ArticlePDF Available

Entrepreneurship and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a large-scale study involving the clinical condition of ADHD

Authors:

Abstract

A growing conversation has emerged linking ostensibly dark or pathological individual-level characteristics to entrepreneurship. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is among the most central and emblematic. Recent studies have made great strides—articulating the theoretical relevance of ADHD-type behavior in entrepreneurship and suggesting a positive link consistent with narratives in the popular press. However, quantitative studies have yet to empirically examine ADHD in line with its theoretical roots and definition—as a clinical disorder. The present paper contributes by providing a theoretically–empirically aligned test of the connection between the condition of ADHD and entrepreneurial intention and action. Based on a large-scale data collection effort (N = 9869) and cross-sectional methodology, the results find a positive connection between clinical ADHD and entrepreneurial intentions as well as entrepreneurial action. This grounds prior research on ADHD and entrepreneurship, indicating that individuals with ADHD are indeed more likely to not just espouse entrepreneurial intentions, but also to initiate business venturing. Considering the design, it suggests a self-selection toward entrepreneurship in individuals with ADHD (before potentially being a choice of last resort).
Entrepreneurship and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder:
a large-scale study involving the clinical condition of ADHD
Daniel A. Lerner &Ingrid Verheul &Roy Thurik
Accepted: 1 December 2017 /Published online: 15 May 2018
#The Author(s) 2018
Abstract A growing conversation has emerged linking
ostensibly dark or pathological individual-level character-
istics to entrepreneurship. Attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) is among the most central and emblem-
atic. Recent studies have made great stridesarticulating
the theoretical relevance of ADHD-type behavior in entre-
preneurship and suggesting a positive link consistent with
narratives in the popular press. However, quantitative stud-
ies have yet to empirically examine ADHD in line with its
theoretical roots and definitionas a clinical disorder. The
present paper contributes by providing a theoretically
empirically aligned test of the connection between the
condition of ADHD and entrepreneurial intention and
action. Based on a large-scale data collection effort (N=
9869) and cross-sectional methodology, the results find a
positive connection between clinical ADHD and entrepre-
neurial intentions as well as entrepreneurial action. This
grounds prior research on ADHD and entrepreneurship,
indicating that individuals with ADHD are indeed more
likely to not just espouse entrepreneurial intentions, but
also to initiate business venturing. Considering the design,
it suggests a self-selection toward entrepreneurship in in-
dividuals with ADHD (before potentially being a choice of
last resort).
Keywords Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder .
ADHD .Nascent venturing .Entrepreneurial intentions .
Entrepreneurial action .Entrepreneurship
JEL Classification L26
1 Introduction
By the end of the twentieth century, the entrepreneurship
literature had built a body of knowledge on logical,
generally positive, factors associated with business ven-
turing such as human capital, financial capital, cognitive
biases, and traditionaltraits differentiating entrepreneurs
(Shane 2003). Building on that tradition, in the twenty-
first century, scholars have made great strides in advanc-
ing entrepreneurship theorycovering many other
Small Bus Econ (2019) 53:381392
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0061-1
D. A. Lerner
Deusto Business School, Bilbao, Bizkaia, Spain
e-mail: daniel.lerner@colorado.edu
D. A. Lerner
Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile
I. Verheul (*)
Department of Strategic Management & Entrepreneurship,
Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University
Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
e-mail: iverheul@rsm.nl
R. Thurik
Department of Applied Economics, Erasmus School of
Economics, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam,
The Netherlands
e-mail: thurik@ese.eur.nl
R. Thurik
Montpellier Business School (Labex Entrepreneurship),
Montpellier, France
R. Thurik
Erasmus University Rotterdam Institute for Behavior and Biology
(EURIBEB), Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
factors associated with venturing such as regulatory-
focus (Tumasjan and Braun 2012; Hmieleski and
Baron 2008), affect and passion (Baron et al. 2012;
Cardon et al. 2012; Gielnik et al. 2017). Recently, a
relatively new and growing conversation has
emergedthat involving conventionally dark or pathol-
ogized constructs that may be positively associated with
entrepreneurship. Among the most prominent, and pre-
viously suggested in the popular press (Archer 2014;
The Economist 2012), is attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD).Characterized by disinhibition,
ADHD is indicated by impulsivity, hyperactivity, and
problems with attentional regulation (APA 2013).
The theoretical and practical relevance of the above
to entrepreneurship has recently been discussed
(Verheul et al. 2015,2016;Thuriketal.2016;
Wiklund et al. 2016,2017,2018;Lerner2016; Lerner
et al. 2018a,b,c; Miller and Le Brenton-Miller 2016). In
particular, a number of studies drawing on the ADHD
literature have emerged, suggesting a positive associa-
tion between ADHD-related behavior and entrepre-
neurship, including an increased likelihood of entre-
preneurial intentions (Verheul et al. 2015), venturing
(Verheul et al. 2016), and entrepreneurial orientation
(Thurik et al. 2016). These and related studies provide
an important basis for the present investigation. In
essence, they deal with behavioral tendencies that at
the high end of the spectrum might be indicative of
ADHD or of other disorders. With limited exception
(discussed later), recent empirical research, while
grounded in the clinical construct and literature of
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder,hasyettoem-
pirically examine ADHDa diagnosed clinical condi-
tion. In other words, while predicated on prior research
on the (clinical) condition of ADHD, the emerging
entrepreneurship research has yet to examine whether
the condition of ADHD is significantly linked to a
higher propensity for entrepreneurial intentions and
action.Wecontributetorecenttheoryaboutapositive
ADHDentrepreneurship link by providing a simple
theoreticallyempirically aligned test of the connection
between ADHD and entrepreneurship.
The present work offers a number of contributions. It
foments the emergent scholarly interest in the link be-
tween mental conditions and entrepreneurship
(e.g., Wiklund et al. 2018) by focusing on a common
condition that affects millions of adults worldwide (de
Graaf et al. 2008), and that may be over-represented in
entrepreneurial environments. With the overarching aim
of testing whether ADHD is indeed linked to entrepre-
neurship, we go beyond recent research relating behav-
ior that might be indicative of ADHD to entrepreneur-
ship (Lerner 2016; Verheul et al. 2015,2016; Thurik
et al. 2016; Wiklund et al. 2017). Based on the reported
large-scale study involving attention deficit/
hyperactivity disorder, we test whether ADHD is linked
to an increased propensity for both entrepreneurial in-
tentions and action. Grounding the aforementioned, and
in conjunction with related entrepreneurship research
(e.g., Lerner et al. 2018a,c), this work offers a novel
basis for entrepreneurship theory, future research, and
practice.
2 Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
2.1 ADHDthe condition
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a common
clinical condition, defined by impulsive, hyperactive,
and inattentive behavior (APA 2013), affecting individ-
uals of all ages worldwide. With a full discussion of
clinical diagnostic criteria beyond the scope of this
paper, for ADHD to exist, the impulsive, hyperactive,
and inattentive behavior must be pervasive, enduring,
andto an age inappropriate frequency and magni-
tudematerially impairing normal functioning (APA
2013). Adult ADHD is well-established in scientific
literature (Barkley et al. 2008; Kessler et al. 2005,
2007) and is known to affect organizations and voca-
tional behavior (Bozionelos and Bozionelos 2013;de
Graaf et al. 2008; Halbesleben et al. 2013; Kessler et al.
2009).
Like other disorders, ADHD is diagnosed by a li-
censed clinician (such as a clinical psychologist or psy-
chiatrist), based on a battery of psychological tests and
other data. It also requires differential diagnosis,mean-
ing that the clinician must judge that the behavior and
impairment consistent with ADHD is not attributable to
another condition or cause (e.g., mania, substance
abuse, or say distractibility and impulsivity due to other
reasons such as stress, a lack of sleep, or being in the
midst of a difficult divorce). Suffice to say, there is no
single test, let alone any simple psychometric measure,
able to determine if an individual has ADHD.
ADHD is, by definition, a clinical construct and
disorder, rooted in extensive clinical literature, which
over the past 30+ years has established the validity
382 D. A. Lerner et al.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
condition (APA 2013; Goldman et al. 1998) and the vast
majority of its effects. Consistent with traditional clini-
cal psychology and psychiatry, in the clinical literature,
ADHD is considered inherently pathological.
2.2 ADHD in organizational scholarship
In terms of the emerging management and entrepreneur-
ship literature involving ADHD, recent studies have
relaxed the need to empirically consider the actual con-
dition of ADHD (i.e., individuals with the disorder) and
instead have taken a disposition-type approach (with
two exceptions subsequently elaborated). There are
good and pragmatic reasons for this. The non-clinical
consideration of a clinical construct has allowed empir-
ically tractable investigations and uncovered significant,
non-obvious findings, such as the positive association
between ADHD-type behavior and entrepreneurship.
There are two noteworthy exceptions. First, the re-
cent study of Wiklund, Patzelt, and Dimov (2016)illus-
trates and provides insight into how 14 Swedish entre-
preneurs with ADHD Bbehave.^Their findings demon-
strate the entrepreneurial relevance of having ADHD. In
line with its qualitative design and contribution, the
study cannot speak tobut further motivatesthe need
to understand whether there is a significant positive
connection between ADHD and entrepreneurship,
starting with whether ADHD significantly increases
the likelihood of venturing. The second (partial) excep-
tion comes from Verheul et al. (2016) linking individ-
ualscontinuous scores on an ADHD screener (the
ASRS v1.1) to their self-employment status in two
datasets. Specifically, Verheul et al. (2016)performed
a sensitivity analysis where individuals were screened
positive or negative for ADHD based on their ASRS
score. Linking the dichotomous screening variable to
self-employment, the authors found the positive associ-
ation between ADHD (type behavior) and self-
employment held.
For organizational research involving ADHD to ad-
vance, however, there is an issue. While empirically not
studying the condition of ADHD, extant entrepreneurship
research imported ADHD from the clinical literature, in-
cluding a short screening tool
1
for identifying individuals
for possible clinical referral/evaluation. We appreciate that
this can be entirely appropriate, depending on the research
question, the state of (incipient) knowledge, and the re-
search constraints. The present concern and hitherto limi-
tation is the absence of a large-scale basis to consider
whether the reported connection with entrepreneurship is
true if considering attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Thus, the unresolved issue with the extant theory and
research, suggesting a positive ADHDentrepreneurship
link, is that it has been built on and is fundamentally
grounded in, the clinical literature involving a clinical
construct and using a screening tool for the condition of
ADHD, without yet comparing individuals with the con-
dition and those without.
Toward building a sound literature, we need to un-
derstand if the recently suggested positive connection
between ADHD and entrepreneurship is veridical when
considering the condition of ADHD, i.e.,
operationalizing it consistent with its definition as a
diagnosed condition/disorder. Based on the empirical
and theoretical origins of ADHD, finding a positive link
between the diagnosed condition and entrepreneurship
would substantially bolster the emerging conversation.
Specifically, this would validate recent entrepreneurship
theory and findings which, despite involving clinical
literature, have not tested or found a significant link
between attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and en-
trepreneurship. Thus, extending recent research that has
examined a behavioral disposition that at one end of the
spectrum might be indicative of ADHD (Lerner 2016;
Thurik et al. 2016; Verheul et al. 2015,2016; Wiklund
et al. 2017), true to the grounding literature and ADHD
construct, we focus on the clinical condition of ADHD.
2.3 ADHD and entrepreneurial intentions
Entrepreneurial intentions, typically defined as the ex-
tent to which an individual espouses intentions to form a
venture/become an entrepreneur, has long been a topic
of interest to entrepreneurship scholars (Krueger et al.
2000; Krueger and Brazeal 1994; Kolvereid 1996;
Douglas and Shepherd 2002). Notwithstanding our ul-
timate interest in entrepreneurial action (versus inten-
tion), an important starting point for the scholarly con-
sideration of a connection between ADHD and entre-
preneurship is provided by Verheul et al. (2015). As the
first large-scale scientific inquiry focusing on the topic,
sampling of over 13,000 university students, Verheul
1
Unlike self-report psychometric scales commonly used in manage-
ment research to measure latent non-clinical constructs, the ASRS
(Kessler et al. 2005,2007) was designed and validated to simply screen
individuals for subsequent in-person evaluation by practicing
clinicians.
Entrepreneurship and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a large-scale study involving the clinical... 383
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
et al. (2015) link a continuous indicator of ADHD-like
behavior to entrepreneurial career intentions.
We begin by first asking if the apparent ADHD
entrepreneurial intentions link indeed exists when con-
sidering the clinical condition. It is hitherto unclear
whether, within a normal professional-oriented adult
population, those who have ADHD show significantly
higher entrepreneurial intentions than those without this
condition. Potentially validating and extending prior
research, we will empirically explore whether:
(1) Individuals with attention deficit/hyperactivity dis-
order (a diagnosed condition) have higher entre-
preneurial intentions than those without the
condition.
2.4 ADHD and venturing/entrepreneurial action
Individual entrepreneurial action is central to entrepre-
neurship; without such, Bthere would simply be no
entrepreneurship and no new ventures^(Baron 2007,
p. 167). In regard to business venturing, entrepreneurial
action is often defined by nascent entrepreneurial be-
havior, i.e., actions associated with business start-up
such as opportunity development, making a prototype,
and attempting to acquire start-up resources (Gartner,
Carter, and Reynolds 2004;Reynoldsetal.2004). As
there are myriad potential start-up behaviors, a straight-
forward indicator of whether entrepreneurial action has
commenced is whether an individual is in the process of
attempting to start or is already running a venture (e.g.,
Reynolds et al. 2004).
Considering ADHD as a clinical condition affecting
individual behavior, we acknowledge that it could have
opposing effects on ones propensity to undertake entre-
preneurial action (i.e., to venture). Although entrepre-
neurship is generally perceived to involve risky, com-
plex, and innovative activities (something typically at-
tractive to individuals with ADHD), the reality of
starting a business may be far less exciting or motivat-
ing. In particular, starting a firm involves many tasks
that are formal, protracted, administrative, and require
attention to mundane detail (e.g., Lerner et al. 2018b).
Individuals with ADHD tend to struggle with such
activities and also perceive them as less attractive
(Barkley 1997). Thus, when it comes to starting a ven-
ture and associated activities requiring sustained atten-
tion to details, individuals with ADHD may be apt to
procrastinate such action or be otherwise distracted by
more stimulating activities (including thinking about
other opportunities/venture ideas). Following this line
of reasoning, the classical pathological perspective on
ADHD would suggest that individuals with ADHD may
be less likely to venture, compared to individuals with-
out ADHD.
Alternatively, considering that entrepreneurship re-
quires an action orientation (Frese 2009; Sarasvathy
2001) and given that unfettered (even impulsive)
action is central to ADHD (APA 2013), the opposite
may be true. In individuals with ADHD Bact first,
think later^behavior prevails, meaning action itself
is often pre-potent (i.e., will be expressed in the
absence of top-down restraint) (Barkley 1997). This
suggests that, at least for experimenting with entre-
preneurship, those with ADHD may very well act
without much or any forethought or consideration of
potential consequences. In this respect, ADHDsdis-
inhibition (Barkley 1997;Lerner2016)promotes
action. Consistent with this, Wiklund et al. (2016)
document considerable entrepreneurial activity in
their study of 14 entrepreneurs with ADHD.
Likewise, in their sensitivity analysis, Verheul et al.
(2016) find a positive link between a dichotomized
score on the ASRS v1.1 screener and self-employ-
ment. Though the latter can be considered stricter
than using continuous ASRS scores, the ADHD
diagnostic status was entirely unknown. That is, a
positive dichotomous score does not mean an indi-
vidual has ADHD, but rather signifies that further
evaluation by a clinician may be appropriate. Hence,
neither the recent extant studies nor the extensive
popular press provides conclusive empirical evidence
of the central question whether ADHD increases (or
decreases) the probability of venturing/entrepreneurial
action.
Appreciating the ambivalent nature of ADHD
(Lerner et al. 2018b), we note that early-stage venturing
primarily involves initiating entrepreneurial action.
Consequently, we offer but at the same time question
the notion that individuals with ADHDa clinical dis-
orderare more likely than others to venture. We will
empirically examine whether:
(2) Individuals with attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (a diagnosed condition) are more
likely to venture/engage in entrepreneurial ac-
tion than those without the condition.
384 D. A. Lerner et al.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
3Method
To examine whether the positive ADHDentrepreneur-
ship connection suggested by recent studies is in fact
true when taking into account the clinical disorder, a
large-scale study was undertaken. The purpose was to
provide a basic straightforward examination of the con-
nection between the condition of ADHD (independent
variable) and entrepreneurial intentions (dependent var-
iable 1) as well as entrepreneurial action/venturing (de-
pendent variable 2). We were not interested in full-time
entrepreneurs or employeesbut rather focused on a
population that is heterogeneous in terms of venturing
activity (distinguishing between nascent actors and non-
actors) as well as career intentions (distinguishing be-
tween individuals with and without intentions).
Accordingly, and following Verheul et al. (2015), we
sampled about 9800 university students who participat-
ed in GUESSS Netherlands 2014. Comparing the Dutch
sample with the global GUESSS sample, reported in
Sieger et al. (2014), our sample was representative in
terms of age, gender, management students, and the
prevalence of self-employed parents.
2
In relation to the research question, this sample is not
intended to proxy some other population such as entrepre-
neurs, and offers a number of advantages. Given the nature
of the sample and age of the respondents, the inquiry offers
the advantage of capturing individuals prior to the possi-
bility of being forced into entrepreneurship, and prior to
selection and sampling biases that would be present in
older workers. On a related note, it is important to ac-
knowledge that individuals with ADHD are less likely to
attend university (Barkley et al. 2008) and may be pushed
into entrepreneurship via struggles with conventional em-
ployment (Parker, 2018, chapters 2 and 5). Thus, if signif-
icant results positively linking ADHD to entrepreneurship
are found, they may understate what would be the effect in
the general population. Hence, with the research question
about whether in fact the condition of ADHD is linked to
an increased entrepreneurial propensity (and not about
providing a specific parameter estimate of a well-
established effect generalizable to the overall population
or providing insight into mechanisms underlying a link),
the sample likely offers a conservative test of the funda-
mental relationship in question.
The data collection included the following variables:
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorderyes/no to
whether the individual had the diagnosed condition of
ADHD
3
;entrepreneurial intentions based on Linan and
Chen (2009) and for robustness and replication also
operationalized dichotomously with post-secondary ca-
reer intention (Verheul et al. 2015); venturing/entrepre-
neurial action, operationalized as whether the individual
was in the process of starting or already running a
venture; and covariate/control variables (gender, age,
self-employed parents, academic performance, manage-
ment as field of study). The latter were included based
on their consistency with prior entrepreneurship re-
search (Verheul et al. 2015;Parker,2018,chapters2
and 5).
In terms of ADHD, 4.2% (n=411) reported having
the diagnosed condition. This is comparable to the adult
ADHD community prevalence rate of 5% in the
Netherlands (de Graaf et al. 2008) and more broadly to
the 3.4% across 10 countries according to World Health
Organization studies (de Graaf et al. 2008). That said,
the following issues may arise when collecting the data.
First, there is the possibility of under-reporting:Some
individuals with ADHD may falsely report that they do
not have the condition, for example because they fear
stigmatization. Such false-negatives would reduce an
already very minor base rate and add noise to the em-
pirical testingincreasing the likelihood of null effects
(and type-II error), and decreasing the likelihood of
significant results. Second, in terms of possible over-
reporting, there was no reason for undiagnosed individ-
uals to falsely report an ADHD diagnosis in the data
collection. Also, the rate of 4.2% does not suggest an
over-reporting problem. Third, undiagnosed individuals
2
The Global University Entrepreneurial Spirit StudentsSurvey
(GUESSS) is a dataset collected by an international research consor-
tium examining career aspirations of students in higher education. For
more information, refer to www.guesssurvey.org.
3
ADHD is not seen or diagnosed as a temporary condition; it is
associated with genetics and enduring neurological differences (phys-
ical brain-structure and neurotransmitters). Individuals previously di-
agnosed that may no longer meet diagnostic criteria, whether per taking
medication or for other reasons, are often considered in-remission.In
relation to the current research, attempting to separate ADHD-
diagnosed individuals fully meeting diagnostic criteria at the time of
data collection and those not meeting full diagnostic criteria at that
moment was neither realistic (as it would require n= 411 individual
clinical evaluations by psychiatrists or clinical psychologists), nor was
it considered essential for our basic research question. Nonetheless,
supplemental analyses are provided examining ADHD-type symptoms
at the time of data collection.
Entrepreneurship and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a large-scale study involving the clinical... 385
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
who would qualify for a diagnosis do not lead to spuri-
ous positive results but rather would make any true
positive effect more difficult to detect. Finally, it is
possible that some of the diagnosed individuals take
ADHD medication; the current question however is if
there is a significant link between the ADHD and entre-
preneurship (regardless of whether a diagnosed individ-
ual is medicated). Furthermore, any significant results
would not be an artifact of not controlling for whether a
diagnosed individual was taking medication. Finally, in
relation to possible use of medication, our study is
consistent with the recent studies cited that refrain from
attempting to capture and control for medication use. In
summary, considering the above, any significant find-
ings would likely be conservative in nature.
For straightforward tests of whether ADHD signifi-
cantly increased the likelihood of entrepreneurial inten-
tions and actions, ordinary least squares and logistic
regressions were runaccording to the nature of the
dependent variable (continuous or dichotomous, respec-
tively). In addition, we ran ttests examining potential
differences between subgroups.
4Results
The following are the results of the large-scale empirical
inquiry conducted. Table 1presents the descriptive sta-
tistics and correlations.
Tab les 2and 3present the results of the regression
analyses. As Table 2indicates, individuals with an
ADHD diagnosis showed significantly higher entrepre-
neurial intentions. This was the case whether operation-
alized following Linan and Chen (2009) as a continuous
variable, or following Verheul et al.s(2015) dichoto-
mous variable. In terms ofthe readily interpretable latter,
individuals with ADHD were approximately 1.7 times
(i.e., 6080%) more likely to have entrepreneurial inten-
tions (models 1c and 1d, odd ratios: 1.8, 1.6). This
extends the findings of Verheul et al. (2015), assuaging
the clinical-but-non-clinical disjuncture of prior research
and validating the veridicality of the previously sug-
gested positive link with intentions.
Even more interestingly, Table 3reveals a significant
positive link between ADHD diagnosis and venturing/
entrepreneurial action. In particular, having ADHD in-
creases the odds of venturing by almost 100%. The results
indicate that university enrolled adults with ADHD are
almost two times more likely to initiate entrepreneurial
action than those without ADHD (models 2a and 2b,
odd ratios: 1.9, 1.8). In other words, among individuals
who still have to make a vocational choice (and have yet
to be pushed into venturing out of necessity/failure in
wage employment), those with the disorder of ADHD
were not less or similarly likely to venture than those
without the disorder, but rather were significantly more
likely to venture. Considering that individuals with
ADHD are less likely to attend post-secondary educa-
tion and may be pushed out of conventional employ-
ment (e.g., Barkley et al. 2008), these results may un-
derstate the true effect size relative to the overall popu-
lation. Considering the design and nature of the sample,
these results do not speak to venturing outcomes, nor
stand to provide generalizable parameter estimates.
Simply, the results provide a straightforward test and
clear support for a positive link between ADHD and
entrepreneurship, attributable to individual choice ver-
sus a vocation of last resort.
These results extend prior research and establish a
potential upside or non-pathological effect of a clinical
disorder. Given the research question, the significant
positive effect of ADHD and the high associated odds
ratios, indicative of a large effect, are the focus.
The low total variance explained rightfully indicates
that there are myriad factors influencing whether an
individual is interested and will engage in venturing.
Moreover, given the representative but minority frequen-
cy of individuals with ADHD diagnoses in the sample,
the overwhelming majority of the sample does not have
ADHD and, accordingly, low R
2
s are not just normal but
mathematically ought to be observed.
4
If around 4% of a
sample has a dichotomous condition, and many individuals
without the disorder also venture, looking at R
2
is analo-
gous to, for example, examining how much of the total
probability of engaging in Corporate Acquisition activity is
explained by a relatively uncommon predictor such as
CEO ADHD. However, the research objective is not
about explaining the broad preponderance of the depen-
dent variable, but instead is about understanding whether a
theoretically meaningful, yet relatively low base rate,
4
Low R
2
s are to be expected based on very limited variance in ADHD
as a dichotomous predictor, especially when attempting to predict a
relatively infrequent dichotomous variable. Any relatively minority
(i.e., low base rate) feature, whether a clinical condition or otherwise,
will not explain the vast preponderance of variance in a human activity
such as entreprene urshipconsidering such (as a dependent variable)
is also engaged in by some of the overwhelming majoritythat is,
those without the low-frequency dichotomous feature.
386 D. A. Lerner et al.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Tabl e 1 Descriptive statistics and correlations
Mean SD Min. Max. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. ADHD diagnosis .04 .20 0 1
2. Self-employed parent(s) .31 .46 0 1 .02
3. Academic performance 4.92 .93 1 7 .04 .02
4. Management study .21 .41 0 1 .01 .06 .02
5. Age 22.40 3.39 17 40 .04 .06 .03 .05
6. Gender (male = 1) .38 .49 0 1 .04 .01 -.005 .09 .08
7. Entrepreneurial intentions (dichotomous) .05 .21 0 1 .03 .03 .000 .03 .05 .09
8. Entrepreneurial intentions (continuous) 3.28 1.76 1 7 .03 .14 .005 .18 .03 .16 .25
9. Venturing/Entrepreneurial action .13 .33 0 1 .05 .08 .03 .06 .05 .18 .43 .37
N= 9749; All correlations |.02| are significant at 5%. All correlations |.03| are significant at 1%
Dichotomous variables are dummy coded (0 = no, 1 = yes)
Tabl e 2 Explaining entrepreneurial intentions (OLS and logistic regression results)
Dependent variable Entrepreneurial Intentions
Continuous DV (Linan and Chen 2009) Dichotomous DV (Verheul et al. 2015)
Model
1a (main-effect) 1b (with controls) 1c (main-effect) 1d (with controls)
Predictor variables B Estimates
(standard errors)
Odds ratios: Exp (B)
(95% confidence interval)
Constant 3.268*** 3.109*** 0.048*** 0.009***
(0.019) (0.152)
Age 0.015* 1.053***
(0.005) (1. 0281.078)
Gender (male = 1) 0.536*** 2.151***
(0.037) (1. 7782.602)
Self-employed parent(s) 0.495*** 1.429***
(0.039) (1. 1771.736)
Academic performance 0.001 0.998
(0.019) (0. 9041.101)
Management study 0.688*** 1.322**
(0.044) (1. 0681.636)
ADHD diagnosis 0.231* 0.200* 1.802** 1.625*
(0.095) (0.092) (1.2472.605) (1.1192.360)
Model
R
2
, Nagelkerke R
2
.001* .071*** .003** .036***
F-statistic, Chi-square 5.970* 115.768*** 8.511** 113.849***
2 Log likelihood 3770.50 3631.53
N9211 9124 9869 9770
Significance levels (2-tailed) are indicated as follows: * = 0.05; ** = 0.01; *** = 0.001. Differences in reported Ns are per missing data from
some subjects (SPSS pairwise exclusion)
Entrepreneurship and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a large-scale study involving the clinical... 387
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
predictor indeed has a significant and material effect on
the probability of nascent venturing. As such, the highly
significant readily interpretable odds ratios indicative of
a large effect are informative and meaningful. The re-
sults indicate that not only is the effect of ADHD statis-
tically significant, it also materially increases the odds of
venturing. It increases the likelihood of venturing by
almost 100% (79% with covariates), which is compara-
ble to other well-established predictors of entrepreneur-
ship such as having self-employed parents (model 2b).
Considering the research design and myriad other co-
variates ofpotential interest, the results do not illuminate
causal pathways; rather, the results indicate that further
research into how and why is warranted and apt to be
fruitful.
4.1 Supplemental analyses
Despite the theoretical and empirical evidence of the
enduring nature of ADHD (after diagnosis), particular-
ly in relation to our research question, we nonetheless
ran supplemental analyses. Acknowledging that ADHD
diagnosis occurred prior to the time of data col-
lection, we examine whether the diagnosed indi-
viduals still report to have symptoms by assessing
respondentsscores on impulsivity and mental restless-
ness, both of which are associated with adult ADHD
(Barkley 1997; Weyandt et al. 2003). The abbreviated
scale for impulsivity, supported by Webster and Crysel
(2012), was composed of the most appropriate three
items of the Zuckerman et al.(1993)longerscale.The
abbreviated scale for mental restlessness was composed
of the four primary items of the internal restlessness
factor/scale (Weyandt et al. 2003). Examining the entire
sample (N= 9869), ADHD-diagnosed individuals en-
dorsed mental restlessness (mean: 4.8 on 7-point scale)
and impulsivity (mean: 4.3 on 7-point scale) and scored
significantly higher on both compared to non-diagnosed
individuals (t
1,449=
10.6 and t
1,443=
12.4, respectively;
equal variances not assumed, p< .001). The results were
similar within the subset of venturers (n=579). Here,
the diagnosed individuals endorsed mental restlessness
(mean: 4.8 on 7-point scale) as well as impulsivity
(mean: 4.6 on 7-point scale) and scored significantly
Tabl e 3 Explaining venturing/
entrepreneurial action (logistic
regression results)
Significance levels (2-tailed) are
indicated as follows: ** = 0.01;
*** = 0.001. Differences in re-
ported Ns are per missing data
from some subjects (SPSS
pairwise exclusion)
Dependent Variable Venturing/Entrepreneurial Action (yes = 1)
Model
2a (main-effect) 2b (with controls)
Predictor variables Odds ratios: Exp (B)
(95% confidence interval)
Constant 0.141*** 0.017***
Age 1.039***
(1.0221.057)
Gender (male = 1) 2.709***
(2.3943.066)
Self-employed parent(s) 1.665***
(1.4691.888)
Academic performance 1.111**
(1.0411.187)
Management study 1.355***
(1.1791.558)
ADHD Diagnosis 1.926*** 1.792***
(1.5102.457)(1.3932.305)
Model
Nagelkerke R
2
.005*** .077***
Chi-square 24.795*** 412.292***
2 Log likelihood 7513.90 7037.85
N9869 9770
388 D. A. Lerner et al.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
higher on both than non-diagnosed individuals (t
1,51=
3.1
and t
1,61=
5.5, respectively; equal variances not assumed,
p<.001).
5 Discussion
The present paper extends recent entrepreneurship
research, using a strict conceptualization and mea-
surement of ADHD, that is, ADHD as a clinically
diagnosed condition. We find that, in spite of
ADHDs downsides and individuals having suffi-
cient disorder as to be clinically diagnosed,
ADHD positively rather than negatively affects
the likelihood of venturing. Building on prior re-
search, this elucidates that a dark and pathologized
condition can serve as a wellspring for entrepre-
neurial action. Certainly, future research is needed,
examining entrepreneurial action at a much more
granular level, and the eventual outcomes of such
action beyond the nascent stage (Lerner et al.
2018b). Nonetheless, without entrepreneurial action
Bthere would simply be no entrepreneurship and
no new ventures^(Baron 2007, p. 167). Furthermore,
given the myriad unproductive and destructive behav-
iors also linked to ADHD, entrepreneurial action may be
a constructive outlet regardless of whether a venture is
ultimately founded and successful. Finally, understand-
ing whether there is scientific evidence of a positive link
between the clinical condition of ADHD and initiating
entrepreneurship provides a basis for embarking on
research attempting to capture more complex dynamics
and outcomes.
This complements the qualitative findings of
Wiklund et al. (2016), as well as Verheul et al.s
(2016) quantitative findings based on dichotomized
ASRS v1.1 scoring. Based on our large-scale
quantitative testing that did not preselect on either
ADHD status or observable entrepreneurs, and pri-
or to the possibility of entrepreneurship as last
resort, we find evidence that individuals diagnosed
with ADHD are more likely to take entrepreneurial
action than individuals without such a diagnosis. It
suggests the potential adaptiveness of the unequiv-
ocally pathologicalgoing beyond behavioral traits
such as impulsivity to a full-blown clinical disor-
der/diagnosis. Our findings empirically advance
emergent theory involving ADHD and clinical
conditions in general, and are in line with recent
research suggesting alternative logics for entrepre-
neurial action (Lerner et al. 2018a).
5.1 Cautions and limitations
It is important to underscore that entrepreneurial
action and performance are not synonymous. The
linkage found between ADHD and venturing/
entrepreneurial action should not be conflated,
nor interpreted as a positive link with venture
performance. The present study cannot speak to
the effect of ADHD on venture performance or
other entrepreneurial outcomes. Rather, it suggests
the need and opportunity for future research in this
direction. Since potential venturing outcomes in-
clude everything from success to catastrophic loss
(with negative outcomes more likely if inattentive
to foreseeable pitfalls or if impulsively spending
through savings, high-interest debt, or home equi-
ty), future research is needed to more fully under-
stand the connection between ADHD and ventur-
ing, including if entrepreneurship is on average a
good fit for individuals with ADHD. Suffice to
say, the connection between ADHD and later
stages of organizing, profitability, and growth are
yet unknownanditisunlikelytobeentirelyrosy
or dark (Lerner et al. 2018b).
Our study has several limitations. The simple,
straightforward design and sample used were ap-
propriate for the critical research question of
whether actual ADHD and the likelihood of entre-
preneurial action are positively connected. The re-
sultant coefficient estimates, while likely conserva-
tive in nature for aforementioned reasons, should
however not be presumed to be broadly generaliz-
able to other populations (Antshel 2017;Canits
et al. 2018). At an even deeper level, it is impor-
tant to recall that generalizability is not per se a
property of any empirical study, but rather is a
question of whether a theoretical relationship gen-
eralizes across empirical contexts (Zelditch 1969).
As our findings quite strongly ground prior re-
search and establish the central theorized relation-
ship, they indicate the fruitfulness of future re-
search involving other populations, other designs,
and more complex theory.
Entrepreneurship and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a large-scale study involving the clinical... 389
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
5.2 Implications and conclusions
The present work foments and contributes to various
scholarly conversations, particularly those involving
mental health or ADHD and entrepreneurship
(Lerner 2016;Lerneretal.2018b; Thurik et al.
2016; Verheul et al. 2015,2016; Wiklund et al.
2016). It also serves as a basis for future research.
For example, the finding that individuals with
ADHD are almost two times more likely to venture
indicates the merit of further studies on ADHD and
venturing outcomes. This is particularly so once
considering the otherwise squandered human capi-
tal, the costs of business failure, and/or the many
adverse outcomes associated with unchanneled adult
ADHD (such as absenteeism, unemployment, sub-
stance abuse, incarceration).
Bolstered by the findings of our large-scale
quantitative inquiry, ADHD has implications for
organizational research, practice, and policy.
Research implications include highlighting the
need for further study of contextual factors deter-
mining under which conditions ADHD is a
strength or a weakness, and is adaptive or
counter-productive in venturing. In regard to prac-
tice and policy, understanding that mental health,
and ADHD in particular, has dark and bright sides
for entrepreneurship, has various implications. For
example, it suggests the opportunity for research to
help educators, clinicians, and even organizations
focus on strengths (such as a willingness to act, an
imperturbable focus on activities of interest) and
compensate for weaknesses (such as distractibility
and poor attention to detail in mundane activities).
More generally, it suggests the continued opportu-
nity for considering other predictors potentially
seen as aberrant in respect to entrepreneurship
(e.g., Hmieleski and Lerner 2016; Wiklund et al.
2018).
Overall, the present work contributes to theory
by grounding recent research linking ADHD and
entrepreneurship with a large-scale quantitative ex-
amination that squarely tests the effect of attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In concert with other
studies, the work establishes an emergent entrepre-
neurship literature on ADHD. In doing so, it at-
tests to broader emerging theory that generally
suggests the relevance of clinical or otherwise
dark constructs in entrepreneurship.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestrict-
ed use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
you give appropriate credit to theoriginal author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if
changes were made.
References
American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2013). Diagnostic and
statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5). American
Psychiatric Publishing.
Antshel, K. M. (2017). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) and entrepreneurship. Academy of Management
Perspectives.https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2016.0144.
Archer, D. (2014). ADHD: the entrepreneurs superpower. Forbes
Magazine Online. http://www.forbes.com/sites/dalearcher/2014
/05/14/adhd-the-entrepreneurs-superpower.Retrieved11/22
/2016.
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention,
and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of
AD/HD. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 6594.
Barkley, R.A., Murphy, K.R., Fischer, M. (2008). ADHD in
adults: what the science says. Guilford, New York.
Baron, R. A. (2007). Behavioral and cognitive factors in entrepre-
neurship: entrepreneurs as the active element in new venture
creation. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 1(12), 167
182.
Baron,R.A.,Hmieleski,K.M.,&Henry,R.A.(2012).
Entrepreneursdispositional positive affect: the potential
benefitsand potential costsof being Bup^.Journal of
Business Venturing, 27,310324.
Bozionelos, N., & Bozionelos, G. (2013). Attention deficit/
hyperactivity disorder at work: does it impact job perfor-
mance? Academy of Management Perspectives, 27(3).
https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2013.0107.
Canits, I., Bernoster, I., Mukerjee Nath, I., Bonnet, J., Rizzo, U., &
Rosique, M. (2018). ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity)
symptoms and academic entrepreneurial preference: is there
an association? Small Business Economics, this issue.
Cardon, M., Foo, M.-D., Shepherd, D., & Wiklund, J. (2012).
Exploring the heart: entrepreneurial emotion is a hot topic.
Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36(1), 110.
de Graaf, R., Kessler R. C., Fayyad, J. et al. (2008). The preva-
lence and effects of adult attention deficit/hyperactivity dis-
order (ADHD) on the performance of workers: results from
the WHO World Mental Health Survey Initiative.
Occupational and Environmental Medicine; 65:(835)
Douglas, E. J., & Shepherd, D. A. (2002). Self-employment as a
career choice: attitudes, entrepreneurial intentions, and utility
maximization. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 26(3),
8190.
Frese, M. (2009). Towards a psychology of entrepreneurship: an
action theory perspective. Foundations and Trends in
Entrepreneurship, 5(6), 437496. https://doi.org/10.1561
/0300000028.
390 D. A. Lerner et al.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Gartner, W. B., Carter, N. M., & Reynolds, P. D. (2004). Business
start-up activities. In W. B. Gartner, K. G. Shaver, N. M.
Carter, & P. D. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of entrepreneur-
ial dynamics: the process of business creation in contempo-
rary America (pp. 285298). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Gielnik, M. M., Uy, M. A., Funken,R., & Bischoff, K. M. (2017).
Boosting and sustaining passion: a long-term perspective on
the effects of entrepreneurship training. Journal of Business
Venturing, 32(3), 334353.
Goldman, L.S., Genel, M., Bezman, R.J. and Slanetz, P.J. (1998)
Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder in Children and Adolescents. Journal of the
American Medical Association, 279, 11001107. https://doi.
org/10.1001/jama.279.14.1100.
Halbesleben, J. R. B., Wheeler, A. R., & Shanine, K. K. (2013).
The moderating role of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disor-
der in the work engagement-performance process. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 18(2), 132143.
Hmieleski, K. M., & Baron, R. A. (2008). Regulatory focus and
new venture performance: a study of entrepreneurial oppor-
tunity exploitation under conditions of risk versus uncertain-
ty. Strategic Management Journal, 2,285299.
Hmieleski, K. M., & Lerner, D. A. (2016). The dark triad and
nascent entrepreneurship: an examination of unproductive
versus productive entrepreneurial motives. Journal of Small
Business Management.https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12296.
Kessler, R. C., Adler, L., Ames, M., Demler, O., Faraone, S.,
Hiripi, E., Howes, M. J., Jin, R., Secnik, K., Spencer, T.,
Ustun, T. B., & Walters, E. E. (2005). The World Health
Organization Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS).
Psychological Medicine, 35(2), 245256.
Kessler, R. C., Adler, J., Gruber, M. J., Sarawate, C. A., et al.
(2007). Validity of the World Health Organization Adult
ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) screener in a representa-
tive sample of health plan members. International Journal of
Methods in Psychiatric. Research, 16(2), 5265.
Kessler, R. C., Lane, M., Stang, P. E., & Van Brunt, D. L. (2009).
The prevalence and workplace costs of adult attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder in a large manufacturing firm.
Psychological Medicine, 39,137147.
Kolvereid, L. (1996). Prediction of employment status choice
intentions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 21(1),
4757.
Krueger, N. F., & Brazeal, D. V. (1994). Entrepreneurial potential
and potential entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship Theory and
Practice, 18(3), 91104.
Krueger, N. F., Reilly, M. D., & Carsrud, A. L. (2000). Competing
models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business
Venturing, 15(56), 411432.
Lerner, D. (2016). Behavioral disinhibition and nascent venturing:
relevance and initial effects on potential resource providers.
Journal of Business Venturing, 31(2), 234252.
Lerner, D., Hunt, R., & Dimov, D. (2018a). Action! moving
beyond the intendedly-rational logics of entrepreneurship.
Journal of Business Venturing, 33(1), 5269. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2017.10.002.
Lerner, D., Hunt, R., & Verheul, I. (2018b). Dueling Banjos:
harmony and discord between ADHD and entrepreneurship.
Academy of Management Perspectives.https://doi.
org/10.5465/amp.2016.0178.
Lerner, D., Hatak, I., & Rauch, A. (2018c). Deep roots?
Behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation system
(BIS/BAS) sensitivity and entrepreneurship. Journal of
Business Venturing Insights, 9, 107115. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jbvi.2018.02.005.
Linan, F., & Chen, Y.-W. (2009). Development and cross-cultural
application of a specific instrument to measure entrepreneur-
ial intentions. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 33(3),
593617.
Miller, D., & Le Brenton-Miller, I. (2016). Underdog entrepre-
neurs: a model of challenge-based entrepreneurship.
Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice. https://doi.
org/10.1111/etap.12253.
Parker, S. C. (2018). The economics of entrepreneurship (2nd ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Reynolds, P., Carter, N., Gartner, W., & Greene, P. (2004). The
prevalence of nascent entrepreneurs in the United States:
evidence from the panel study of entrepreneurial dynamics.
Small Business Economics, 23,263284.
Sarasvathy, S. D. (2001). Causation and effectuation: toward a
theoretical shift from economic inevitability to entrepreneur-
ial contingency. Academy of Management Review, 26(2),
243263.
Shane, S. 2003. A general theory of entrepreneurship: the
individual-opportunity nexus. Aldershot: Edward Elgar.
Sieger, P., Fueglistaller, U., & Zellweger, T. (2014). Student entre-
preneurship across the globe: a look at intentions and activ-
ities. St. Gallen: KMU-HSG.
The Economist. (2012). In praise of misfits: why business needs
people with Aspergers syndrome, attention-deficit disorder
and dyslexia, June 2nd, 2012.
Thurik, A. R., Khedhaouria, A., Torrès, O., & Verheul, I. (2016).
ADHD symptoms and entrepreneurial orientation of small
firm owners. Applied Psychology, 65(3), 568586.
Tumasjan, A., & Braun,R. (2012). In the eye of the beholder: how
regulatory focus and self-efficacy interact in influencing op-
portunity recognition. Journal of Business Venturing, 27,
622636.
Verheul, I., Block, J., Burmeister-Lamp, K., Thurik, R., Tiemeier,
H., & Turturea, R. (2015). ADHD-like behavior and entre-
preneurial intentions. Small Business Economics, 45(1), 85
101.
Verheul, I., Rietdijk, W., Block, J., Franken, I., Larsson, H., &
Thurik, R. (2016). The association between attention-deficit/
hyperactivity (ADHD) symptoms and self-employment.
European Journal of Epidemiology, 31(8), 793801.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-016-0159-1.
Webster, G. D., & Crysel,L. C. (2012). BHit me, maybe, one more
time^: brief measures of impulsivity and sensation seeking
and their prediction of blackjack bets and sexual promiscuity.
Journal of Research in Personality, 46(5), 591598.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2012.07.001.
Weyandt, L. L., Iwaszuk, W., Fulton, K., Ollerton, M., Beatty, N.,
Fouts, H., et al. (2003). The internal restlessness scale: per-
formance of college students with and without ADHD.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(4), 382389.
Wiklund, J., Patzelt, H., & Dimov, D. (2016). Entrepreneurship
and psychological disorders: how ADHD can be productive-
ly harnessed. JournalofBusinessVenturingInsights,6,14
20.
Entrepreneurship and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a large-scale study involving the clinical... 391
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Wiklund, J., Yu, W., Tucker, R., & Marino, L. (2017). ADHD,
impulsivity, and entrepreneurship. Journal of Business
Venturing, 32(6), 627656.
Wiklund, J., Hatak, I., Patzelt, H., & Shepherd, D. (2018). Mental
disorders in the entrepreneurship context: when being differ-
ent can be an advantage. Academy of Management
Perspectives.https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2017.0063.
Zelditch, M. (1969). Can you really study an army in the labora-
tory? in A sociological reader on complex organization. Holt,
Rinehart, and Winston, New York, 528539.
Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D. M., Joireman, J., Teta, P., & Kraft,
M. (1993). A comparison of three structural models for
personality: the big three, the big five, and the alternative
five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65,757
768.
392 D. A. Lerner et al.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Terms and Conditions
Springer Nature journal content, brought to you courtesy of Springer Nature Customer Service Center GmbH (“Springer Nature”).
Springer Nature supports a reasonable amount of sharing of research papers by authors, subscribers and authorised users (“Users”),
for small-scale personal, non-commercial use provided that all copyright, trade and service marks and other proprietary notices are
maintained. By accessing, sharing, receiving or otherwise using the Springer Nature journal content you agree to these terms of use
(“Terms”). For these purposes, Springer Nature considers academic use (by researchers and students) to be non-commercial.
These Terms are supplementary and will apply in addition to any applicable website terms and conditions, a relevant site licence or
a personal subscription. These Terms will prevail over any conflict or ambiguity with regards to the relevant terms, a site licence or
a personal subscription (to the extent of the conflict or ambiguity only). For Creative Commons-licensed articles, the terms of the
Creative Commons license used will apply.
We collect and use personal data to provide access to the Springer Nature journal content. We may also use these personal data
internally within ResearchGate and Springer Nature and as agreed share it, in an anonymised way, for purposes of tracking,
analysis and reporting. We will not otherwise disclose your personal data outside the ResearchGate or the Springer Nature group of
companies unless we have your permission as detailed in the Privacy Policy.
While Users may use the Springer Nature journal content for small scale, personal non-commercial use, it is important to note that
Users may not:
use such content for the purpose of providing other users with access on a regular or large scale basis or as a means to
circumvent access control;
use such content where to do so would be considered a criminal or statutory offence in any jurisdiction, or gives rise to civil
liability, or is otherwise unlawful;
falsely or misleadingly imply or suggest endorsement, approval , sponsorship, or association unless explicitly agreed to by
Springer Nature in writing;
use bots or other automated methods to access the content or redirect messages
override any security feature or exclusionary protocol; or
share the content in order to create substitute for Springer Nature products or services or a systematic database of Springer
Nature journal content.
In line with the restriction against commercial use, Springer Nature does not permit the creation of a product or service that creates
revenue, royalties, rent or income from our content or its inclusion as part of a paid for service or for other commercial gain.
Springer Nature journal content cannot be used for inter-library loans and librarians may not upload Springer Nature journal
content on a large scale into their, or any other, institutional repository.
These terms of use are reviewed regularly and may be amended at any time. Springer Nature is not obligated to publish any
information or content on this website and may remove it or features or functionality at our sole discretion, at any time with or
without notice. Springer Nature may revoke this licence to you at any time and remove access to any copies of the Springer Nature
journal content which have been saved.
To the fullest extent permitted by law, Springer Nature makes no warranties, representations or guarantees to Users, either express
or implied with respect to the Springer nature journal content and all parties disclaim and waive any implied warranties or
warranties imposed by law, including merchantability or fitness for any particular purpose.
Please note that these rights do not automatically extend to content, data or other material published by Springer Nature that may be
licensed from third parties.
If you would like to use or distribute our Springer Nature journal content to a wider audience or on a regular basis or in any other
manner not expressly permitted by these Terms, please contact Springer Nature at
onlineservice@springernature.com
... entrepreneurial intention and action) has not been definitely determined. Some research results have shown a positive relationship, while others have shown a negative relationship (Antshel, 2018;Lerner et al., 2018;Moore et al., 2019). Dimic and Orlov (2014) and Verheul et al. (2015) noted that several studies have explored the relationship between ADHD and entrepreneurial intention and orientation, whereas studies focusing on entrepreneurial action are scarce (Patel et al., 2019;Verheul et al., 2016;Wiklund et al., 2017). ...
... Moreover, while studies have examined the relationship between entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial action (Ajzen, 1991;Neneh, 2019;Shinnar et al., 2017;Shirokova et al., 2016;Gieure et al., 2020;Kong et al., 2020), there is a lack of understanding of the relationship between ADHD behavior and entrepreneurial intention (Verheul et al., 2015;Lerner et al., 2018;Leung et al., 2020). ...
... Entrepreneurial intention has long been a topic of interest for entrepreneurship researchers. It is generally defined as the extent to which an individual plan to start a business/become an entrepreneur (Lerner et al., 2018 (Bird, 1988;Lee & Wong, 2004). In particular, the cognitive factors that Ajzen (1991) called "motivational antecedents" ...
Article
Full-text available
The fundamental objective of this research is to study the relationship between Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) behavior and entrepreneurial behavior in Tunisian students. Based on the theory of person-environment adjustment (P-E), the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and the analysis of data collected from 267 Tunisian students using a self-administered online questionnaire, the results of the present study showed no relationship between ADHD behavior and entrepreneurial action. However, entrepreneurial intention plays a mediating role in this relationship. These results constitute a theoretical contribution to the entrepreneurial field. Similarly, the results of the current study lend further support to the person-environment “P-E” theory, which posits that the functionality of a component of ADHD behavior depends on its fit with the environment. In particular, the uncertain and autonomous entrepreneurial environment could be an attractive career choice for people who display hyperactive/impulsive behavior. As for the theory of planned behavior “TPB,” the results of this study also show that intention is a fundamental antecedent of entrepreneurial behavior. This research has practical implications. Its results can be used by stakeholders in the entrepreneurial ecosystem (teachers, incubators, career coaches,… etc.) to detect future entrepreneurs and absorb the unemployment of Tunisian university graduates.
... Recently, entrepreneurship scholars have commenced investigations linking ADHD to entrepreneurial intentions. However, with the exception of the work by Lerner and colleagues (Lerner et al., 2019), most studies have focused on the prevailing behaviors (e.g. hyperactivity, impulsivity) associated with ADHD to predict entrepreneurial intention, rather than the pathological cognitive conditioning the affliction espouses. ...
... Recent research has positioned the differences of entrepreneurs with ADHD as important for understanding the ADHD affects entrepreneur cognition positive effects of neurodiversity in entrepreneurial contexts (Lerner et al., 2018;Nicolaou and Shane, 2014;Wiklund et al., 2016). However, the bulk of this research has focused on the behavioral conditions of ADHD pathology (Wiklund et al., 2017(Wiklund et al., , 2018Lerner et al., 2018Lerner et al., , 2019, overlooking the neurological underpinnings that construe these behaviors and breaking from the current paradigm dominant in psychiatry, neurology, and psychology wherein ADHD is conceptualized in terms of how individuals think (Moore et al., 2021). This research took a cognitive approach to better understand how entrepreneurs' neurodiversity affects their cognitive schema, including the indirect relationships between ADHD and three important aspects of the entrepreneurial mindset (entrepreneurial alertness, cognitive adaptability, and entrepreneurial intentions). ...
Article
Purpose This study investigates how attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in entrepreneurs functions through coping schema to affect entrepreneurship-related cognitions. It is proposed that the resource-induced coping heuristic (RICH) bridges the conceptual gap between pathological cognitive executive control/reward attributes and cognitive resources, specifically entrepreneurial alertness, cognitive adaptability and entrepreneurial intent. Design/methodology/approach With data from 581 entrepreneurs, this study utilizes partial least squares structural equation modeling for analysis. Additionally, a two-stage hierarchical component modeling approach was used to estimate latent variable scores for higher-order constructs. Findings Findings indicate the RICH mediates the relationships ADHD has with alertness, cognitive adaptability and entrepreneurial intent. Originality/value The RICH is introduced as a mechanism to explain how ADHD indirectly influences entrepreneurial alertness, cognitive adaptability and entrepreneurial intent.
... This line of research suggests that entrepreneurial action is not necessarily based on rational calculations, as entrepreneurs can also act impulsively and take risks thoughtlessly (Wiklund et al., 2018). In this regard, it is observed that people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (who display higher levels of impulsivity) are more likely to initiate nascent venturing and engage in entrepreneurship (Lerner et al., 2019). This brings into question whether entrepreneurial decisions are unquestionably products of deliberate calculation (for example, even a parasite infection turns out to increase entrepreneurial intentions (Johnson et al., 2018;Lerner et al., 2020)). ...
Chapter
Entrepreneurial decision-making involves selecting a course of entrepreneurial action. From a cognitive perspective, this chapter outlines how entrepreneurs navigate uncertainty, ambiguity, and emotional stress in their decision-making, which is important to understand due to its economic consequences. Entrepreneurial decision-making is vulnerable to heuristic shortcuts and their biases. Yet, some heuristic shortcuts can yield good enough decisions under uncertainty as they can exploit the most relevant cues and minimize noise. Similarly, when predicting future outcomes is difficult, entrepreneurs can use effectuation as a heuristic strategy for controlling possible losses. When uncertainty is very high, entrepreneurs might even resort to eristic shortcuts based on their hedonic urges, leading to impulsive decisions.
... People with ADHD often display traits of novelty and sensation seeking, and are easily bored, thus they are more likely to develop new ideas and products (Yu et al., 2021) and may therefore be better suited to this type of work (Yu et al., 2021). Other features that may attract people with ADHD include variability of tasks, the freedom to change the work to meet their preferences and needs, and flexible working hours ( Lerner et al., 2019;Patel et al., 2021). In this environment their difficulties may become their strengths and some people with ADHD can therefore perform well in private enterprise (Yu et al., 2021). ...
Article
Full-text available
Neurodevelopmental disorders are traditionally characterised by a range of associated cognitive impairments in, for example, sensory processing, facial recognition, visual imagery, attention, and coordination. In this critical review, we propose a major reframing, highlighting the variety of unique cognitive strengths that people with neurodevelopmental differences can exhibit. These include enhanced visual perception, strong spatial, auditory, and semantic memory, superior empathy and theory of mind, along with higher levels of divergent thinking. Whilst we acknowledge the heterogeneity of cognitive profiles in neurodevelopmental conditions, we present a more encouraging and affirmative perspective of these groups, contrasting with the predominant, deficit-based position prevalent throughout both cognitive and neuropsychological research. In addition, we provide a theoretical basis and rationale for these cognitive strengths, arguing for the critical role of hereditability, behavioural adaptation, neuronal-recycling, and we draw on psychopharmacological and social explanations. We present a table of potential strengths across conditions and invite researchers to systematically investigate these in their future work. This should help reduce the stigma around neurodiversity, instead promoting greater social inclusion and significant societal benefits.
... There has been other research, enough to determine unequivocally that neurodivergent workers are worth having on the payroll. Just two examples, teams with autistic professionals are 30-40% more productive (DXC, n.d.) and individuals with ADHD take a more entrepreneurial approach (Lerner et al., 2018). Regarding inclusivity in general, employees in inclusive teams are more satisfied, less likely to leave, experience less discrimination, engage in more self-care, and have greater self-regulation (Cox et al., 2016;O'Leary & D'Almada-Remedios, 2019). ...
... Antshel's (2018) review of ADHD integrates the theories and clinical characteristics of ADHD and entrepreneurship (e.g. hyperactive/impulsive presentation: see also Stappers and Andries, 2022) recognising that ADHD affords advantages in certain occupational settings (Lerner et al., 2019). One study (Patel et al., 2019) concluded that despite a preference for selfemployment among ADHDers, earnings are often lower than for waged work. ...
Article
Full-text available
Purpose Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neuro-developmental condition that has frequently been pathologised in career research and broader society to date. The study seeks to reframe such assumptions through a qualitative positive-focused exploration of career stories of ADHD adults, elicited through a strength-focused technique with wide applicability for coaching and other career-based development activities. Design/methodology/approach Situated in a strength-focused coaching psychology paradigm, the authors undertook semi-structured interviews with 17 participants, using an adapted feedforward interview technique (FFI) rooted in positive psychology (PP), to investigate individuals' strengths and successful career experiences. Findings Narrative thematic analysis of the transcripts identified two core themes: “the paradoxical nature of strengths” and “career success as an evolving narrative”. The participants described how they have achieved career success both “in spite of” and “because of” ADHD. The use of the FFI demonstrated a helpful and easily taught method for eliciting personal narratives of success and strengths, an essential foundation to any coaching process. Originality/value This research provides a nuanced overview, and an associated conceptual model, of how adults with ADHD perceive their career-based strengths and experiences of success. Further, the research shows the value of using a positive psychological coaching approach when working with neurominority individuals, using a successful adaptation of the FFI. The authors hope that the documentation of this technique and the resulting insights will offer important guidance for managers as coaches and internal and external career coaches, as well as providing positive and relatable narrative resources for ADHD adults.
... Second, in future research, it would be worthwhile to investigate psychological differences between the two groups, such as personality traits. The literature describes a link between ADHD (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder) and entrepreneurship, which is mostly driven by higher levels of impulsivity (Antshel, 2018;Lerner et al., 2019). At the same time, recent studies show impulsivity and an ADHD diagnosis to be negatively related to both COVID-19 vaccination intention and adherence to COVID-19 regulations in general (Dvorsky et al., 2022;Merzon et al., 2021;Wismans et al., 2021a, b). ...
Article
Purpose Lockdowns and the forced closure of certain industries during the COVID-19 pandemic severely impacted workers, particularly entrepreneurs, who were financially and emotionally involved in their businesses. Two studies have shown that entrepreneurs have a lower willingness to get vaccinated against COVID-19 than employees. In this study, the authors try to replicate the vaccination gap between the two groups. Second, the authors study whether the difference persists when controlling for demographics, vaccination attitudes and the COVID-19 context, including the financial impact of the pandemic, its effect on the wellbeing of workers, and government attitudes. Third, the authors study whether there are differences in how the context of the pandemic relates to vaccination willingness for entrepreneurs and employees. Design/methodology/approach The authors conduct regression analyses using three large datasets. The authors study vaccination status (February 2022) in a 27-country Eurobarometer sample, vaccination intention (December 2020) in a Dutch sample from the LISS panel and vaccination status (July 2021) in a sample from the Understanding America Study (UAS). Findings All datasets confirm that entrepreneurs have lower vaccination intention and coverage than employees. Even when controlling for the variables described in the LISS and UAS datasets, this negative difference remains. The study results also indicate that demographics, especially vaccination attitudes, are much more important than contextual influences in the decision to get vaccinated against COVID-19. Originality/value The authors are the first to dive further into the vaccination differences between entrepreneurs and employees. They advise further research into the drivers of this gap, specifically relating to the role of personality and social normative influences.
Article
Full-text available
This paper disputes the thesis that a self-reported mental condition of apparent genetic origin makes its carriers entertain entrepreneurial intentions and assesses its implications for entrepreneurship-driven economic development. The findings are that the research in question mistakes true causative agents for superficial cause-hiding vectors, thus confusing a self-reported attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) condition with the cause of entrepreneurial intentions. This is all the more so because ADHD was not properly accounted for, relying instead on the Global University Entrepreneurial Spirit Students Survey (GUESSS), self-administered without diagnostic evidence. Thus, entrepreneur-ship has been turned on its head, being misrepresented as a hardwired, innate human trait instead of a course of action that hinges on subjective preferences that can be influenced by the structure of rewards shaped by public policy. This misrepresentation may dwell in the so-called 'hardness bias', which underestimates the softer but crucial test of the quality of conjectures. The originality of this paper lies in the use of the harmful-dysfunction analysis, showing that the entrepreneurship research in question is based on a bogus notion of disorder.
Article
Full-text available
Objectives To identify and explore positive aspects of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as reported by adults with the diagnosis. Design The current study used a qualitative survey design including the written responses to an open-ended question on positive aspects of ADHD. The participants’ responses were analysed using thematic analysis. Setting The participants took part in trial of a self-guided internet-delivered intervention in Norway. As part of the intervention, the participants were asked to describe positive aspects of having ADHD. Participants The study included 50 help-seeking adults with an ADHD diagnosis. Results The participants described a variety of positive aspects related to having ADHD. The participants’ experiences were conceptualised and thematically organised into four main themes: (1) the dual impact of ADHD characteristics; (2) the unconventional mind; (3) the pursuit of new experiences and (4) resilience and growth. Conclusions Having ADHD was experienced as both challenging and beneficial, depending on the context and one’s sociocultural environment. The findings provide arguments for putting a stronger emphasis on positive aspects of ADHD, alongside the challenges, in treatment settings. Trial registration number NCT04511169
Chapter
Entrepreneurship research has focused on traditional firm-level outcomes such as firm performance or growth. Yet, the pursuit of entrepreneurship is for deeply personal reasons. Thereby, as a self-organized human pursuit, how entrepreneurship relates to personal wellbeing or personal fulfillment is important but frequently overlooked. It is of utmost importance to examine the connection between entrepreneurship and wellbeing as entrepreneurs face various challenges and have to make quick decision facing uncertainty but how they experience and appreciate their work and how their work impacts their wellbeing is still nascent. While non-academic outlets have examined work burnout, stress, and fatigue of entrepreneurs and their causes and ways to overcome them, the academic literature is just starting to examine this important research area. Throughout this book chapter, we cover the concepts of wellbeing and how it relates to research on entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial pursuit. The concept of psychological wellbeing plays a vital role in scholarly work and policy debates. Entrepreneurship pursuit, which is an integral part of living for a fulfilled life, is closely related to an individual’s capacity to work and maintain positive relationships. An entrepreneurial pursuit can be a source of satisfaction and personal fulfillment and can push the entrepreneur in achieving their goals and persisting with their entrepreneurial endeavors under conditions of uncertainty. The sense of satisfaction derived from an entrepreneurial pursuit can be the driving force for positive social change. We emphasize the importance of investigating wellbeing as a crucial outcome in entrepreneurship research. Further, we draw upon the important role of wellbeing as being a driver for entrepreneurial pursuits (whether the antecedent to entrepreneurial pursuit is the lack of wellbeing or on the contrary positive affect). The emotional aspect is important for entrepreneurship researchers to consider since entrepreneurs are driven by their emotional state as they are constantly facing uncertainty and time pressures in their entrepreneurial journey. Entrepreneurship research has started to examine wellbeing as a critical psychological antecedent, yet most studies have focused on positive emotions often disregarding the role of negative emotions being an equally important driver to entrepreneurial pursuit and actions.KeywordsEntrepreneurshipWellbeingEmotionHealthADHD
Article
Full-text available
Although commercialization of research activities has drawn some research attention, more studies are warranted to clearly understand the drivers behind academic entrepreneurship. The present paper investigates the association between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and academic entrepreneurial preference. ADHD symptoms have typically been associated with impaired occupational functioning among wage employees. Recent studies, however, indicate that the same symptoms of ADHD that are a liability for wage employees may work out differently for entrepreneurs. Building on previous studies that link ADHD symptoms to entrepreneurship, and using the theoretical lens of person-environment fit, we hypothesize that ADHD symptoms (at the so-called subclinical level) are associated with academic entrepreneurial preference. Results of our data from academic researchers in France, Spain, and Italy (N = 534) show that there is a negative association between attention-deficit symptoms and academic entrepreneurial preference. However, there is no link between hyperactivity symptoms and academic entrepreneurial preference.
Article
Full-text available
Develops integrated perspective on the dualism of ADHD in entreprenurship, both across the extended entrepreneurial process and within particular stages/activites.
Article
Full-text available
Mental disorders are prevalent, place considerable burden on the economy and lead to suffering for those with the disorders and their loved ones. However, there is a flipside. Evidence suggests that people with mental disorders can flourish and productively contribute to society through entrepreneurship. This paper explores the relationship between mental disorders and entrepreneurship. It builds a research agenda to propose that researchers explore the role of mental disorders in the entrepreneurial context. We show how such research will advance this new field of research, but also how it can develop novel insights and theories in entrepreneurship and contribute to theories on the psychology of work, career choice, and clinical psychology.
Article
Full-text available
Entrepreneurial action is central to entrepreneurship theory, and is broadly seen to arise as a consequence of intendedly rational logics (whether causal or effectual), reflecting reasoned judgment. But, is this always the case? While entrepreneurial action may often be the result of a judgmental decision (between alternative courses of action/inaction), the presumption that reasoned judgment encompasses all the motives, modes and mechanisms leading to entrepreneurial outcomes seems dubious. Building on an emerging literature that seeks to address the boundaries of reasoned entrepreneurial action, we develop the notion that non-deliberative impulse-driven behavioral logics can also be the basis for business venturing. Our framework offers a complementary perspective to the intendedly-rational, deliberate logics perspective, opening novel pathways for future research and theory-building.
Article
Before there can be entrepreneurship there must be the potential for entrepreneurship, whether in a community seeking to develop or in a large organization seeking to innovate. Entrepreneurial potential, however, requires potential entrepreneurs. This paper discusses antecedents of such potential and proposes a model based on Shapero's (1982) model of the entrepreneurial event. We then discuss this model in light of supporting evidence from two different perspectives, corporate venturing and enterprise development.
Article
Although commercialization of research activities has drawn some research attention, more studies are warranted to clearly understand the drivers behind academic entrepreneurship. The present paper investigates the association between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and academic entrepreneurial preference. ADHD symptoms have typically been associated with impaired occupational functioning among wage employees. Recent studies, however, indicate that the same symptoms of ADHD that are a liability for wage employees may work out differently for entrepreneurs. Building on previous studies that link ADHD symptoms to entrepreneurship, and using the theoretical lens of person-environment fit, we hypothesize that ADHD symptoms (at the so-called subclinical level) are associated with academic entrepreneurial preference. Results of our data from academic researchers in France, Spain, and Italy (N = 534) show that there is a negative association between attention-deficit symptoms and academic entrepreneurial preference. However, there is no link between hyperactivity symptoms and academic entrepreneurial preference.
Article
Recently, entrepreneurship scholars have started to show interest in how " negative " traits associated with mental disorders such as ADHD may have positive implications in entrepreneur-ship. While this research has the potential of producing important and counter-intuitive results, it is still in its infancy and the causal mechanisms that drive those individuals to be attracted to entrepreneurship have received limited attention. Consequently, we draw on the person-environment fit literature and propose that individuals are attracted to, and engage in, entrepreneurship because the task environment of entrepreneurship which favors speed of action is aligned with the traits of those individuals. We develop and test a model which suggests that ADHD influences entrepreneurship through the multifaceted trait of impulsivity. We find that inattention is negatively but hyperactivity is positively associated with entrepre-neurship. We also find that sensation seeking and lack of premeditation generally positively influences entrepreneurship, whereas urgency has the opposite influence. Taken together, this suggests complex, multifaceted implications of ADHD and impulsivity in entrepreneurship. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. Research on entrepreneur personality has been mostly associated with positive traits, such as self-efficacy and achievement motivation. However, most traits are not universally positive or negative and what is functional or dysfunctional depends on context (Judge et al., 2009). Entre-preneurship is characterized by uncertainty, which indices anxiety, worry, procrastination and inaction among most people (McMullen and Shepherd, 2006; Paulus, 2007). However, it is also a vocation that grants more autonomy in terms of job design and task allocation, which may be attractive to individuals who need more leeway in designing their own tasks. Acknowledging the high uncertainty and autonomy in entrepreneurship, we argue that ADHD symptoms, which are associated with negative consequences in many areas of life, may have positive implications in the context of entrepreneurship because ADHD is characterized by traits such as sensation seeking, a focus on action with little premeditation, and a desire for autonomy. We employ person-environment fit theory (e.g., Holland, 1997) to argue that ADHD symptoms influence entrepreneurial preferences and behavior through the multi-dimensional traits of im-pulsivity. Specifically, ADHD symptoms are related to higher levels of sensation seeking, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and urgency. These traits in turn influence the perceived attractiveness of entrepreneurship and the probability of starting a business. We conducted surveys on a sample of MBA alumni from a school that is consistently ranked as one of the top fifty public MBA programs, who by virtue of their degree tend to have viable job opportunities and were thus less likely to be pushed into entrepreneurship. We find that ADHD symptoms have a complicated relationship with entrepreneurial preferences and action, with the pathway through sensation seeking and lack of premeditation being mostly positive while the pathway through urgency being negative. Further, hyperactive symptoms seem to mainly result in positive outcomes while inattention symptoms lead to negative ones. Our findings demonstrate that entrepreneurship is indeed a unique area where negative traits, such as ADHD, may represent valuable assets. Previous research has mostly associated ADHD with negative job-related outcomes (Barkley et al., 2006). Our research indicates that certain aspects of ADHD symptoms, such as sensation seeking and lack of premeditation, could lead individuals to be attracted to entrepreneurship and to start their own businesses. This suggests a contextualized view of personality traits, as well as boundary conditions to existing theories. Second, we develop and empirically test a model that links ADHD symptoms to entrepreneur-ship through the multi-dimensional traits of impulsivity, which provides a more nuanced and theoretically interesting understanding of the ADHD—entrepreneurship relationship. The same can be said about our findings of the differential influences of inattention and hyperactivity symptoms. Thus, this paper contributes to previous research on ADHD and entrepreneurship that has mostly examined the bivariate relationship between the two (e.g., Veryheul et al., 2015; Thurik et al., 2016). Finally, our post-hoc analyses showed that the effects of ADHD symptoms on entrepreneurship are more pronounced under highly uncertain environments. This is consistent with our theorizing, suggesting that individuals with ADHD symptoms are more likely to harness advantages associated with ADHD rather than suffer from associated disadvantages in highly uncertain and dynamic environments such as entrepreneurship. There are at least two important practice implications of our results. First, our results imply that individuals with ADHD symptoms may be empowered to craft their own jobs to fit their special needs. Second, our findings suggest that people with ADHD symptoms and impul-sivity will tend to prefer action speed over action accuracy and that this may be functional in the context of entrepreneurship.
Article
We know that entrepreneurship training is effective but we lack a theoretical understanding of the dynamic processes after training leading to business creation. In this study, we develop a theoretical model to explain short- and long-term effects of entrepreneurship training on entrepreneurial self-efficacy, passion, and business creation. We hypothesize that entrepreneurship training boosts entrepreneurial self-efficacy and passion, and that entrepreneurial self-efficacy sustains the positive effect of entrepreneurship training on passion over time. Furthermore, we hypothesize that entrepreneurship training impacts business creation through passion. We conducted a field experiment with four measurement waves over 32 months resulting in 784 observations from 227 participants. Discontinuous growth curve modeling and joint lagged analyses supported our hypotheses. Our findings indicate that post-training processes are dynamic and that entrepreneurial self-efficacy is important to maintain high passion after training. Maintaining high passion after training eventually leads to business creation.