‐set perspective and devalues work that falls outside of the seven-­‐dimension framework, pitching a big tent may require moving beyond that article as a primary frame of reference in defining ABA's research agenda.
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Poverty is a pervasive risk factor underlying poor health. Many interventions that have sought to reduce health disparities associated with poverty have focused on improving health-related behaviors of low-income adults. Poverty itself could be targeted to improve health, but this approach would require programs that can consistently move poor individuals out of poverty. Governments and other organizations in the United States have tested a diverse range of antipoverty programs, generally on a large scale and in conjunction with welfare reform initiatives. This paper reviews antipoverty programs that used financial incentives to promote education and employment among welfare recipients and other low-income adults. The incentive-based, antipoverty programs had small or no effects on the target behaviors; they were implemented on large scales from the outset, without systematic development and evaluation of their components; and they did not apply principles of operant conditioning that have been shown to determine the effectiveness of incentive or reinforcement interventions. By applying basic principles of operant conditioning, behavior analysts could help address poverty and improve health through development of effective antipoverty programs. This paper describes a potential framework for a behavior-analytic antipoverty program, with the goal of illustrating that behavior analysts could be uniquely suited to make substantial contributions to the war on poverty.
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A substantive obstacle to experimentally studying cigarette smoking and use of other tobacco products in pregnant women is the risk of adverse effects on mother and fetus from experimenter administration of the product of interest. The purpose of this study is to investigate bypassing that obstacle by using behavioral economic simulation tasks. In the present study we used the Cigarette Purchase Task (CPT) to simulate changes in demand for hypothetical cigarettes as a function of varying cigarette prices. Participants were 95 pregnant women who completed the CPT prior to participation in a smoking-cessation trial. Aggregate and individual participant demand varied as an orderly function of price and those changes were well fitted by an exponential equation. Demand also varied in correspondence to two well-validated predictors of individual differences in smoking cessation among pregnant women (cigarettes smoked per day, pre-pregnancy quit attempts). Moreover, CPT indices were more effective than these two conventional variables in predicting individual differences in whether women made a quit attempt during the current pregnancy. Overall, these results represent a promising step in demonstrating the validity and utility of the CPT for experimentally examining demand for cigarettes, and potentially other tobacco and nicotine delivery products, among pregnant women.
Article
Pigeons made repeated choices between earning and exchanging reinforcer-specific tokens (green tokens exchangeable for food, red tokens exchangeable for water) and reinforcer-general tokens (white tokens exchangeable for food or water) in a closed token economy. Food and green food tokens could be earned on one panel; water and red water tokens could be earned on a second panel; white generalized tokens could be earned on either panel. Responses on one key produced tokens according to a fixed-ratio schedule, whereas responses on a second key produced exchange periods, during which all previously earned tokens could be exchanged for the appropriate commodity. Most conditions were conducted in a closed economy, and pigeons distributed their token allocation in ways that permitted food and water consumption. When the price of all tokens was equal and low, most pigeons preferred the generalized tokens. When token-production prices were manipulated, pigeons reduced production of the tokens that increased in price while increasing production of the generalized tokens that remained at a fixed price. The latter is consistent with a substitution effect: Generalized tokens increased and were exchanged for the more expensive reinforcer. When food and water were made freely available outside the session, token production and exchange was sharply reduced but was not eliminated, even in conditions when it no longer produced tokens. The results join with other recent data in showing sustained generalized functions of token reinforcers, and demonstrate the utility of token-economic methods for assessing demand for and substitution among multiple commodities in a laboratory context.
Article
This series of translational studies investigated the effects of programmed treatment-integrity errors on skill acquisition for typically developing children during trial-and-error instruction for auditory-visual conditional discriminations. In Experiment 1, we examined the effects of errors of omission and commission with reinforcement delivery during 17% to 18% of trials compared to high-integrity instruction and a control condition. Programmed treatment-integrity errors impacted the efficiency of instruction. In Experiment 2, we increased the percentage of trials with errors of omission and commission to 20% to 30%. Higher percentages of errors of omission and commission impacted the efficiency of instruction for one participant and the efficacy of instruction for the other participant.
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Equivalence classes were formed of the names (A), time periods (B), and characteristics (C) of three stages of prenatal development of the students in a classroom. The baseline relations for these classes (AB and CB) were established on a group basis by the students in a classroom through the use of “feedback-enhanced clicker-training”. Thereafter, class formation was tracked on an individual basis with a very quickly administered sorting test. Classes emerged immediately for 84 % of 32 students in a single 75-minute class session. Thus, many students showed the immediate formation of equivalence classes when training was done on a group basis with a feedback-enhanced form of clicker training, and a sorting test was used to track class formation. We also considered some likely mechanisms that could account for learning the baseline relations by individual participants during clicker training. Finally, we considered the feasibility of using a clickers and sorting protocol to implement equivalence-based instruction.
Article
One intervention used to increase attendance at collegiate class meetings is to provide points for activities that take place in class; however, the percentage of course points necessary to facilitate high attendance is unknown. In Experiment 1, we assessed the relation between the relative percentage of points available for in-class activities and student attendance across three psychology courses. Across all three courses, students were more likely to attend on class days when higher percentages of course points were available for in-class activities. In Experiment 2, we replicated our findings from Experiment 1 while assessing the relation between the absolute value of points available and student attendance across two additional psychology courses. The results of Experiment 2 show that the absolute number of points available influenced attendance less than the relative value of course points available for in-class activities. Our findings suggest that instructors should consider the relative value of points available on class days when attempting to design course activities to maximize attendance.
Article
Professionals recommend parents engage in distracting activities to mitigate negative effects of inconsolable infant crying (e.g., Deyo, Skybo, & Carroll, 2008; Goulet et al., 2009). We evaluated the availability of alternative activities on six undergraduates' tolerance for a recorded infant cry; three students tolerated the cry longer when distracting activities were available. Our results show that distracting activities could decrease the aversiveness of inconsolable infant crying for some individuals; additional research in natural caregiving situations will help determine the generality and social validity of this finding.
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This study evaluated the effectiveness of awareness training for the reduction of three nervous habits that manifest during public speaking: filled pauses, tongue clicks, and inappropriate use of the word “like.” Four university students delivered short speeches during baseline and assessment sessions. Awareness training resulted in meaningful reductions in target behaviors for all participants. Booster awareness training sessions were necessary for all participants to achieve further reductions in target behaviors. Generality probes conducted in front of a small audience indicated that treatment effects generally maintained. Social validity scores indicated that the treatment was acceptable, and participants indicated not only decreased use of verbal fillers, but also improved overall public speaking ability posttreatment.
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We compared outcomes of arousal and preference assessments for five adult male alleged sexual offenders with intellectual disabilities. Arousal assessments involved the use of the penile plethysmograph to measure changes in penile circumference to both deviant (males and females under the age of 18) and nondeviant (males and females over the age of 18) video clips. Paired-stimulus preference assessments were arranged to present still images from the video clips used in the arousal assessments. Results showed correspondence between the assessments for four out of the five participants. Implications are discussed for the use of preference assessment methodology as a less intrusive assessment approach for sexual offender assessments.
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Excessive motion makes magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) extremely challenging among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The medical risks of sedation establish the need for behavioral interventions to promote motion control among children with ASD undergoing MRI scans. We present a series of experiments aimed at establishing both tolerance of the MRI environment and a level of motion control that would be compatible with a successful MRI. During Study 1, we evaluated the effects of prompting and contingent reinforcement on compliance with a sequence of successive approximations to an MRI using a mock MRI. During Study 2, we used prompting and progressive differential reinforcement of other behaviors (DRO) to promote motion control in a mock MRI for increasing periods of time. Finally, during Study 3, some of the participants underwent a real MRI scan while a detailed in-session motion analysis informed the quality of the images captured.
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Low levels of academic engagement may impede students’ acquisition of skills. Intervening on student behavior using group contingencies may be a feasible way to increase academic engagement during group instruction. The current study examined the effect of a randomized dependent group contingency on levels of academic engagement for second-grade participants receiving small-group reading and writing instruction. The results showed that a randomized dependent group contingency increased the academic engagement of primary participants and several of the other participants during small-group instruction. The findings also showed that high levels of academic engagement were maintained when common stimuli were present and the dependent group contingency was withdrawn.
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In recent years, rather than being used to assess the potential function of a response, descriptive assessment methods have been applied to evaluate potential consequences or contingencies for problem behavior (Borrero, Woods, Borrero, Masler, & Lesser in Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43, 71–88. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2010.43-71, 2010) or to assist with designing baseline conditions to approximate caregiver behavior (Casey et al. in Behavior Modification, 33, 537–558. doi: 10.1177/0145445509341457, 2009). It has been shown that descriptive assessments of some forms of problem behavior (e.g., self-injury, aggression) are not good indicators of behavioral function and should not be used exclusively when conducting functional behavior assessments (Thompson & Iwata in Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 333–338. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.56.06/epdf, 2007). However, the extent to which descriptive assessments of inappropriate mealtime behavior can predict behavioral function is not yet clear. We conducted descriptive assessments of inappropriate mealtime behavior and compared the results to functional analyses for ten children with severe food refusal. Results showed that, for 71 % of participants, the descriptive and functional analyses matched. These results suggest that the correspondence between descriptive and functional analyses, at least for inappropriate mealtime behavior, may be higher than that for other forms of problem behavior.
Article
The Good Behavior Game (GBG), a well-researched classroom group contingency, is typically played for brief periods of time, which raises questions about the effects on subsequent contexts. This study used a multiple baseline design and showed that when the GBG was implemented in one context, behavior improved in only that context. Behavior improved in the subsequent activity only when the GBG was implemented.
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Tuberculosis (TB) is a major problem in poor countries because sensitive diagnostic tools are unavailable. In 2014, our pouched rats evaluated sputum from 21,600 Tanzanians and 9,048 Mozambicans whose sputum had previously been evaluated by microscopy, the standard diagnostic for TB. Evaluation by the rats revealed 1,412 new patients with active TB in Tanzania and 645 new patients in Mozambique, increases of 39% and 53%, respectively, when compared to detections by microscopy alone. These results provide further support for the applied use of scent-detecting rats.
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The present study experimentally investigated human cooperation (sharing) in a laboratory foraging task that simulated environmental variability and resource scarcity (shortfall risk). Specifically, it investigated whether a risk-reduction model of food sharing derived from the energy budget rule could predict human cooperative behavior. Participants responded on a computer task for money and were given the choice between working alone or working with others and pooling earnings. Earnings could be kept only if the sum exceeded an earnings requirement (i.e., a need level). The effects of social variables on sharing were investigated to determine whether they constrained optimal decision making. The experiments investigated choice when participants were told the partner was a computer or a (fictitious) partner (Experiment 1) and when the earnings between the participant and partner were inequitable (Experiment 2). The results showed that social variables had no effect on decision making. Instead, sharing patterns were in accord with predictions of the risk-reduction model. These results provide additional evidence that a risk-reduction model of food sharing derived from risk-sensitive foraging models may be useful for predicting human cooperation for monetary outcomes.
Article
Incentives are a popular method to achieve desired employee performance; however, research on optimal incentive magnitude is lacking. Behavioral economic demand curves model persistence of responding in the face of increasing cost and may be suitable to examine the reinforcing value of incentives on work performance. The present use-inspired basic study integrated an experiential human operant task within a crowdsourcing platform to evaluate the applicability of behavioral economics for quantifying changes in workforce attrition. Participants included 88 Amazon Mechanical Turk Workers who earned either a 0.05or0.05 or 0.10 incentive for completing a progressively increasing response requirement. Analyses revealed statistically significant differences in breakpoint between the two groups. Additionally, a novel translation of the Kaplan-Meier survival-curve analyses for use within a demand curve framework allowed for examination of elasticity of workforce attrition. Results indicate greater inelastic attrition in the $0.05 group. We discuss the benefits of a behavioral economic approach to modeling employee behavior, how the metrics obtained from the elasticity of workforce attrition analyses (e.g., P max) may be used to set goals for employee behavior while balancing organizational costs, and how economy type may have influenced observed outcomes.
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Young adults became familiar with sample images showing the presence and absence of melanoma symptoms, and on each of a series of subsequent test days rated whether a single lesion image had changed from the asymptomatic sample. In general, as symptom severity of the test lesions increased, participants became increasingly likely to report change, with no global differences apparent for groups distinguished by whether they encountered symptom evolution sooner versus later or whether they had or had not encountered cancer information similar to that used in melanoma patient education. Within groups there was considerable variability in individual detection behavior, and this variability correlated with a measure of delay discounting such that less impulsive individuals tended to detect smaller stimulus changes. Signal detection analysis revealed a general bias against reporting stimulus change, with more impulsive individuals showing more pronounced bias. In placing melanoma symptom detection behavior within an impulsivity framework, the present study suggests that a single approach to patient education may not be equally appropriate for all individuals.
Article
Some adults with Type 2 diabetes mellitus have difficulty adhering to their oral medication regimens. The current study used a multiple baseline design with 3 adults with Type 2 diabetes. Medication taking was monitored remotely in real time via an electronic pill bottle. During the intervention, monetary incentives were delivered contingent on evidence of adherence to taking medication at specified times. Text-message reminders were also sent if medication was not taken. Adherence increased for all participants. Future studies should separate the relative contributions of text-message and incentive components of the intervention.
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The present study required 9 disordered gamblers to make hypothetical selections between smaller and larger amounts of money at varying delays. Participants were also required to respond to the task given the contrived hypothetical conditions of earning twice or half as much as they did at their current jobs. The results demonstrated how participants' delay discounting was altered via contrived motivating operations, strengthening the argument that discounting may be a state variable.
Article
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of token reinforcement, using an ABAB reversal design, for increasing distance walked for adults with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities at an adult day-training center. Five participants earned tokens for walking 50-m laps and exchanged tokens for back-up reinforcers that had been identified through preference assessments. Token reinforcement resulted in a substantial increase from baseline in laps walked for 4 participants.
Article
Ninety Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs) and 19 editorial board members evaluated hypothetical data presented in a multielement design. We manipulated the variability, trend, and mean shift of the data and asked the participants to determine if the data demonstrated experimental control. The results showed that variability, trend, and mean shift interacted to affect the participants' ratings of experimental control. The level of agreement between participants was variable, but was generally lower than in previous research.
Article
Research on owner-dog relationships suggests that they have remarkable features, paralleling those of infant to parents. In this study, we investigated whether, after being separated, access to the owner would function as a reinforcer for domestic dog behavior. We then conducted a functional analysis to determine the specific functional reinforcer (e.g., owner access, attention). Our results demonstrate that owner access can function as a reinforcer. This has implications for understanding the owner-dog relationship and using owner access as a training tool.
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Video modeling has been shown to be effective in teaching a number of skills to learners diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In this study, we taught two young men diagnosed with ASD three different activities of daily living skills (ADLS) using point-of-view video modeling. Results indicated that both participants met criterion for all ADLS. Participants did not maintain mastery criterion at a 1-month follow-up, but did score above baseline at maintenance with and without video modeling. • Point-of-view video models may be an effective intervention to teach daily living skills. • Video modeling with handheld portable devices (Apple iPod or iPad) can be just as effective as video modeling with stationary viewing devices (television or computer). • The use of handheld portable devices (Apple iPod and iPad) makes video modeling accessible and possible in a wide variety of environments.
Article
A concurrent multiple baseline across participants design evaluated the effects of behavioral skills training (BST) on abduction-prevention skills of four children with autism. Across phases, confederates presented four types of abduction lures: (a) simple requests, (b) appeals to authority, (c) assistance requests, and (d) incentives. During baseline, lures resulted in children leaving with confederate strangers. During intervention, BST targeted a three-step response (i.e., refuse, move away, and report) and the abduction-prevention skills of all participants improved. Improvements generalized to novel settings and confederates and were maintained at 4 weeks. There is currently limited research on abduction-prevention pertaining to individuals with ASD. BST can be used to teach abduction-prevention skills to individuals with ASD. BST can be effective at teaching appropriate responses to multiple types of abduction lures. The effects of BST on multiple responses to multiple types of lures can generalize across settings and people and maintain over time.
Article
Participants first became familiar with an image showing moderate symptoms of the skin cancer melanoma. In a generalization test, they indicated whether images showing more and less pronounced symptoms were “like the original.” Some groups (cancer context) were told that the images depicted melanoma and that the disease is deadly unless detected early. Control groups were not told what the images depicted. For control groups, generalization gradients were fairly typical of what is normally reported in the generalization literature, but for cancer context groups, gradients were shifted such that highly symptomatic moles were identified as “like the original” more than normal and subtly symptomatic ones were endorsed less than normal. These results may have implications for melanoma education efforts and, more generally, illustrate the possible importance of studying interactions between verbal behavior and primary stimulus control.
Article
Recent research on teaching mands for information to children with language deficits has focused on manipulating establishing operations (EOs). However, only a few of those studies have programmed both EO conditions (in which information is needed) and abolishing operation (AO) conditions (in which information has already been provided) to ensure functional use of the mand for information. Shillingsburg, Bowen, Valentino, and Pierce (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 47, 136–150, 2014) provided a successful demonstration of differential responding between EO and AO conditions demonstrating control of the response by the relevant EO. Echoic prompts resulted in successful mands for information “Who?” One limitation of this study was that the participants did not re-issue the initial mand upon approaching the named adult to retrieve the item. This may be problematic in the natural environment as it is unlikely that the named adult would know what the child was looking for. The current study sought to replicate and expand previous research by using textual prompts to teach the mand “Who?” in four children diagnosed with autism (Phase 1) and by requiring the mand for the item be re-issued upon approaching the named adult (Phase 2). Textual prompts resulted in differential use of the mand for information during EO and AO conditions for all of the participants. Additionally, three of the four participants who did not re-issue the mand to the named adult during the Phase 2 baseline did so following the intervention. Overall, results support the use of textual prompts to teach mands for information to children with autism.