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Japan: The Earliest Evidence of Complex Technology for Creating Durable Coloured Goods

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The invention of lacquer technology is significant in history as the first evidence of the use of an organic substance in creating durable coloured objects. By focusing on the evidence from the Jomon Period, Japan, this article clarifies the nature of complex technology and knowledge required for lacquer production, presents how lacquer technology enhanced our creative ability, and discusses its significance in human history. Lacquer technology was invented in the course of increasing human-plant interaction in the warming climate of the early Holocene. Personal ornaments coated with red lacquer are the most conspicuous throughout the Jomon Period from the beginning of lacquer technology. Strong attention to colour and intensive application on personal ornaments indicate that the creation of symbolic artefacts in social context was at the core of Jomon lacquer technology.
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Open Archaeology 2018; 4: 206–216
Naoko Matsumoto*
Japan: The Earliest Evidence of Complex
Technology for Creating Durable Coloured
Goods
https://doi.org/10.1515/opar-2018-0013
Received July 12, 2017; accepted January 15, 2018
Abstract: The invention of lacquer technology is significant in history as the first evidence of the use of
an organic substance in creating durable coloured objects. By focusing on the evidence from the Jomon
Period, Japan, this article clarifies the nature of complex technology and knowledge required for lacquer
production, presents how lacquer technology enhanced our creative ability, and discusses its significance
in human history. Lacquer technology was invented in the course of increasing human-plant interaction
in the warming climate of the early Holocene. Personal ornaments coated with red lacquer are the most
conspicuous throughout the Jomon Period from the beginning of lacquer technology. Strong attention to
colour and intensive application on personal ornaments indicate that the creation of symbolic artefacts in
social context was at the core of Jomon lacquer technology.
Keywords: Urushi, Lacquer technology, Jomon, red pigment, personal ornament
1 Introduction
The invention of lacquer technology is significant in human history as an early example of the use of an
organic substance in creating durable coloured objects. Application of red pigments dates back to the early
stage of anatomically modern humans, and organic material such as animal fat and plant sap may have
been added as a binder to give the pigment the required texture as a paint for Upper Palaeolithic cave art.
However, the development of lacquer technology in East Asia expanded the ways of producing coloured
goods due to the unique nature of lacquer as a highly durable coat as well as a forming material. By focusing
on the evidence from the Jomon Period, Japan, this article clarifies the nature of complex technology and
knowledge required for lacquer production, presents how lacquer technology enhanced our creative ability,
and discusses its significance in human history (Fig.1).
Jomon refers to the cultures that developed on the Japanese Archipelago following the Paleolithic
Period and preceding the agricultural Yayoi Period (Imamura, 1996; Habu, 2004, 2014). Jomon culture can
be characterized by hunter-gatherer subsistence and pottery production, although marked temporal and
spatial variability is seen over more than 10,000 years (Matsumoto & Habu, 2018, Table 1). Production of
rich material culture based on a sedentary lifestyle is a distinctive feature of the Jomon, which has been
noted in discussions on the emergence of social complexity (Hayden, 1995). Lacquer is an important part of
the specific material culture production.
Original Study
Article note: This article is a part of Topical Issue on From Line to Colour: Social Context and Visual Communication of
Prehistoric Art edited by Liliana Janik and Simon Kaner.
*Corresponding author: Naoko Matsumoto, Okayama University, Archaeology, 3-1-1, Kita-ku, Tsushima-naka, Okayama, 700 8530,
Japan, E-mail: naoko_m@cc.okayama-u.ac.jp
Open Access. ©  Naoko Matsumoto, published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs . License.
Japan: The Earliest Evidence of Complex Technology for Creating Durable Coloured Goods 207
Figure 1. The location of sites mentioned in the text.
Table 1. Approximate dates (calibrated BP) for the six Jomonsub-periods.
Sub-period Approximate age (cal BP)
Final Jomon –/
Late Jomon –
Middle Jomon –
Early Jomon –
Initial Jomon ,–
Incipient Jomon ,–,
It is not easy to talk about people’s cognition in the past, especially of those in societies where we don’t
know what language they were speaking. We can observe striking varieties in cosmologies, religious
beliefs and aesthetic standards in ethnographies, although some human universals seem to exist (Brown,
1991). Perception and cognition of colour can be an important foothold to allow further inferences on
past cognition, as it is determined by the neurophysiological structure and function of the visual system
(Wattenwyl & Zollinger, 1979). Based on the wide survey of colour terms around the world, Brent Berlin and
Paul Kay insisted that basic colour term lexicons evolved due to the constraining effects of the language-
independent processes of colour perception (Berlin & Kay, 1969; Kay et al., 1991). Berlin and Kay proposed
that white, black and red appeared first in the evolution of basic colour terms as they exist in almost all
208 N. Matsumoto
languages. Among the three basic colour terms, white and black refer to brightness and darkness without
any particular hue. Thus, red is the first true colour term corresponding to certain wavelength range.
Archaeological evidence apparently supports the model of basic colour term evolution stated above.
The use of colour, applied to the body or another natural or created 3D object or a flat surface is considered
as the first evidence of art in human evolution, dating back to more than 100,000 years ago (Morriss-Kay,
2010). Intentional production and use of red pigment powders have been known for Middle Palaeolithic
sites in Africa (Watts, 2010) and also for Neanderthal sites in Europe (Roebroeks et al., 2012). Use of black
pigments is not as popular or early as that of red pigments, although some examples are found from Middle
Palaeolithic sites (Bonjean et al., 2015). Tools for production of red and black pigment by grinding rocks such
as hematite and manganese dioxide have been found from Upper Palaeolithic sites in Japan (Naganuma,
1998). Utilization of sea shells, animal teeth and ivory for making beads might have been based on the
cognition of their white colour. It is not easy, however, to decide whether their colour was a significant
reason for exploitation in cases of natural colour. The shells, which happen to be white, may have been
picked up because of their shape or any other reasons. When colour was intentionally applied to the surface
of something, we can confidently assume that the colour was important.
Invention of lacquer technology brought new possibilities in the production of red objects. While the
term lacquer is used for many kinds of hard and potentially shiny finishes applied to materials including
recent industrial products with artificial resin, the word specifically refers to the treated and dried sap
ofJapanese Sumac, or urushi tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum) in this article. Urushi trees only grow in east
and Southeast Asia, and lacquerware was a special product in these areas. The beauty of lacquerware was
‘discovered’ by Europeans in the 16th century and many items were imported into Europe. The shiny surface
is not only beautiful to the eyes, but also very effective in enhancing the durability of the object coated by
lacquer against water, heat and acid (National Museum of Japanese History, 2017).
The sap of urushi tree contains urushiol, which polymerise in the presence of moisture to form a hard
lacquer. The name urushiol is derived from the Japanese word for the lacquer tree, urushi. Another unique
feature is that urushiol can cause an allergicreaction, such as a severe skinrash on contact, for most
individuals. A third unique feature is that lacquer can be used not only as a binder to make paint, but also as
a glue, filling or forming material. This feature made it possible to create new kinds of objects that humans
had never obtained before. An example of this might be a more complex form such as a lacquered comb. As
lacquer can be applied to many kinds of material including wood, fiber and pottery, it can transform both
organic and inorganic materials with dull colour and porous surfaces into bright red, shiny objects.
2 Earliest Evidence of Lacquerware
The origin of lacquer technology is a hotly debated topic (Kudo, 2017). The possibly earliest evidence of
lacquer was found from Kakinoshima B site in Hokkaido, Japan, based on a radiocarbon dating of 9000
cal BP (Minamikayabe-cho Maizobunkazai Chosadan, 2002; Yotsuyanagi, 2009, Okamura, 2010). The date
is, however, controversial as the dating was carried out with soil samples taken from the floor of the burial
that was presumed to contain residue of the brain and small flakes of lacquer (Kudo, 2017). If the dating is
not sound enough, contextual information of the burial indicates that it belongs to the late Initial Jomon
Period (8000–7000 BP). A lacquered comb from Mibiki site, Ishikawa prefecture, has the earliest direct
radiocarbon date of 7200 cal BP (Kudo & Yotsuyanagi 2015). Another lacquered comb from Torihama shell
midden, Fukui prefecture, is also directly radiocarbon dated to be 6100 cal BP (Kudo & Yotsuyanagi, 2015).
The earliest evidence of lacquer production is a pottery vessel containing refined lacquer from Sorete
site, Shimane prefecture, which was radiocarbon dated as 6800 cal BP (Nagashima & Kobayashi, 2007).
Increasing findings of lacquered objects, tools for lacquer production, and palaeobotanical evidence for
the urushi tree, suggest that lacquer technology existed in the Japanese archipelago from the Early Jomon
Period (7000–5500 cal BP) onwards (Noshiro & Suzuki, 2004).
Until the discovery of the earliest lacquered objects at Kakinoshima B site, a lacquered bowl from
Hemudu site, Zhejiang, China, had been considered as the earliest evidence of lacquer use, dating back to the
Japan: The Earliest Evidence of Complex Technology for Creating Durable Coloured Goods 209
5th millennium BC (Li, 2011). Recent examination of lacquered objects from Tianluoshan site and Kuahuqiao
site, also situated in the Zhejiang province, indicate that they could date back to about 7400–8000 years
ago (Cultural Relics Archaeological Institute in Zhejiang Province, Xiaoshan Museum, 2004; Nakamura,
2010; Jiang, 2013). It had been considered that the sumac tree and lacquer production technology diffused
from China to Japan, but currently, Kakinoshima B is the earliest, and the origin of this technology is not
clear. A piece of urushi tree excavated from the Incipient Jomon period layer of Torihama Shellmidden was
dated to be 10000–11000 cal BP (Suzuki et al., 2012). However, evidence of its utilization for adhesive or
lacquer at this early stage has not been obtained.
Recent DNA analysis revealed three types of genetic variations in urushi trees: Hubei-Hebei Province
type, Zhejiang Province type and Japan type (Suzuki et al., 2014). Japan type urushi trees grow in Japan,
the northern part of China and Korea. Botanists have assumed that urushi trees in Japan and Korea are not
native but were introduced as a cultivated species from the continent as they don’t grow in virgin forest,
but can be found only near human activity areas (Iwatsuki et al., 1999, Suzuki et al., 2014). We don’t have
enough evidence to judge whether the urushi tree is native to the Japanese Archipelago (Okamura, 2010) or
if it was brought in from the continent with the arrival of homo sapiens about 37,000 years ago, or with the
spread of microblade culture around 20,000 years ago (Kudo, 2017).
Whichever the case, the development of lacquer technology should be considered separately as there
is more than 3000 years between the earliest evidence for the urushi tree and that of lacquer technology
in Japan. It is possible that lacquer technology was invented independently in southern China and Japan
(Okamura, 2010). This hypothesis may be supported by the observation that early lacquer applications in
the Jomon are found on ornamental objects such as threads and combs, while those in southern China are
on utility goods such as bows and bowls. It is also possible that lacquer technology in Japan was introduced
from the continent as the dating of Kakinoshima B example is not sound enough. Although direct evidence
for interaction with, or migration from, the Chinese continent to Japanese archipelago in Initial Jomon is
lacking, the sudden appearance of slit stone earrings at the end of the Initial Jomon may indicate a cultural
influence from the continent (Kawasaki, 2004).
The invention of lacquer technology dates back to the early Holocene in East Asia. The archaeological
contexts of the early examples suggests sedentary lifeways such as settlement or cemetery, indicating
that lacquer technology was invented in the course of increasing human-plant interaction in the warming
climate. We need more evidence in order to resolve the debate pertaining to the time and place of its origin.
3 Complex Nature of Lacquer Production Technology
3.1 Systematic Production
Although the urushi tree has been growing in the Japanese archipelago since the Incipient Jomon Period,
detailed planning and control of complex technologies are required in order to obtain enough sap for
lacquer production. Firstly, constant tending is necessary to utilize the sap effectively. The tree grows well
in a warm climate with a lot of sunshine and good ventilation. In order to maintain the best condition for
the trees, it is necessary to control the forest so that taller trees will not block the light and urushi trees grow
at appropriate intervals (Nagashima, 1996; Noshiro, Suzuki, & Sasaki, 2007).
Effective management and utilization methods for the urushi tree in the Jomon Period are reconstructed
based on the examination of the abundant material remains excavated at the Late Jomon Period site,
Shimo-yakebe Tokyo (Chiba, 2014). Examination of 44 stakes of urushi trees suggests that periodic thinning
of the forest was practiced by cutting down young urushi trees of five to six years, and possibly redundant
shoots, to maintain the best environment for urushi trees. Systematic cuts are seen on the excavated stakes,
indicating that the sap was collected before cutting down the tree. Examination of growth rings revealed
that the trees were cut down from early summer to late fall when the amount of sap increases (Noshiro &
Sasaki, 2006).
210 N. Matsumoto
3.2 Colouring Technique
The sap freshly tapped from the tree is a milky white, oily liquid. It consists of about 80% of urushiol, 20%
of water, and a nominal volume of gum, carbohydrate, and so on. The sap must be stirred in mildly heated
conditions to reduce the amount of water to a few % in order to produce lacquer that can be applicable
to the surface of objects. If this process is done successfully, brownish, translucent lacquer is obtained,
which can be mixed with pigment to produce coloured lacquer. Intentional colouring of lacquer was mostly
restricted to red during the Jomon period.
There are a number of examples with apparently black lacquer, including many pottery and bows
showing red on black patterns. However, most of the blackness comes from natural blackening by
oxidization as a result of a thickening process. Carbon powders are occasionally mixed into the naturally
blackened lacquer, however, it may not be for colouring but for making the texture more suitable for a base
coat or forming material.
There are two kinds of pigment used for producing red lacquer in the Jomon period: red iron oxide
bengara” (Fe2O2) and cinnabar “shu” (HgS). In addition to hematite, which has been utilized since the
Palaeolithic, Jomon people began to use bog iron as a raw material of bengara. Bog iron forms in the water
when iron bacteria sticks to a vegetable fiber; it shows a unique tube-like structure that can be identified
with microscopic analysis (Okada, 1997).
While the source of bengara is ubiquitous, that of cinnabar is restricted to around the Median Tectonic
Line. Many sources are known in Mie, Nara, Tokushima and Hokkaido prefectures. Currently the earliest
evidence of the use of cinnabar is a grinding stone from the Miyanotaira site, Nara prefecture, dating to the
end of the Middle Jomon (Archaeological Institute of Kashihara, 2005). Cinnabar was actively used in Kinki
region and Hokkaido where the material is available from nearby mines in the Late Jomon Period. While
Bengara was more universally used to manufacture red lacquer in the northeastern part of Japan throughout
the Jomon Period, cinnabar was obtained from Hokkaido to make red lacquer (Nagashima, 2014).
In order to get a beautiful, even coating of lacquer, it must be applied to the surface of an object several
times. Microscopic examination of the section of a lacquer coating from the Kitaekoda site in Tokyo shows
four layers of lacquer (Fig. 2). Red lacquer was applied three times on top of the base coat of uncoloured
lacquer mixed with carbon powder. Red lacquer with bengara is used for the first layer, followed by the layer
with coarse grained cinnabar, and the top coat with fine grained cinnabar (Nagashima, 2014). In addition
to the difference in redness between Bengara and shu, Jomon people were also able to control the colour
by way of grinding the pigment; the finer the pigment, the more vivid and bright the colour (Yotsuyamagi,
2009). In cases where both bengara and shu were used, shu is used for the top coat over the layers of red
lacquer with bengara in the Late Jomon period. Such a difference in the usage of bengara and shu clearly
indicates that Jomon people were aware of the difference in redness, and preferred a vivid, bright red.
Delicate control of colour by repeated coating can also be recognized for a red lacquered bracelet
excavated from Yoneizumi site, Ishikawa prefecture. Microscopic examination identified six layers of red
lacquer with bengara on the lacquer base containing carbon powder that worked as a forming material
(Yotsuyamagi, 2009). Heavy mineral pigments in the urushi layers of both Kitaekoda and Yoneizumi
cases are evenly dispersed, indicating that the craftsperson probably rotated the object after each coating
to prevent the pigment from sinking, as the colour becomes darker if that happens (Nagashima, 2014;
Yotsuyanagi, 2009).
While both red and black were two very important colours all through the Jomon period, intentional
control of red colour was prominent. Red and black were also conspicuous in the following Yayoi and Kofun
periods, supporting the theory of universal tendency in colour cognition based on human neurological
foundation. Which of the two dominates seems to depend on the sociocultural situation, and also on
the nature of the object. The focal colour of Jomon lacquer was red, but in the Yayoi period, intentionally
blackened lacquer became dominant (Yotsuyanagi, 2009)
Japan: The Earliest Evidence of Complex Technology for Creating Durable Coloured Goods 211
Figure 2. Red lacquer coating on wood and microphotograph of its section. Photographs kindly provided by Masaharu Naga-
shima with permission.
3.3 Unique Nature of Urushi
The urushi tree and its products have a number of unique characteristics that would enhance the symbolic
significance of lacquer production. Firstly, urushiol causes allergic contact dermatitis on humans and
several higher primates (Fisher, 1996). Although the urushi tree only grows in Asia, other Toxicodendron
species, such as poison ivy, causes the weeping, itchy rash on 10–50 million people in North America per
year (Gladman, 2006). The level of allergic reaction varies according to one’s genetic susceptibility and the
level of sensitization. While about 10% of people don’t have any allergic reaction, the majority would have
a minor to serious rash on contact with the sap. It has been known among Japanese lacquer craftsmen
that frequent contact with lacquer leads them to develop an immunity to it. Experimental researches have
confirmed that hyposensitization to urushiol does occur (Epstein et al., 1981; Kawai et al., 1991). As the
experiments show that tolerance is weakened with time, constant contact with urushiol is required to keep
hyposensitivity.
The poisonous nature of urushiol would promote a specialized production by a restricted group of
people. As urushiol sensitivity seems to be genetically determined to some extent (Epstein, 1987), and some
212 N. Matsumoto
people show persistently strong reactions, inheritance of lacquer technology through particular lineage
may have been encouraged.
A second unique feature is a counter-intuitive drying process of lacquer. Other kinds of paint dry faster
under lower humidity. Contrary to our common expectation, however, lacquer hardens in warm and humid
atmosphere. The hardening occurs by the chemical reaction of urushiol to humidity. Thus, the rainy season
in early summer is the best season for lacquer production in Japan. Such intricate knowledge about the
nature of lacquer is indispensable for lacquerware production (Matsuda, 2001).
The third unique feature is the extraordinary durability of this organic substance. Although it is
affected by direct sunlight and extreme change of temperature, lacquer is resistant to water, heat, acid and
other chemical influences. The amazing stability of lacquer coating is evident in well preserved excavated
artefacts, even when the organic object under the coating is almost completely decomposed. Its colour also
does not change over thousands of years.
4 Specific Nature of the Jomon Lacquer
Lacquer was applied to various kinds of material and objects in the Jomon Period, including various forms
of containers, clay figurines, bows, and various kinds of ornaments. At the Korekawa-nakai site, Aomori
prefecture, a large number of lacquered artefacts were found from in a water-logged peat layer, showing
the variety and sophisticated technology of lacquer use in the Final Jomon Period (Hachinohe City Board of
Education, 2002; Okamura, 2010). More than 70 pieces of pottery sherds, 14 woodenware, 3 bark containers,
10 baskets, 1 sword-shaped object, 19 bows, 10 combs, 11 bracelets and 5 earrings were found coated with
lacquer. Most of them are of applied red lacquer with bengara on black basecoat. Such a wide application
of lacquer is not surprising because it not only enhances the appearance, but also increases the durability,
of the object. Pieces of large bark containers coated by black and red lacquer are examples of the unique
nature of lacquer that works both as an adhesive and as a hardener. By applying lacquer on the surface of
bark, large, water-proof, and very light containers can be created.
While both aesthetic and utilitarian aspects of lacquer were fully recognized and exploited in the Jomon
Period, it should be noted that personal ornaments such as strings, combs and bracelets appeared from the
early stage of lacquer production. This suggests that the original motivation behind the invention of lacquer
technology was symbolic and social rather than practical.
At the Kakinoshima B site, bundles of string that probably decorated the head, shoulders, arms and
legs of a buried person were found in a pit grave (Fig. 3). Some of them could be a part of the clothing. Close
examination revealed that it was made by twining lacquer-coated thread around string. Lacquer becomes
very hard when dried, but microscopic observation indicates that each thread had been coated by lacquer
two or three times before twining (Nagashima, 2002). It is considered that wild sesame oil was mixed with
lacquer to maintain flexibility in the drying process. This observation suggests that those who produced the
string gems coated with lacquer already had a deep knowledge about the nature of lacquer from the Initial
Jomon period.
A number of bundles of red lacquered string have been found from the Late and Final Jomon sites in
Hokkaido, Tohoku, Kanto and Hokuriku regions. Their production method is basically the same as the
Kakinoshima B example, in that each string is first coated with red lacquer and then bound up. It is called
Itodama in Japanese, meaning a string gem. Otherwise, vulnerable plant fiber is transformed into durable
ornaments by lacquer. How string gems were used is unknown, but the act of tying red thread might have
had a symbolic significance in the Jomon Period (Yotsuyanagi, 2009).
The use of lacquer as a forming material is another conspicuous feature of the Jomon lacquer technology.
Combs in the Jomon Period are not for combing hair but are personal ornaments worn on the head. Jomon
combs are made either by sculpting the teeth from a piece of wood, or by binding a number of thin sticks
to make teeth. In the case of the latter, Lacquer is used very effectively as an adhesive, forming material
and paint. At the Karinba site, Hokkaido prefecture, 56 red lacquered combs were excavated from16 pit
burials of the Late Jomon Period. All of them are of the stick-binding type, and their production method is
Japan: The Earliest Evidence of Complex Technology for Creating Durable Coloured Goods 213
a)
b) c)
d) e)
Figure 3. Lacquered strings excavated from Kakinoshima B site, Hokkaido a) Excavated state, b) Lacquered strings on the left
shoulder of the buried person, c) Close-up of the excavated state, d) and e) Microphotographs of the section of a lacque-
red string. Photographs kindly provided by Hakodate City Board of Education (a, b) and Masaharu Nagashima (c, d, e) with
permission.
214 N. Matsumoto
reconstructed based on close examination of the Karinba combs (Uwaya & Kimura, 2016). About half of the
combs have delicate openwork decoration, which was made by carving hardened lacquer.
It is also noted that many kinds of red can be observed. At the pit grave no.123, remaining teeth indicate
that five individuals were buried together on a layer of bengara which is about 4 cm thick (Fig. 4). Each
individual wore two to three combs on their head. The colour of the combs varies from pink and scarlet to
orange, indicating a sophisticated technique of colour control (Uwaya, 2003). There are three more multiple
burials similar to the burial No.123 at the Karinba site. Why four to five individuals were buried together
in the same grave is still not clear. Uwaya and Kimura suggest a possibility of martyrdom. Although poor
preservation of bones makes it impossible to identify the sex of buried individuals, Uwaya and Kimura
assume that the combs belong to female shamans who played a significant role in the process of social
stratification (Uwaya & Kimura, 2016).
Lacquer was also applied to containers and tools to enhance their symbolic importance. Lacquered
objects have a very impressive appearance, as the application of lacquer transforms the surface texture of
an object, be it pottery, wooden object, or strings, to red and shiny. Red and shiny objects are rare in the
natural world and it appeals to the eye of human beings.
Figure 4. Excavated state of the pit grave no.123 at Karinba site, Hokkaido. Photograph kindly provided by Eniwa City Board of
Education with permission.
5 Conclusion
The invention of lacquer technology was a significant step in human history as the first method to create
durable coloured artefacts. Although it is not clear how and when the urushi tree was introduced to the
Japanese archipelago, lacquer technology developed in the course of increasing human-plant interaction
when sedentary lifeways emerged in the early Holocene. Lacquer production requires constant control of
the forest with strategic planning and successful transmission of complex technological knowledge. Thus,
Japan: The Earliest Evidence of Complex Technology for Creating Durable Coloured Goods 215
it certainly signifies the development of complex society. At the same time, it is also possible that lacquer
production was one of the factors driving social complexity. From the beginning to the end of Final Jomon,
red lacquer continued to be the center of production. This is additional supporting evidence for the earliest
appearance of red in intentional colouring practice. It is also significant that lacquer technology allowed
the pursuit of various shades of red. The quest for more saturated, bright, or nuanced red was developed
during the Jomon Period. The strong attention to colour and intensive application on personal ornaments,
indicate that the creation of symbolic artefacts in the context of emergent social complexity was at the core
of Jomon lacquer technology.
Acknowledgements: I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and
suggestions.
I wish to express my special thanks to the organisers of the conference Art and the Brain for inviting
me to participate.
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... The production and use of lacquer, which is labour-intensive and requires a high level of knowledge and skills (Shelach-Lavi, 2015;Matsumoto, 2018), have been identified as an outstanding prehistoric cultural and technological achievement. A centre of early lacquer production is East Asia, where this natural polymer has been applied for its superb preservation (anti-oxidation, water and corrosion resistance) and aesthetic properties on various materials, such as wood, bamboo and pottery, for millennia. ...
... A centre of early lacquer production is East Asia, where this natural polymer has been applied for its superb preservation (anti-oxidation, water and corrosion resistance) and aesthetic properties on various materials, such as wood, bamboo and pottery, for millennia. Regions from which the earliest evidence of the use of lacquer has been reported are the Yangtze River delta and Japan (Matsumoto, 2018). In the former region lacquered objects have been documented from Middle Neolithic archaeological sites, which also yield some of the earliest evidence of the domestication of rice (Ma et al., 2018 and references therein). ...
... However, like those of the earliest lacquered objects from the Chinese Neolithic sites, this age determination is not based on direct dating. These dating uncertainties further fuel the debate about the origin of lacquer production (Kudo, 2017;Matsumoto, 2018) and whether it developed independently in both regions (Okamura, 2010) or was introduced from one region to the other. The so far oldest direct radiocarbon ( 14 C) date calibrated to 5200 BCE was obtained from a lacquered comb from the Mibiki archaeological site in Ishikawa Prefecture, central Honshu (Kudo and Yotsuyanagi, 2015). ...
Article
The use of natural lacquer for preservation and decoration of various commodities is a remarkable invention. In Japan lacquer production dates back to the Neolithic Jomon period and has been mainly based on the sap extracted from the lacquer tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum (Stokes) F.A. Barkley). However, it is still unclear, if lacquer production evolved in Japan independently or was introduced from Neolithic China, another centre of early lacquer production. A debate also revolves around the origin of the lacquer tree itself and whether it occurs in Japan naturally or was introduced from the continent along with the skills required for lacquer production. Records of Rhus/Toxicodendron fruit remains, recovered from cultural layers of archaeological sites and natural palaeoenvironmental archives across Japan, provide an opportunity to answer the existing questions. This paper presents a method for differentiating charred endocarps of the six Rhus/Toxicodendron species growing in Japan, which is not feasible based on size or morphological properties of whole fruits or endocarps. To develop this method, we used a set of modern reference fruits. Identification is based on the species-specific tissue structure of the charred endocarp in longitudinal sectional view observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). We suggest a simple identification key that is based on two prominent traits of the endocarp's tissue structure, i.e., tissue alignment and density. The method was successfully applied to an abundant record of charred Rhus/ Toxicodendron endocarps recovered by flotation from Okhotsk culture layers dating to ca. 490-880 CE at the multi-component Hamanaka 2 archaeological site, Rebun Island, Hokkaido region, northern Japan. The recovered endocarps belong to Asian poison ivy (Toxicodendron orientale Greene, 1905) and the chronology of the archaeobotanical assemblages suggests that fruits and/or other parts of this plant were used by different local populations over a period of up to 3000 years (Final Jomon to Classic Ainu period). This indicates that not only lacquer tree was an important economic plant in Japanese prehistory, but also other Rhus/Toxicodendron species were used for unknown purpose. While use of T. orientale for medical effects or as an alternative source for lacquer production seems possible, we hypothesise that at Hamanaka 2 it was utilised for its high tannin content to tan hides and furs of sea mammals. This interpretation emphasises the discussed function of Hamanaka 2, famous for its rich zooarchaeological record of sea mammal remains, as an important site of marine hunting and raw material processing.
... The invention of lacquer technology enhanced creativity as it expanded the ways of producing colored goods due to the unique nature of lacquer as a highly durable coat as well as a forming material (Matsumoto, 2018). While lacquers in a broad sense of the term are made from various materials, this paper discusses urushi lacquer in particular, referring to the treated and dried sap of Japanese Sumac, or urushi tree (Toxicodendron vernici uum). ...
... In terms of technical knowledge, microscopic examination of the lacquer coatings on the excavated material shows that there was undoubtedly considerable sophistication, from the re ning of the sap to the control of color with pigments (Matsumoto, 2018;Nagashima, 2014;Yotsuyanagi, 2009). The chemical properties of lacquer also determine the procedures required to use it as a beautiful and durable coating material (Kumanotani, 1995;McSharry et al., 2007). ...
Chapter
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... After the early phase of the Late Jōmon there is a clear shift in the form, usage and social value of jadeite ornaments, which might be related to increasing social complexity and overall greater variety of prestige and symbolic material culture (Bausch, 2010a). In the Late and particularly the Final Jōmon, there is evidence for feasting and for the craft production of fine pottery and lacquerware (Kawashima, 2008(Kawashima, , 2010(Kawashima, , 2015aMatsumoto, 2018a). ...
... There is considerable evidence for trade and exchange within Japan during this period but, with some exceptions, the possibility of trading contacts with the mainland has rarely been discussed (Bausch, 2016). The specialist craft production found in the Late-Final Jōmon included ceramics, shell beads, jadeite ornaments, greenstone beads, polished stone axes, lacquerware and salt (Kinoshita, 2003;Bausch, 2004Bausch, , 2010Sakaguchi, 2011;Kawashima, 2015b;Matsumoto, 2011Matsumoto, , 2018a. The existence of very long-distance networks at this time is clear and Final Jōmon Kamegaoka pottery from the Tohoku region is found as far south as Okinawa (Shitara, 2018), some 2000 km as the crow flies, equivalent to the distance from Paris to Athens. ...
Article
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From northern China, millet agriculture spread to Korea and the Maritime Russian Far East by 3500–2700 BC. While the expansion of agricultural societies across the Sea of Japan did not occur until around 900 BC, the intervening period saw major transformations in the Japanese archipelago. The cultural florescence of Middle Jōmon central Honshu underwent a collapse and reorganisation into more decentralised settlements. Mobility increased as Late Jōmon influences spread from eastern into western Japan, and populations expanded to offshore islands such as Okinawa and the Kurils. In Kyushu and other parts of western Japan, the eastern Jōmon expansion was associated with the cultivation of adzuki and soybeans but, contrary to earlier assessments, there is no evidence for the introduction of cereal crops at this time. Here, we analyse archaeological and historical linguistic evidence of connections between the Eurasian mainland and the Japanese Islands c. 3500 to 900 BC. A re-evaluation of archaeological material discussed since the 1920s concludes that the transformations in Jōmon society during this period were at least in part a response to contacts with Eurasian Bronze Age cultures. Evidence for linguistic contact between Koreanic and the Ainuic languages which are presumed to have been spoken by Jōmon populations is also consistent with new Bronze Age mobilities. Although prehistoric Japan was one of the most isolated regions of Eurasia, we conclude that the historical evolution of societies in the Japanese archipelago after the third millennium BC was linked with processes of Bronze Age globalisation.
... From the authors' knowledge, there are only few studies published in English dealing with the radiocarbon ( 14 C) dating of Asian lacquer objects (Sato et al. 1969;Strahan 1993;Hodgins et al. 2002;Beavan et al. 2012;Sokha 2014;Orillaneda 2016;Sung et al. 2016;Matsumoto 2018;Wu et al. 2018;Grave et al. 2019;Park and Lee 2019;Brunskog and Miyakoshi 2021b;Durier et al. 2021). Of these studies, only some involved the direct dating of the lacquer, but pretreatment methods used were not always described. ...
Article
Lacquerwork technologies comprise multiple techniques depending on countries, time, and traditions. Carved Asian lacquers applied on wooden objects consist of multiple thin uncolored or pigmented layers spread over the surface. To radiocarbon (14C) date these types of objects, often only the wooden structure is used. Here we report on a set of carved lacquered objects that were dated based on stylistic form, 14C dating of the wooden structure and of the Asian lacquers. THM-Py-GC-MS and micro-Raman spectroscopy were used to confirm the molecular composition of the lacquers and helped assessing the pretreatment protocol. The lacquers analyzed contained between 20 and 50% wt carbon, thus 2–5 mg of sample were necessary for 14C dating. The dates obtained on wood and lacquers showed a reliable correlation. The results suggest that, in most cases, it is sufficient to sample a part of the lacquer layers to date an object. We advise to perform an acid pretreatment followed by a successive solvent immersion with an increasing polarity. Dating different components of a lacquered object can also help to understand previous restoration interventions that frequently occur for ancient lacquered objects. Ceramic, metallic, and other objects covered with Asian lacquers can also be dated using this approach.
... Urushi (Oriental lacquer) has been used as a paint and adhesive for thousands of years [1]. It is made from a milky white sap collected from the lacquer tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum), which is cultivated in Japan, China, and Korea [2,3]. ...
Article
Urushi (Oriental lacquer) is an environmentally friendly material obtained from the sap of lacquer trees. Under natural pH conditions (acidic–near neutral) Urushi curing is achieved by polymerization of the phenolic compound urushiol, a main component of Urushi. Curing is initiated by urushiol oxidation catalyzed by a specific laccase (UL) contained in the Urushi. However, Urushi cannot be cured by this enzyme under the strong basic pH conditions resulting from the addition of alkaline compounds. The aim of this study was to investigate why Urushi is not cured under strong basic pH conditions and find a way to solve this problem. H2O2 was generated in a mixture of urushiol and water, particularly in conditions of basic pH, that H2O2 inhibited UL activity, and that addition of H2O2 or NaOH substantially increased the curing time of Urushi. Addition of horseradish peroxidase (HRP), an enzyme catalyzing H2O2 decomposition, causes Urushi to be cured even in the strong basic conditions obtained following addition of NaOH. HRP’s main role in this system was inferred to be to prevent UL inhibition by H2O2. This achievement is expected to foster new uses of Urushi in the presence of basic compounds.
Chapter
Japan has one of the highest numbers of archaeologists globally; however, female archaeologists remain underrepresented in the profession. Despite the odds, Japanese female archaeologists have made significant contributions to archaeology. The rapid industrial expansion in the 1960s and 1970s led to the establishment of a highly systematic administrative system for buried cultural properties in Japan. The primary purpose of archaeological education at universities was to “mass-produce” archaeologists who could excavate and publish reports with specific standards. This system suppressed diversity and theoretical research in Japanese archaeology, preventing the number of female archaeologists from increasing. The author’s research on cognitive archaeology is mentioned in this context. Despite the odds, several female archaeologists who made significant contributions despite are picked up in this chapter. First, I focus on Yoshiko Makabe, the first woman in Japan to become a professional archaeologist through her wide-ranging contribution to archaeology and regional history. Second, I introduce the work of female archaeologists who have found their way overseas. Third, I describe the work of female archaeologists who made unique contributions to the subject of shell and stone ornaments.KeywordsJapanese archaeologyGenderSalt making potteryLand purchase certificateShell trade
Article
The development of environmentally friendly natural fiber composite materials is desirable. In this study, Urushi (oriental lacquer), which is a natural paint, and Sumi ink (black ink), which is a natural ink, were applied to Washi (Japanese paper), and their effect on the functional properties (appearance, mechanical properties, and water repellency) of the coated Washi were evaluated. Coating the Washi specimens with Urushi significantly improved their water repellency and tensile strength compared to those of untreated Washi. This was because Urushi filled the gaps between the fibers; however, it also caused brittle fracture. In addition, the elongation at break and water repellency were improved when Washi was coated with Sumi ink compared with those of untreated Washi. Furthermore, Washi specimens coated with Sumi ink followed by Urushi exhibited filled gaps between the fibers, a smoother surface, and lower water repellency compared to Washi directly coated with Urushi. The brittle fracture occurred from the Sumi–Washi fiber interface.
Article
In the past 30 years the study of the composition and chemistry of Asian lacquers has reached a high level of interest among scientists and conservators. As a result, analytical strategies have been developed to characterise and identify these materials in complex samples, sometimes thousands of years old. Asian lacquers are mainly composed of polymerised alkylcatechols and they are often applied in mixtures with several other organic and inorganic materials, such as oils, plant gums, mineral pigments, organic additives, etc. The polymeric nature of Asian lacquers limits the scientific approaches that can be used to investigate them. Technological progress and an increase in popularity of analytical pyrolysis (Py) have run parallel to the advancement of research in the field of Asian lacquer identification. With the ability to distinguish the different types of lacquers and to identify most of the other materials mixed with them, pyrolysis coupled to gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) is the most effective technique in this type of investigation. Several research groups have optimised analytical conditions, derivatisation steps and data treatment to create reliable protocols with wide applicability. The information related to the development of such protocols is summarised in this review, together with some critical comparisons and suggestions on future perspectives in this research field.
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Jomon is the name of the prehistoric period and culture on the Japanese Archipelago that follows the Paleolithic Period and precedes the agricultural Yayoi Period. Most scholars agree that the date of the oldest pottery in Japan (ca. 16,000 cal. BP) marks the beginning of the Jomon Period. The end of the Jomon Period is still controversial. In Kyushu, the transition from the Jomon to the Yayoi Period may have occurred as early as 2900-2800 cal. BP, but in northern Honshu, the end of the Jomon Period is likely to have been as late as 2400-2300 cal. BP. Because the Jomon Period lasted for more than 10,000 years, and because the geographic characteristics within the Japanese Archipelago vary significantly, Jomon culture shows marked temporal and spatial variability. This chapter reviews recent developments in Jomon archaeology with an emphasis on two different Jomon cultural trajectories in eastern and western Japan from the Initial to Final Jomon Periods. We conclude that Jomon archaeology is moving forward from a phase of data accumulation based on the results of a large number of rescue excavations to one of data organization and interpretation. New lines of archaeological evidence, including results of chemical and scientific analyses, can help archaeologists tackle key questions that still remain unanswered.
Article
Full-text available
Preliminary analysis of color naming data from 111 languages in the World Color Survey confirms the main lines of the original Berlin and Kay hypothesis regarding the existence of semantic universals in basic color lexicons. The analysis further shows that visual physiology plays a role in the evolutionary development of basic color vocabularies, constraining the possible composite categories to a small number of those theoretically possible. One composite category, yellow/green, is clearly attested in the data, but the sequence leading to its emergence remains unknown.
Chapter
The most important data for the Kuahuqiao culture published so far come from the sites of Kuahuqiao and Xiasun, of which the former site contributes much more significantly to our knowledge. Therefore, the chapter focuses primarily on remains from the Kuahuqiao site. The Kuahuqiao people developed a rich array of economic strategies, primarily collecting, rice cultivation, fishing, and hunting. The site of Xiasun is unusual, judging from its relatively homogenous remains and the fact that it is located less than 2 km from Kuahuqiao. It was a special-purpose, satellite settlement of Kuahuqiao, which served as a locus of pottery production. Craft products at Kuahuqiao sites include ceramics, stone artifacts, bone and antler tools, and wooden artifacts. There were diverse stone, bone, and wooden artifacts recovered from Kuahuqiao. The findings at the Kuahuqiao site also suggest the existence of art and religion.
Article
Challenging dominant assumptions of cultural relativism, Donald E. Brown contends that certain behavioral traits are common to human beings everywhere. In "Human Universals," he addresses the problems posed for anthropology by the topic of universals, discusses studies that have caused anthropologists to rethink their position, and provides an ethnography of "The Universal People." Although human universals were of considerable interest to early anthropologists, a later emphasis on sociocultural determinants of behavior produced an ambivalence toward both universals and the concept of human nature. This ambivalence toward universals has persisted since the 1920s; however, six important case studies involving the classification of basic colors, facial expressions of emotion, sex roles, time, adolescent stress, and the Oedipus Complex have reopened discussion of this nearly taboo topic. After discussing the distinctions between the various kinds of universals, the history of attempts to study universals, and the means by which universality may be demonstrated and explained, Brown presents a list of some four hundred human universals in the form of an ethnography that describes any and all peoples known to anthropologists. In his conclusion the author charges that, in making universals and human nature virtual non-subjects, anthropology has not adequately performed its major task. While the field has demonstrated well how people vary, it has not provided a sense of the ways in which they are alike. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Neurophysiological evidence accumulated in the last twenty years supports Hering€s oppo- nent theory of color vision. In addition, the general, cross-cultural, and universal theoy of color naming for all languages proposed by Berlin and Kay has been corroborated. Hays et al. speculated that color-term salience might be reduced to a neuroanatomical basis. An evaluation of our color-naming tests in German, French, English, Hebrew, Japanese, Quechi, and Misquito, and linguistic tests carried out, together with other linguistic data, show clearly that the linguistics ofcolor terms is corroborated by the oppo- nenl theuy of color vision. [color lexicon, color naming, categorization of color, opponent color theory, psycholinguistics of color terms, cultural influence on color naming]
Article
In Japan, lacquered artifacts and remains of lacquer processing became common items in the early Jomon period beginning at ca. 6300 b.p. (ca. 5300 cal b.c.). However, there was no archaeobotanical evidence that Rhus verniciflua (lacquer tree), which is thought to be a prehistoric introduction from China on botanical grounds, grew in Japan until its distinction in wood structure from those of native Rhus species was clarified in 2004. Based on this new refinement in identification, 573 Rhus fossil woods so far reported from various archaeological sites in Japan were re-identified. The results showed that R. verniciflua commonly grew in middle to northern Honshu since the early Jomon period and that it may have been introduced from China with other cultivated plants before that time. During the Jomon period, R. verniciflua trees were used not just for lacquer collection, but also for building in the lowland which exploited their durability in waterlogged conditions.