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Seaweeds: Valuable Ingredients for the Pharmaceutical Industries
Abstract
Seaweeds have been used since time immemorial in East Asia as spice, delicacy, and traditional medicines. In the recent decades, extensive studies have been done to establish health-promoting activities and pharmacological actions of seaweed-derived bioactive materials. These bioactive materials and extracts have been shown to possess a wide spectrum of biological actions, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antivirus, anticancer, antihypertensive, fat-lowering, and neuroprotective activities. Hence, seaweeds have gained much importance in pharmaceutical product development due to their rich bioactive compounds including polysaccharides, pigments, phlorotannins, peptides, mineral, and vitamins. Intensive efforts are still being made to isolate and identify new bioactive ingredients derived from seaweeds with potential medicinal, health, or pharmaceutical activities. The present chapter aims to narrate pharmaceutical potential and challenge of bioactive materials present in seaweeds.
... Since Cd is a nonessential element for human health (Revitt et al., 2013), higher level of Cd ingestion may result in lung damage, renal damage and skeletal changes (Godt et al., 2006;Bernar, 2008). The mineral composition of seaweeds may be influenced by environmental conditions (Holdt and Kraan, 2011;Rubio et al., 2017;Siahaan et al., 2018), their age, and their capability to absorb inorganic elements from the surroundings due to the presence of polysaccharides-based cell walls. Brown seaweeds have higher absorption rates than green and red seaweeds owing to the existence of alginate, alginic acid salts and alginic acid (Siahaan et al., 2018). ...
... The mineral composition of seaweeds may be influenced by environmental conditions (Holdt and Kraan, 2011;Rubio et al., 2017;Siahaan et al., 2018), their age, and their capability to absorb inorganic elements from the surroundings due to the presence of polysaccharides-based cell walls. Brown seaweeds have higher absorption rates than green and red seaweeds owing to the existence of alginate, alginic acid salts and alginic acid (Siahaan et al., 2018). These polysaccharides have an affinity with Ca and Mg salts. ...
... These polysaccharides have an affinity with Ca and Mg salts. However, seaweeds accumulate not only desirable minerals but also undesirable metals from the surrounding environment to hazardous levels and migrate to the human body through the diet, resulting in negative health effects such as allergies, hyperpigmentation, and cancer caused (Holdt and Kraan, 2011;Rubio et al., 2017;Siahaan et al., 2018). Seaweeds encompass greater amount of minerals than terrestrial plants and vegetations (Rupérez, 2002) and in some cases, the content would be as high as 40% (Kumar et al., 2011;Nwosu et al., 2011). ...
This study aimed to analyze minerals (Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu) and heavy metals (Pb and Cd) content of seaweeds collected from coastal waters of Bangladesh using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). Eight wild species in three phyla viz. Rhodophyta (Hypnea sp.), Chlorophyta (Enteromorphasp.),and Phaeophyta (Sargassumsp.,Hydroclathrusclathratus, Padinapavonica, Colpomeniasinuosa, Petalonia fascia and Dictyotaciliolata)and one cultured Rhodophyta species viz. Hypnea sp. were collected from St. Martin’s Island and Cox’s Bazar, respectively. Results showed minerals and heavy metals concentrations were varied from species to species. Ca concentration was the highest in Phaeophyta (18565 mg/kg-dw) and it was 19 times higher than the value reported in Chlorophyta (950 mg/kg-dw). In contrast, Fe, Zn and Mn were the highest in Rhodophyta. This is because different groups of seaweeds affinity to absorb minerals depend on environmental parameters for example salinity, pH and light intensity, mineral accessibility in sea water and interactions between elements, growth and metabolic factors, etc. Ca content was the highest in C. sinuosa (30890 mg/kg-dw), whereas, it was the lowest in cultured Hypnea sp. (120 mg/kg-dw). P.pavonica showed the highest concentrations of Fe (15030 mg/kg-dw), Zn (33.46 mg/kg-dw) and Mn (443.79 mg/kg-dw). Mineral contents of cultured seaweeds were comparatively lower than the wild species. Results showed mineral concentrations in all seaweeds were relatively greater than heavy metals. However, wild Hypneasp. contained slightly 2 times higher Cd (2.11 mg/kg-dw) than the cultured Hypnea sp. (0.98 mg/kg-dw) due to higher level of anthropogenic source of pollution in St. Martin’s Island. Heavy metal contamination in seaweeds might raise health concerns among the consumers. Findings of this study might help to unleash minerals and heavy metals compositions of the studied seaweeds of Bangladesh. Policy makers can formulate and establish health safety guidelines for safe consumption of seaweeds. The Dhaka University Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Vol. 10(2), 2021, P 43-52
... Compared to land vegetables, the ash content in seaweeds (macro-minerals and trace elements) is high at 20-50% dry weight (Holdt and Kraan 2011;Pereira 2016). The mineral composition of seaweeds may be influenced by environmental conditions (Holdt and Kraan 2011;Rubio et al. 2017;Siahaan, Pangestuti, and Kim 2018), their age, and their capability to absorb inorganic substances from the environment due to the polysaccharides in their cell walls. Different groups of seaweeds have different capability to uptake minerals (Siahaan, Pangestuti, and Kim 2018). ...
... The mineral composition of seaweeds may be influenced by environmental conditions (Holdt and Kraan 2011;Rubio et al. 2017;Siahaan, Pangestuti, and Kim 2018), their age, and their capability to absorb inorganic substances from the environment due to the polysaccharides in their cell walls. Different groups of seaweeds have different capability to uptake minerals (Siahaan, Pangestuti, and Kim 2018). However, seaweeds accumulate not only desirable minerals but also undesirable metals from the surrounding environment, which can affect their safety for human consumption (Holdt and Kraan 2011;Rubio et al. 2017;Siahaan, Pangestuti, and Kim 2018). ...
... Different groups of seaweeds have different capability to uptake minerals (Siahaan, Pangestuti, and Kim 2018). However, seaweeds accumulate not only desirable minerals but also undesirable metals from the surrounding environment, which can affect their safety for human consumption (Holdt and Kraan 2011;Rubio et al. 2017;Siahaan, Pangestuti, and Kim 2018). The USA, France, Australia, and New Zealand have established specific regulations for toxic elements in edible seaweeds (Almela et al. 2006). ...
An adequate daily intake of minerals is essential for the prevention of chronic nutrition-related and degenerative diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. Seaweeds are marine aquatic vegetable that are rich in nutrients. They also have a natural and sustainable origin and clean and renewable sources when they come from marine aquaculture or controlled fisheries. Seaweeds have high nutritional value as a source of polyunsaturated fatty acids, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and especially minerals. They are known for their high mineral content, which is gathered from seawater depending on the seasonal variation and the environment. Seaweeds are consequently rich in macro-elements and trace elements, with a mineral content at least 10 times higher than terrestrial plants and reaching 20-50% of its dry weight. Therefore, seaweeds can make an important contribution to the daily intake of minerals and are a promising source of essential minerals for functional food, food supplements, and nutraceuticals. The aim of the present review is to compare the contents of essential minerals (K, Ca, Na, P, Cu, Fe, Se, Mn, Zn, Mg, Cr, and I) as well as potential toxic minerals (Hg, Pb, Cd, As, and Al) in 14 main edible seaweeds that have availability of biomass from harvest and aquaculture. Another goal is to establish their safety in foods and contributions to the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) and adequate intake (AI) values.
... Similar result with high mineral content reported by some research, the mineral content (based on the dry matter) of Padina australis at 34.58% (Salosso et al. 2020), Gracilaria sp. at 24.83% (Purwaningsih and Deskawati 2020), and Eucheuma cottonii at 46.19% (Matanjun et al. 2008). Factors affecting the mineral content of seaweed are their age and capability to absorb inorganic substances from the environment (Rubio et al. 2017;Siahaan et al. 2018). Siahaan et al. (2018) stated that green and red seaweed have a lower absorption rate to uptake minerals than brown seaweed due to the polysaccharides in the brown algae cell walls containing alginic acid, alginate, and salt alginic acid. ...
... Factors affecting the mineral content of seaweed are their age and capability to absorb inorganic substances from the environment (Rubio et al. 2017;Siahaan et al. 2018). Siahaan et al. (2018) stated that green and red seaweed have a lower absorption rate to uptake minerals than brown seaweed due to the polysaccharides in the brown algae cell walls containing alginic acid, alginate, and salt alginic acid. ...
Kustantinah, Hidayah N, Noviandi CT, Astuti A, Paradhipta DHV. 2022. Nutrients content of four tropical seaweed species from Kelapa Beach, Tuban, Indonesia and their potential as ruminant feed. Biodiversitas 23: 6191-6197. Indonesia is one of the tropical countries with the largest diversity of seaweed, but studies on identifying the nutrients content of numerous seaweed species from tropical oceans and their potential as ruminant feed have not been widely reported. This study was designed to evaluate the nutrient, macro and micromineral content of brown (Laminaria sp. and Padina australis) and red seaweed (Eucheuma cottonii and Gracilaria sp.) from Kelapa Beach, Tuban, East Java. All tests were carried out in duplicate from individual seaweed and data were analyzed descriptively by calculating the average of data obtained. The result showed that all of the seaweed species in this experiment had a high content of water (69.41-86.33%) and ash/mineral (23.42-65.63%). The brown seaweed Padina australis had the highest dry matter (30.59%) and crude protein (12.57%). The red seaweed of Gracilaria sp. had the highest ash (65.63%) and the lowest organic matter (34.37%), ether extract (0.21%), crude fiber (2.49%), nitrogen-free extract (19.95%), neutral detergent fiber (21.74%), acid detergent fiber (5.46%), and gross energy (1,083 Cal/g); however, in contrast, Eucheuma cottonii had the highest organic matter (76.58%), ether extract (2.85%), crude fiber (8.80%), nitrogen-free extract (56.38%), neutral detergent fiber (56.93%), acid detergent fiber (11.44%), and gross energy (2,911 Cal/g) but the lowest dry matter (13.67%) and crude protein (8.55%). The brown seaweed Padina australis had the highest Na (0.89%), Mg (4.90%), and Cd (3.73 ppm) contents. The red seaweed of Gracilaria sp. had the highest K (2.18%), Ca (5.80%), Fe (7,596 ppm), Mn (818 ppm), Cu (5 ppm), Zn (52 ppm), and Pb (60.38%); however, in contrast, Eucheuma cottonii had the lowest P (0.01%), K (2.02%), Ca (0.64%), Mg (1.09%), Fe (400 ppm), Mn (38 ppm), Pb (17.31 ppm), and Cd (1.53 ppm) but the highest S (0.46%). Based on this study, brown seaweed (Laminaria sp and Padina australis) and red seaweed (Eucheuma cottonii and Gracilaria sp.) from Tuban Regency, East Java, Indonesia have the potential as ruminant feed, especially as soluble carbohydrates and an organic mineral source that requires attention for heavy metals to prevent toxicity to ruminants.
... Some research reported that the mineral content of Padina australis at 34.58% w/w [17], Eucheuma cottonii at 46.19% dry weight [18], and Gracilaria sp. at 24.83% dry weight [19]. The seaweed mineral content can be influenced by environmental conditions [23,24], age, and absorption inorganic stuff capability. The green and red algae lower absorption rates than brown algae because they contain alginate and alginic acid. ...
This research was designed to evaluate the nutrient content of brown ( Laminaria Sp. and Padina australis ) and red algae ( Eucheuma cottonii and Gracilaria Sp.) from Kelapa beach, Tuban, East Java. The algae were cleaned from dirt and other materials before drying under the sun. All of the algae were ground and analyzed using proximate analysis (dry matter (DM), ash, organic matter (OM), ether extract (EE), crude protein (CP), crude fiber (CF), and nitrogen-free extract (NFE)) and gross energy with a bomb calorimeter. Data were analyzed descriptively by calculating the average of data obtained. The result showed that brown algae of Padina australis had the highest DM (30.59%) and CP (12.57%). The red algae of Eucheuma cottonii had the highest OM (76.58%), EE (2.85%), CF (8.80%), NFE (56.38%), and gross energy (2,911 Cal/g) but had the lowest DM (13.67%) and CP (8.55%). In opposite with Gracilaria sp. had the highest ash (65.63%) and the lowest OM (34.37%), EE (0.21%), CF (2.49%), NFE (19.95%) and gross energy (1,083 Cal/g). Based on this study, brown algae ( Laminaria sp and Padina australis ) and red algae ( Eucheuma cottonii and Gracilaria sp.) have the potential as ruminant feed, especially as mineral and soluble carbohydrate sources.
... The increase in the monosaccharides, especially glucose and rhamnose may enhance the valuation of Gracilaria spp. from an economical perspective as seaweed carbohydrates have proven applications in various disciplines including pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics (Siahaan et al., 2018;Cotas et al., 2020). AAs in seaweeds generally have a vital role in most of the biological processes involving transport and storage and enzymatic processes (Sudhakar et al., 2019). ...
The genus Gracilaria is an economically important group of seaweeds as several species are utilized for various products such as agar, used in medicines, human diets, and poultry feed. Hence, it is imperative to understand their response to predicted ocean acidification conditions. In the present work, we have evaluated the response of Gracilaria foliifera and Gracilaria debilis to carbon dioxide (pCO2) induced seawater acidification (pH 7.7) for two weeks in a controlled laboratory conditions. As a response variable, we have measured growth, productivity, redox state, primary and secondary metabolites, and mineral compositions. We found a general increase in the daily growth rate, primary productivity, and tissue chemical composition (such as pigments, soluble and insoluble sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids), but a decrease in the mineral contents under the acidified condition. Under acidification, there was a decrease in malondialdehyde. However, there were no significant changes in the total antioxidant capacity and a majority of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, except for an increase in tocopherols, ascorbate and glutathione-s-transferase in G. foliifera. These results indicate that elevated pCO2 will benefit the growth of the studied species. No sign of oxidative stress markers indicating the acclimatory response of these seaweeds towards lowered pH conditions. Besides, we also found increased antimicrobial activities of acidified samples against several of the tested food pathogens. Based on these observations, we suggest that Gracilaria spp. will be benefitted from the predicted future acidified ocean.
... Macroalgal polysaccharides can inhibit the multiplication of viruses such as the herpes simplex virus (HSV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or the dengue virus. They can also obstruct the interaction between viruses and cells and inhibit enzymes [141] The antibacterial activity of algal lipids and fatty acids has been attributed to their ability to inhibit the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation in cell membranes, leading to the formation of peroxidation and auto-oxidation degradation products and the cellular lysis [34,145]. To our knowledge, no studies have isolated and then tested the antibacterial activity of macroalga fatty acids, but they have been successfully identified in bioactive extracts. ...
In the last few decades, attention on new natural antimicrobial compounds has arisen due to a change in consumer preferences and the increase in the number of resistant microorganisms. Macroalgae play a special role in the pursuit of new active molecules as they have been traditionally consumed and are known for their chemical and nutritional composition and their biological properties, including antimicrobial activity. Among the bioactive molecules of algae, proteins and peptides, polysaccharides, polyphenols, polyunsaturated fatty acids and pigments can be highlighted. However, for the complete obtaining and incorporation of these molecules, it is essential to achieve easy, profitable and sustainable recovery of these compounds. For this purpose, novel liquid-liquid and solid-liquid extraction techniques have been studied, such as supercritical, ultrasound, microwave, enzymatic, high pressure, accelerated solvent and intensity pulsed electric fields extraction techniques. Moreover, different applications have been proposed for these compounds, such as preservatives in the food or cosmetic industries, as antibiotics in the pharmaceutical industry, as antibiofilm, antifouling, coating in active packaging, prebiotics or in nanoparticles. This review presents the main antimicrobial potential of macroalgae, their specific bioactive compounds and novel green extraction technologies to efficiently extract them, with emphasis on the antibacterial and antifungal data and their applications.
... Marine algae are widely used in a variety of cuisines [1] and are preferred by a growing number of consumers for their functional and nutraceutical properties [2,3]. The pharmaceutical industry has also developed a strong interest in algae [4,5], as have cosmetologists [6]. A major concern among the latter is hyperpigmentation, which is an abnormal darkening of the skin associated with excessive melanin production [7,8]. ...
A marine red alga, Symphyocladia latiuscula (Harvey) Yamada (Rhodomelaceae), is a rich source of bromophenols with a wide array of biological activities. This study investigates the anti-tyrosinase activity of the alga. Moderate activity was demonstrated by the methanol extract of S. latiuscula, and subsequent column chromatography identified three bromophenols: 2,3,6-tribromo-4,5-dihydroxybenzyl methyl alcohol (1), 2,3,6-tribromo-4,5-dihydroxybenzyl methyl ether (2), and bis-(2,3,6-tribromo-4,5-dihydroxybenzyl methyl ether) (3). Bromophenols 1 and 3 exhibited potent competitive tyrosinase inhibitory activity against l-tyrosine substrates, with IC 50 values of 10.78 ± 0.19 and 2.92 ± 0.04 µM, respectively. Against substrate l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (l-DOPA), compounds 1 and 3 demonstrated moderate activity, while 2 showed no observable effect. The experimental data were verified by a molecular docking study that found catalytic hydrogen and halogen interactions were responsible for the activity. In addition, compounds 1 and 3 exhibited dose-dependent inhibitory effects in melanin and intracellular tyrosinase levels in α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH)-induced B16F10 melanoma cells. Compounds 3 and 1 were the most effective tyrosinase inhibitors. In addition, increasing the bromine group number increased the mushroom tyrosinase inhibitory activity.
In the last few decades, attention to new natural antimicrobial compounds has arisen due to a change in consumer preferences and the increase in the number of resistant microorganisms. Algae are defined as photosynthetic organisms that demonstrate a wide range of adaptability to adverse environmental conditions like temperature extremes, photo-oxidation, high or low salinity, and osmotic stress. Algae are primarily known to produce large amounts of secondary metabolite against various kinds of pathogenic microbes. Among these algae, micro and microalgae of river, lake, and algae of oceanic origin have been reported to have antimicrobial activity against the bacteria and fungi of pathogenic nature. Various polar and non- polar extracts of micro- and macroalgae have been used for the suppression of these pathogenic fungi. Apart from these, certain algal derivatives have also been isolated from these having antibacterial and antifungal potential. Among the bioactive molecules of algae, polysaccharides, sulphated polysaccharides, phycocyanobilin polyphenols, lectins, proteins lutein, vitamin E, B12 and K1, peptides, polyunsaturated fatty acids and pigments can be highlighted. In the present review, we will discuss the biological activity of these derived compounds as antifungal/ antibacterial agents and their most promising applications. A brief outline is also given for the prospects of these isolated phytochemicals and using algae as therapeutic in the dietary form. We have also tried to answer whether alga-derived metabolites can serve as potential therapeutics for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2-like viral infections too.
Colombia has a diverse range of marine ecosystems in the coastal and insular areas of the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Seaweed research has focused mainly on the identification and taxonomic distribution of 628 species identified so far, mainly in the Caribbean Sea. Among the most widely cultivated genera of seaweeds in open-sea pilot systems in Colombia are Hydropuntia, Gracilaria, Hypnea, Kappaphycus, and Eucheuma. These genera have shown low yields as a consequence of high tissue fragility, epiphytism, sedimentation, and nitrogen deficiency. In addition, the evaluation of the biological activity of selected seaweed compounds has advanced considerably, focusing on their composition and their use for direct consumption by humans and animals. Despite the diversity of seaweeds, as well as certain technical and scientific advances, Colombia is still lagging behind other countries in seaweed exploitation, both in Latin America and worldwide. This current status raises the need to increase research, technological (agro-tech) appropriation, and the adoption of effective public policies that will boost algal businesses. In addition, seaweed cultivation could support the current blue economy transition in Colombia, which could eventually allow the country to enter the global seaweed market.
The therapeutic benefits of extracts obtained from different red grape fractions were thoroughly studied, however, data regarding the comparison of phytochemical extracts prepared from the same varieties coming from organic versus conventional management systems are rather lacking. The present study aimed at comparing some of the phytochemical characteristics and antimicrobial activity of hydroalcoholic (50% v/v) extracts obtained from four varieties of red grapes cultivated respectively in organic and conventional vineyards. Total flavonoid content, total phenolic compounds, and antioxidant activity were determined by molecular absorption spectroscopy. Antimicrobial activity of the studied extracts was evaluated against common bacterial strains isolated from different habitats according to specific lab procedures. The analyses were performed in solid broths by applying the disk diffusion method, which allowed for the simultaneous determination of the spectrum of the sensitivity of the tested bacteria as well as the values of the minimum inhibition concentration (MIC). It was found that favorable antagonistic activities against the tested bacteria strains were exhibited by the hydroalcoholic extracts from the seeds of the organic varieties, respectively the skin of the conventional varieties.
Non-communicable diseases (NCD) are the leading cause of death and disability worldwide. The four main leading causes of NCD are cardiovascular diseases, cancers, respiratory diseases and diabetes. Recognizing the devastating impact of NCD, novel prevention and treatment strategies are extensively sought. Marine organisms are considered as an important source of bioactive peptides that can exert biological functions to prevent and treatment of NCD. Recent pharmacological investigations reported cardio protective, anticancer, antioxidative, anti-diabetic, and anti-obesity effects of marine-derived bioactive peptides. Moreover, there is available evidence supporting the utilization of marine organisms and its bioactive peptides to alleviate NCD. Marine-derived bioactive peptides are alternative sources for synthetic ingredients that can contribute to a consumer?s well-being, as a part of nutraceuticals and functional foods. This contribution focus on the bioactive peptides derived from marine organisms and elaborates its possible prevention and therapeutic roles in NCD.
Positive results reported in commercial agriculture following the application of seaweed (kelp) products vary from root growth stimulation to increased disease resistance. The described impact of seaweed applications is mostly reliant on the specific species of seaweed used, the prevalent environmental growing conditions, together with the extraction and formulation protocol implemented in the production of the commercial extracts. These possible variables alone or in combination may lead to inconsistencies in efficacy between different commercial seaweed products, especially under field conditions. In this paper, we quantify selected active components in three different, but apparently similar, commercial seaweed products manufactured from Ecklonia maxima which could impact on biological activity, following application as evaluated for mung bean root growth. Significantly higher P and N concentrations were found both in Afrikelp® and Basfoliar® Kelp compared to Kelpak®. These elevated mineral nutrient concentrations indicate possible enrichment of these products, as they exceed the natural nutrient element concentrations in the freshly milled E. maxima prior to formulation. Kelpak® showed higher concentrations of Ca, Mg and K compared to Afrikelp® and Basfoliar® Kelp, but lower levels were reported to occur naturally in freshly minced seaweed from E. maxima. Concentrations of mannitol, uronic acid and neutral sugars together with alginic acid content were significantly higher in Kelpak® than in Afrikelp® and Basfoliar® Kelp. Similarly, mung bean root growth stimulation was significantly higher in Kelpak® than in Afrikelp® and Basfoliar® Kelp. This study showed that commercial seaweed products, manufactured from the same seaweed source such as E. maxima, and thus generally marketed as equivalent products, may vary significantly in product composition and thus in efficacy to induce specific plant responses following application, when manufactured by different companies. Distinct differences in harvesting and manufacturing protocols place an obligation on the end user to ensure that the composition of the product of choice is well aligned with the specific plant response required.
Today there is a growing need to develop reliable, sustainable, and ecofriendly protocols for manufacturing a wide range of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles. The biogenic synthesis of nanoparticles via nanobiotechnology based techniques has the potential to deliver clean manufacturing technologies. These new clean technologies can significantly reduce environmental contamination and decease the hazards to human health resulting from the use of toxic chemicals and solvents currently used in conventional industrial fabrication processes. The largely unexplored marine environment that covers approximately 70% of the earth’s surface is home to many naturally occurring and renewable marine plants. The present review summarizes current research into the biogenic synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles via marine algae (commonly known as seaweeds) and seagrasses. Both groups of marine plants contain a wide variety of biologically active compounds and secondary metabolites that enables these plants to act as biological factories for the manufacture of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles.
Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) has gained great interest as a simple and eco-friendly alternative to conventional chemical methods. In this study, AgNPs were synthesized by using extracts of marine algae Ecklonia cava as reducing and capping agents. The formation of AgNPs using aqueous extract of Ecklonia cava was confirmed visually by color change and their surface plasmon resonance peak at 418 nm, measured by UV-visible spectroscopy. The size, shape, and morphology of the biosynthesized AgNPs were observed by transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering analysis. The biosynthesized AgNPs were nearly spherical in shape with an average size around 43 nm. Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis confirmed the presence of phenolic compounds in the aqueous extract of Ecklonia cava as reducing and capping agents. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was also carried out to demonstrate the crystalline nature of the biosynthesized AgNPs. Antimicrobial results determined by an agar well diffusion assay demonstrated a significant antibacterial activity of the AgNPs against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Antioxidant results determined by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging assay revealed an efficient antioxidant activity of the biosynthesized AgNPs. The biosynthesized AgNPs also exhibited a strong apoptotic anticancer activity against human cervical cancer cells. Our findings demonstrate that aqueous extract of Ecklonia cava is an effective reducing agent for green synthesis of AgNPs with efficient antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities
Fucofuroeckol-A (FF) isolated from an edible perennial brown seaweed Eisenia bicyclis was shown to be potent anti-inflammatory agents. FF suppressed the production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2 ) and the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 dose dependently in lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and cytometric bead array assay demonstrated that FF significantly reduced the production of proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor- α , and that of the monocyte chemoattractant protein-1. Moreover, FF reduced the activation of nuclear factor κ B (NF- κ B) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). These results strongly suggest that the inhibitory effects of fucofuroeckol-A from E. bicyclis on LPS-induced NO and PGE 2 production might be due to the suppression of the NF- κ B and MAPK signaling pathway.
In the last decades, the discovery of metabolites from marine resources showing biological activity has increased significantly. Among marine resources, seaweed is a valuable source of structurally diverse bioactive compounds. The cell walls of marine algae are rich in sulfated polysaccharides, including carrageenan in red algae, ulvan in green algae and fucoidan in brown algae. Sulfated polysaccharides have been increasingly studied over the years in the pharmaceutical field, given their potential usefulness in applications such as the design of drug delivery systems. The purpose of this review is to discuss potential applications of these polymers in drug delivery systems, with a focus on carrageenan, ulvan and fucoidan. General information regarding structure, extraction process and physicochemical properties is presented, along with a brief reference to reported biological activities. For each material, specific applications under the scope of drug delivery are described, addressing in privileged manner particulate carriers, as well as hydrogels and beads. A final section approaches the application of sulfated polysaccharides in targeted drug delivery, focusing with particular interest the capacity for macrophage targeting.
Seaweeds or macroalgae have been a source of food, feed and medicine in the orient as well as the West since ancient times. Being plants of unique structure and biochemical composition, seaweeds could be exploited for their multifunctional properties. They are sources of useful bioactive components like phycocolloids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, carotenoids like fucoxanthin and n3 fatty acids, which are known to possess nutritional value apart from their potential biomedical applications. The present review highlights the various bioactive materials of seaweed origin and their potential applications.
In recent years, there have been major advances and increasing amounts of research on the utilization of natural polymeric materials as drug delivery vehicles due to their biocompatibility and biodegradability. Seaweed polysaccharides are abundant resources and have been extensively studied for several biological, biomedical, and functional food applications. The exploration of seaweed polysaccharides for drug delivery applications is still in its infancy. Alginate, carrageenan, fucoidan, ulvan, and laminarin are polysaccharides commonly isolated from seaweed. These natural polymers can be converted into nanoparticles (NPs) by different types of methods, such as ionic gelation, emulsion, and polyelectrolyte complexing. Ionic gelation and polyelectrolyte complexing are commonly employed by adding cationic molecules to these anionic polymers to produce NPs of a desired shape, size, and charge. In the present review, we have discussed the preparation of seaweed polysaccharide-based NPs using different types of methods as well as their usage as carriers for the delivery of various therapeutic molecules (e.g., proteins, peptides, anti-cancer drugs, and antibiotics). Seaweed polysaccharide-based NPs exhibit suitable particle size, high drug encapsulation, and sustained drug release with high biocompatibility, thereby demonstrating their high potential for safe and efficient drug delivery.
From food to fertilizer, algal derived products are largely employed in assorted industries, including agricultural, biomedical, food, and pharmaceutical industries. Among different chemical compositions isolated from algae, polysaccharides are the most well-established compounds, which were subjected to a variety of studies due to extensive bioactivities. Over the past few decades, the promising results for antiviral potential of algae-derived polysaccharides have advocated them as inordinate candidates for pharmaceutical research. Numerous studies have isolated various algal polysaccharides possessing antiviral activities, including carrageenan, alginate, fucan, laminaran, and naviculan. In addition, different mechanisms of action have been reported for these polysaccharides, such as inhibiting the binding or internalization of virus into the host cells or suppressing DNA replication and protein synthesis. This review strives for compiling previous antiviral studies of algae-derived polysaccharides and their mechanism of action towards their development as natural antiviral agents for future investigations.
The composition and antioxidative properties of crude phlorotannins isolated from Japanese Ei-senia and Ecklonia species including cultured E. kurome were analyzed. As a result of liquid chromatography mass spectrometry analysis, it was suggested that the phlorotannins were composed of compounds containing 3-7 phloroglucinol units for Eisenia species and 3-8 phloroglucinol units for Ecklonia species. The antioxidant properties of phlorotannins were evaluated using the hydrophilic oxygen radical absorbance capacity (H-ORAC) assay, the measurements of superoxide anion radical scavenging activity (SOSA) with electron spin resonance method, and the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity and reducing power assay. It was clarified that the phlorotannins contained H-ORAC values of 8.9 × 10 3-1.0 × 10 4 µmol-Trolox equivalents (TE)/g, SOSA of 1.5 × 10 4-2.9 × 10 4 superoxide dismutase units/g, DPPH radical sca-venging activity of 4.7 × 10 3-5.5 × 10 3 µmol-TE/g, and reducing power of 6.5 × 10 2-7.0 × 10 2 mg-ascorbic acid equivalents/g, and had excellent antioxidative properties.
A galactan sulfate (GS) was isolated from an aqueous extract of the red seaweed Aghardhiella tenera and partially purified. GS inhibited the cytopathic effect of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and type 2 (HIV-2) in MT-4 cells at concentrations 10-fold higher than those required for the inhibition by dextran sulfate (MW 5000) of the cytopathic effect of HIV-1 and HIV-2 (50% inhibitory concentrations: 0.5 and 0.05 μg ml−1, respectively). GS suppressed syncytium formation between MOLT-4 cells and persistently HIV-1- or HIV-2-infected HUT-78 cells at concentrations higher than 5 μg ml−1. Like dextran sulfate (DS) and aurintricarboxylic acid (ATA), GS inhibited the binding of HIV-1 to the cells and the binding of anti-gp120 mAb to HIV-1 gp120. Like DS and ATA, GS proved active not only against HIV-1 and HIV-2 but also against other enveloped viruses, i.e. herpes-, toga-, arena-, myxo- and rhabdoviruses. GS represents a natural polysaccharide with broad-spectrum activity against a number of important viral pathogens.
Background: Free radicals are highly reactive molecular species with an unpaired electron in the outer valence orbitals which causes them to capture electrons from other substances in order to neutralize themselves. As a by-product of oxidative biochemical reactions in the cells, these chemical moieties get commonly produced. During the past several years, there has been a mounting concern in the medical implications of free radicals. They can adversely alter many crucial biological molecules leading to loss of form and function. The association between free radicals, antioxidants and functioning of various organs and organ systems is highly complex. Free radicals induce oxidative/nitrosative stress leading to cellular redox imbalance inducing pathogenesis of several diseases. Free radical damage effectively contributes to the etiology of several chronic health problems such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, neurodegenerative disorders and other chronic conditions. Antioxidants are a broad group of nutritional elements which constitute the first line of defense against free radical damage. Nutraceuticals and phytochemicals thus represent an important natural source of antioxidative therapies apart from endogenous mechanisms. Objective: The present study highlights generation of free radicals, role of oxidative stress in pathogenesis of chronic diseases and the protective action of antioxidants. The putative role of nutraceuticals/phytonutrients as antioxidative therapeutic agents is also discussed. Conclusion: Research indicates that functional food is the chief source of mental and physical well-being, thus contributing to prevention and reduction of risk factors for several diseases. Thus, the search has been strengthened for exploring effective, nontoxic natural phytocompounds with antioxidative activity in addition to endogenous antioxidant defense systems to combat the dreadful effects of free radicals and their counterparts.
Studies were conducted to evaluate nutritional qualities of two edible green seaweeds, Caulerpa lentillifera and Ulva reticulata, with a view to their utilization in human nutrition. The proximate composition, mineral and vitamin contents, free fatty acid, and amino acid profiles were investigated. Protein and ash contents were the two most abundant components in these seaweeds. Caulerpa lentillifera and Ulva reticulata contained 12.49%, 21.06% protein and 24.21%, 17.58% ash based on dry weight, respectively. Both seaweeds contained high amounts of minerals and balanced amino acid profiles. Regarding the Dietary Reference Intake, both kinds of seaweeds were notably rich in iodine. Caulerpa lentillifera was also rich in phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and copper, while Ulva reticulata was rich in potassium, manganese and ferrous. Comparisons to corresponding nutrient values in other seaweeds and some commonly consumed local vegetables, both seaweeds showed their potential of being health food for human diets or as source of ingredients with high nutritional values.
Sulfated polysaccharides of brown algae (“fucoidans”) constitute a wide variety of biopolymers from simple sulfated fucans up to complex heteropolysaccharides composed of several neutral monosaccharides, uronic acid and sulfate. The increased interest in this class of polysaccharides is explained by their high and versatile biological activities, and hence, by their possible use in new drug design. Structural analysis of several fucoidans demonstrates that their biological properties are determined not only by charge density, but also by fine chemical structure, although distinct correlations between structure and biological activity cannot be formulated at present. The aim of this review is to describe the methods of structural analysis currently used in fucoidan chemistry, and to discuss some new information on the structures of fucoidans presented in recent publications.
Gums are long chain polysaccharides widely used in the food and many other industries as thickeners, stabilizers, and texture modifiers. Gums and related polysaccharides are produced in nature as storage materials, cell wall components, exudates, extracellular substances from plants or microorganisms, and in some cases from exoskeletons of shellfish such as lobsters, shrimps and crabs (e.g., chitosan). Some polysaccharides are simple in sugar composition, such as cellulose and β-D-glucans, which contain only one type of monosaccharide (e.g., β-D-glucose), while others are rather complex and may contain up to six types of monosaccharides plus one or two types of uronic acids. Common monosaccharides and uronic acids present in natural polysaccharides include D-glucose, D-galactose, D-mannose, D-xylose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnose, L-fucose, D-galacturonic acid, D-gulucuronic acid, D-mannuronic acid, and L-guluronic acid. The primary structure of a polysaccharide, i.e., monosaccharide composition, linkage patterns, and molecular weight, defines the solubility and conformation of the polymer chains in aqueous solutions, which in turn dictate the functional properties of the gums exhibited in food and other systems.
This chapter describes the main properties of the seaweed proteins and their uses in human and animal nutrition. A focus on the biochemical and nutritional properties is developed in this chapter. In addition, some processes such as enzymatic process are discussed as new way to improve the digestibility of algal proteins or to increase the extraction of phycobiliproteins for the use as food additive.
A basic investigation into the removal of copper ions from aqueous solutions by Sargassum sp. was conducted in batch conditions. The influence of different experimental parameters such as initial pH, shaking rate, sorption time, temperature, equilibrium conditions and initial concentrations of copper ions on copper uptake was evaluated. Results indicated that for shaking rates higher than 100 rpm no significant changes in copper accumulation were observed, as well as for pH values between 3.0 and 5.0. No marked effect on the biosorption of copper was detected for temperatures between 298 and 328K. The Langmuir model better represented the sorption process, in comparison to the model of Freundlich. The process followed a second-order kinetics and its calculated activation energy was 5.2 kcal/mol. Due to its outstanding copper uptake capacity (1.48 mmol/g biomass) Sargassum sp. proved to be an excellent biomaterial for accumulating and recovering copper from industrial solutions.
Studies were conducted to determine the mechanism of blood pressure- and cholesterol-lowering effects of funoran on rats fed with a saline solution and cholesterol diet. Clofibrate (COIB) was used as a reference hypolipidemic drug. Funoran caused significant reduction of systolic blood pressure (SBP). Funoran and CPIB significantly reduced serum total cholesterol (TC), free cholesterol (FC), triglyceride (TG), LDL-cholesterol (LDL), and atherogenic index (Al) levels in these rats. The increase of sodium, water excretion and sodium-potassium ratio in urine in the funoran group was more significant in the experimental rats than in the control group. Moreover, the ratio of Na and K in serum decreased with the funoran diet. The CPIB diet enhanced cholesterol level in the liver while the funoran diet suppressed the level, but in feces the former diet did not change the cholesterol level while the latter diet increased it. These results suggest that the enhanced ability to excrete sodium in urine by the funoran diet is an important factor for reducing blood pressure and that the antihyperlipidemic effect of funoran was not caused by the mobilization of peripheral cholesterol on the liver, but by the enhanced excretion of cholesterol into feces. © 1994, The Japanese Society of Fisheries Science. All rights reserved.
In this study antioxidant and anticancer effect of fucoidan isolated from brown seaweed Sargassum polycystum was investigated. The total yield of fucoidan was 4.51 ± 0.24%, of these, 46.8% of fucose and 22.35 ± 0.23% of sulphate respectively. The structural characteristic of fucoidan was analyzed by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnatic resonance. The antioxidant properties were determined by DPPH scavenging, reducing power and total antioxidant assays. The maximum DPPH scavenging activity (61.2 ± 0.33%), reducing ability (67.56 ± 0.26%) and total antioxidant activity (65.3± 0.66%) were obtained at 1000 μg/ml of fucoidan. The cytotoxicity effect of fucoidan showed a higher percentage (90.4 ± 0.25%) of inhibition against the MCF-7cell line at 150 μg/ml with an estimated IC50 at 50 μg/ml. Further, cytomorphological and apoptosis changes of fucoidan treated cells were observed under inverted light microscope and confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM). The results demonstrated that the isolated fucoidan from S. polycystum possessed potent antioxidant and anticancer properties.
Inflammatory diseases have become one of the leading causes of health issue throughout the world,
having a considerable influence on healthcare costs. With the emerging developments in natural product,
synthetic and combinatorial chemistry, a notable success has been achieved in discovering natural
products and their synthetic structural analogs with anti-inflammatory activity. However, many of these
therapeutics have indicated detrimental side effects upon prolonged usage. Marine algae have been identified as an underexplored reservoir of unique anti-inflammatory compounds. These include polyphenols, sulfated polysaccharides, terpenes, fatty acids, proteins and several other bioactives. Consumption of these marine algae could provide defense against the pathophysiology of many chronic inflammatory diseases. With further investigation, algal anti-inflammatory phytochemicals have the potential to be used as therapeutics or in the synthesis of structural analogs with profound anti-inflammatory activity with reduced side effects. The current review summarizes the latest knowledge about the potential anti-inflammatory compounds discovered from marine algae.
In the last decade, new trends in the food and pharmaceutical industries have increased concern for the quality and safety of products. The use of biocatalytic processes using marine enzymes has become an important and useful natural product for biotechnological applications. Bioprocesses using biocatalysts like marine enzymes (fungi, bacteria, plants, animals, algae, etc.) offer hyperthermostability, salt tolerance, barophilicity, cold adaptability, chemoselectivity, regioselectivity, and stereoselectivity. Currently, enzymatic methods are used to produce a large variety of products that humans consume, and the specific nature of the enzymes including processing under mild pH and temperature conditions result in fewer unwanted side-effects and by-products. This offers high selectivity in industrial processes. The marine habitat has been become increasingly studied because it represents a huge source potential biocatalysts. Enzymes include oxidoreductases, hydrolases, transferases, isomerases, ligases, and lyases that can be used in food and pharmaceutical applications. Finally, recent advances in biotechnological processes using enzymes of marine organisms (bacterial, fungi, algal, and sponges) are described and also our work on marine organisms from South America, especially marine-derived fungi and bacteria involved in biotransformations and biodegradation of organic compounds.
In old China there were very few people engaged in the study of the algae,but in new China, freshwater and marine algae are studied by over onehundred old and new phycologists. There is now an algal biotechnologyindustry consisting of an aquaculture industry, producing large amounts ofthe seaweeds Laminaria, Porphyra, Undaria, Gracilaria,eucheumoids, and the microalgae Dunaliella and Spirulina. There is also a phycocolloid industry, producing algin, agar andcarrageenan; an industry producing chemicals and drugs, such as iodine,mannitol, phycocyanin, β-carotene, PSS (propylene glycol alginatesulfate) and FPS (fucose-containing sulfated polysaccharides) and anindustry producing food, feed and fertilizer. The Laminariacultivation industry produces about 900,000 t dry Laminaria,probably the largest producer in the world and 13,000 t algin,undoubtedly one of the largest algin producer in the world.
The enhancing effect of marine algae sulfated polysaccharides (MSP) on the activities of immune responses was investigated. It was found that MSP promoted the lymphocyte proliferation either in vitro or in vivo, and increased interleukin-2 secretion from murine lymphocyte and interleukin-1 from murine peritoneal macrophages. In the meantime, it also could augment natural killer activity and the production of hemolysin of murine lymphocyte. Moreover, it could restore the immune functions of immunosuppressed mice caused by cyclophosphamide, including lymphocyte proliferation, delayed type hypersensitivity and the production of hemolysin. The results suggest that MSP would be a new kind of sulfated polysaccharides significantly enhanced the immune responses.
The antioxidative effect of Ecklonia cava, a brown marine alga, was investigated on radical scavenging, including 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and hydroxyl and alkyl radicals, using an electron spin resonance (ESR) technique, and on the inhibition of H2O2-induced DNA damage using comet assay. F. cava was enzymatically hydrolyzed with five food industrial proteases (Alcalase, Flavourzyme, Kojizyme, Neutrase and Protamex) to prepare water-soluble extracts. All the proteolytic hydrolysates exhibited strong dose-dependent radical scavenging activities (above 80%) at a concentration of 2.5 mu g/mL. Kojizyme extract (obtained by proteolytic hydrolysation of E. cava with Kojizyme) showed the highest hydroxyl radical scavenging activity of around 98%. In addition, the H2O2-induced DNA damage was determined using a comet assay, which was quantified by measuring the tail length. Reduction of DNA damage increased with increasing concentrations of Kojizyme extract from E. cava. These results indicated that E. cava has a. potential as a valuable natural antioxidative source.
Positive results reported in commercial agriculture following the application of seaweed (kelp) products vary from root growth stimulation to increased disease resistance. The described impact of seaweed applications is mostly reliant on the specific species of seaweed used, the prevalent environmental growing conditions, together with the extraction and formulation protocol implemented in the production of the commercial extracts. These possible variables alone or in combination may lead to inconsistencies in efficacy between different commercial seaweed products, especially under field conditions. In this paper, we quantify selected active components in three different, but apparently similar, commercial seaweed products manufactured from Ecklonia maxima which could impact on biological activity, following application as evaluated for mung bean root growth. Significantly higher P and N concentrations were found both in Afrikelp® and Basfoliar® Kelp compared to Kelpak®. These elevated mineral nutrient concentrations indicate possible enrichment of these products, as they exceed the natural nutrient element concentrations in the freshly milled E. maxima prior to formulation. Kelpak® showed higher concentrations of Ca, Mg and K compared to Afrikelp® and Basfoliar® Kelp, but lower levels were reported to occur naturally in freshly minced seaweed from E. maxima. Concentrations of mannitol, uronic acid and neutral sugars together with alginic acid content were significantly higher in Kelpak® than in Afrikelp® and Basfoliar® Kelp. Similarly, mung bean root growth stimulation was significantly higher in Kelpak® than in Afrikelp® and Basfoliar® Kelp. This study showed that commercial seaweed products, manufactured from the same seaweed source such as E. maxima, and thus generally marketed as equivalent products, may vary significantly in product composition and thus in efficacy to induce specific plant responses following application, when manufactured by different companies. Distinct differences in harvesting and manufacturing protocols place an obligation on the end user to ensure that the composition of the product of choice is well aligned with the specific plant response required.
Seven brown algal species (Ecklonia cava, Ishige okamurae, Sargassum fulvellum, Sargassum horneri, Sargassum coreanum, Sargassum thunbergii and Scytosiphon lomentaria) were hydrolyzed using five proteases (Protamex, Kojizyme, Neutrase, Flavourzyme and Alcalase) and screened for angiotensin 1-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activities. Most algal species examined showed good ACE inhibitory activities after the enzymatic hydrolysis. However, E. cava was the most potent ACE inhibitor of the seven species. Flavourzyme digest of E. cava exhibited an IC_{50} of around 0.3\;?g/mL for ACE; captopril has an IC_{50} of \~0.05\;?g/mL. The Flavourzyme digest was separated to three fractions by an ultrafiltration membrane (5, 10, 30 kDa MWCO) system according to the molecular weights. The active components were mainly concentrated in >30 kD fraction which are composed of the highest protein content (27\%) and phenolic content (261 mg/100 mL) compared to the other two smaller molecular weight fractions. Therefore, the active compounds appear to be relatively high molecular weight complex molecules associated with protein (glycoprotein) and polyphenols. Therefore, E. cave is a potential source of antihypertensive compound.
In order to survive in a highly competitive environment, freshwater or marine algae have to develop defense strategies that result in a tremendous diversity of compounds from different metabolic pathways. Recent trends in drug research from natural sources have shown that algae are promising organisms to furnish novel biochemically active compounds. The current review describes the main substances biosynthesized by algae with potential economic impact in food science, pharmaceutical industry and public health. Emphasis is given to fatty acids, steroids, carotenoids, polysaccharides, lectins, mycosporine-like amino acids, halogenated compounds, polyketides and toxins.
About 200 kinds of marine algae grow in the ocean surrounding Japan. Moreover, a large amount of marine algae is cultivated domestically for use as foods and industrial materials. The production of marine algae was 639,210 t, amounting to ¥164,642 million in 1998. The marine algae used as foods consist of about 50 species, and the production was about 172,000 t in 1996. Japanese have eaten marine algae as a source of supply of minerals and vitamins. However, the dietary intake of marine algae is about 1/5 compared with that of fish. Recently, it has been suggested that the increase in the incidence of adult diseases in Japan, such as diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, etc. was caused by the decrease in the dietary intake of fish, shellfish and marine algae. The nutritional role of marine algae was examined and it was recognized that marine algae contribute to the prevention and treatment of various diseases. We also analyzed the effect of Undaria pinnatifida (Wakame) on the decrease of the concentration of serum and liver triacylglycerol in rats.
Sulfated polysaccharides (SPS) were extracted from three species of seaweeds of Ulvacea (Ulva pertusa, Ova conglobata and Entromorpha prolifera) for 4 hr at various temperatures and their physicochemical properties were studied using viscometric and equilibrium sedimentation measurements in order to determine the optimum extracting condition. Sulfated polysaccharides extracted at various temperatures from the seaweed of U. pertusa had the same physicochemical properties, while the larger molecular components of SPS was not extracted from U. conglobata and E. prolifera, at the low temperature of 30_??_40°C. This was confirmed by analyses of their viscosity and molecular weight and by gel filtration chromatography, in which each SPS showed two or three peaks. The larger molecular component of SPS could be extracted at the high temperature of 80_??_90°C in the thermostable form.
To evaluate the accessibility and function of phycoerythrin (a purple-pigment protein) found in purple laver (Porphyra sp.), antioxidant activity of the phycoerythrobilin compound (chromophore of the pigment protein) formed from the dried Korean purple lavers was determined by in vitro digestion. Results suggest that the apoprotein of phycoerythrin is readily digested to release the phycoerythrobilin compound during the gastrointestinal digestion process of mammals. The peroxy radical scavenging capacity was 2.7-fold greater in the phycoerythrobilin compound than in the purple laver extracts. The various therapeutic activities of phycoerythrin appear to be associated with the phycoerythrobilin compound released during mammalian gastrointestinal digestion.
The chemical composition of the polysaccharides from two normal differentiated strains of the multicellular green alga Ulva mutabilis, was compared with the polysaccharides from a morphological mutant lumpy which grows like an aggregate of undifferentiated cells. The walls of the lumpy cells differ in ultrastructure from the wild type as well as other mutants with organized thalli. Qualitative chemical differences between the strains were not found.
The molar ratio between the different sugars, degree of sulphation and content of glucuronic acid in the water soluble polyanion fraction corresponds with that reported for Ulva lactuca grown under natural conditions. The water soluble neutral fraction has surprisingly little glucose and is enriched in mannose and galactose. The ratio of the water extractable to the residual polysaccharide, however, is 1 for the normal organized strains and 4 for lumpy. It is proposed that this shift in ratio for lumpy may cause less cross linking between the cellulose fibres. This in turn may result in increased plasticity of the walls whereby local differences in wall expansion for normal morphogenesis are no longer possible.
The molar ratio between the different sugars, degree of sulphation and content of glucuronic acid in the water soluble polyanion fraction corresponds with that reported for Ulva lactuca grown under natural conditions. The water soluble neutral fraction has surprisingly little glucose and is enriched in mannose and galactose. The ratio of the water extractable to the residual polysaccharide, however, is 1 for the normal organized strains and 4 for lumpy. It is proposed that this shift in ratio for lumpy may cause less cross linking between the cellulose fibres. This in turn may result in increased plasticity of the walls whereby local differences in wall expansion for normal morphogenesis are no longer possible.
Within the parent protein molecule, most peptides are inactive, and they are released with biofunctionalities after enzymatic hydrolysis. Marine algae have high protein content, up to 47% of the dry weight, depending on the season and the species. Recently, there is an increasing interest in using marine algae protein as a source of bioactive peptides due to their health promotion and disease therapy potentials. This review presents an overview of marine algae-derived bioactive peptides, especially highlights some key issues, such as in silico proteolysis and quantitative structure-activity relationship studies, in vivo fate of bioactive peptides, and novel technologies in bioactive peptides studies and production.