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Open Archaeology 2018; 4: 206–216
Naoko Matsumoto*
Japan: The Earliest Evidence of Complex
Technology for Creating Durable Coloured
Goods
https://doi.org/10.1515/opar-2018-0013
Received July 12, 2017; accepted January 15, 2018
Abstract: The invention of lacquer technology is significant in history as the first evidence of the use of
an organic substance in creating durable coloured objects. By focusing on the evidence from the Jomon
Period, Japan, this article clarifies the nature of complex technology and knowledge required for lacquer
production, presents how lacquer technology enhanced our creative ability, and discusses its significance
in human history. Lacquer technology was invented in the course of increasing human-plant interaction
in the warming climate of the early Holocene. Personal ornaments coated with red lacquer are the most
conspicuous throughout the Jomon Period from the beginning of lacquer technology. Strong attention to
colour and intensive application on personal ornaments indicate that the creation of symbolic artefacts in
social context was at the core of Jomon lacquer technology.
Keywords: Urushi, Lacquer technology, Jomon, red pigment, personal ornament
1 Introduction
The invention of lacquer technology is significant in human history as an early example of the use of an
organic substance in creating durable coloured objects. Application of red pigments dates back to the early
stage of anatomically modern humans, and organic material such as animal fat and plant sap may have
been added as a binder to give the pigment the required texture as a paint for Upper Palaeolithic cave art.
However, the development of lacquer technology in East Asia expanded the ways of producing coloured
goods due to the unique nature of lacquer as a highly durable coat as well as a forming material. By focusing
on the evidence from the Jomon Period, Japan, this article clarifies the nature of complex technology and
knowledge required for lacquer production, presents how lacquer technology enhanced our creative ability,
and discusses its significance in human history (Fig.1).
Jomon refers to the cultures that developed on the Japanese Archipelago following the Paleolithic
Period and preceding the agricultural Yayoi Period (Imamura, 1996; Habu, 2004, 2014). Jomon culture can
be characterized by hunter-gatherer subsistence and pottery production, although marked temporal and
spatial variability is seen over more than 10,000 years (Matsumoto & Habu, 2018, Table 1). Production of
rich material culture based on a sedentary lifestyle is a distinctive feature of the Jomon, which has been
noted in discussions on the emergence of social complexity (Hayden, 1995). Lacquer is an important part of
the specific material culture production.
Original Study
Article note: This article is a part of Topical Issue on From Line to Colour: Social Context and Visual Communication of
Prehistoric Art edited by Liliana Janik and Simon Kaner.
*Corresponding author: Naoko Matsumoto, Okayama University, Archaeology, 3-1-1, Kita-ku, Tsushima-naka, Okayama, 700 8530,
Japan, E-mail: naoko_m@cc.okayama-u.ac.jp
Open Access. © Naoko Matsumoto, published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs . License.
Japan: The Earliest Evidence of Complex Technology for Creating Durable Coloured Goods 207
Figure 1. The location of sites mentioned in the text.
Table 1. Approximate dates (calibrated BP) for the six Jomonsub-periods.
Sub-period Approximate age (cal BP)
Final Jomon –/
Late Jomon –
Middle Jomon –
Early Jomon –
Initial Jomon ,–
Incipient Jomon ,–,
It is not easy to talk about people’s cognition in the past, especially of those in societies where we don’t
know what language they were speaking. We can observe striking varieties in cosmologies, religious
beliefs and aesthetic standards in ethnographies, although some human universals seem to exist (Brown,
1991). Perception and cognition of colour can be an important foothold to allow further inferences on
past cognition, as it is determined by the neurophysiological structure and function of the visual system
(Wattenwyl & Zollinger, 1979). Based on the wide survey of colour terms around the world, Brent Berlin and
Paul Kay insisted that basic colour term lexicons evolved due to the constraining effects of the language-
independent processes of colour perception (Berlin & Kay, 1969; Kay et al., 1991). Berlin and Kay proposed
that white, black and red appeared first in the evolution of basic colour terms as they exist in almost all
208 N. Matsumoto
languages. Among the three basic colour terms, white and black refer to brightness and darkness without
any particular hue. Thus, red is the first true colour term corresponding to certain wavelength range.
Archaeological evidence apparently supports the model of basic colour term evolution stated above.
The use of colour, applied to the body or another natural or created 3D object or a flat surface is considered
as the first evidence of art in human evolution, dating back to more than 100,000 years ago (Morriss-Kay,
2010). Intentional production and use of red pigment powders have been known for Middle Palaeolithic
sites in Africa (Watts, 2010) and also for Neanderthal sites in Europe (Roebroeks et al., 2012). Use of black
pigments is not as popular or early as that of red pigments, although some examples are found from Middle
Palaeolithic sites (Bonjean et al., 2015). Tools for production of red and black pigment by grinding rocks such
as hematite and manganese dioxide have been found from Upper Palaeolithic sites in Japan (Naganuma,
1998). Utilization of sea shells, animal teeth and ivory for making beads might have been based on the
cognition of their white colour. It is not easy, however, to decide whether their colour was a significant
reason for exploitation in cases of natural colour. The shells, which happen to be white, may have been
picked up because of their shape or any other reasons. When colour was intentionally applied to the surface
of something, we can confidently assume that the colour was important.
Invention of lacquer technology brought new possibilities in the production of red objects. While the
term lacquer is used for many kinds of hard and potentially shiny finishes applied to materials including
recent industrial products with artificial resin, the word specifically refers to the treated and dried sap
ofJapanese Sumac, or urushi tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum) in this article. Urushi trees only grow in east
and Southeast Asia, and lacquerware was a special product in these areas. The beauty of lacquerware was
‘discovered’ by Europeans in the 16th century and many items were imported into Europe. The shiny surface
is not only beautiful to the eyes, but also very effective in enhancing the durability of the object coated by
lacquer against water, heat and acid (National Museum of Japanese History, 2017).
The sap of urushi tree contains urushiol, which polymerise in the presence of moisture to form a hard
lacquer. The name urushiol is derived from the Japanese word for the lacquer tree, urushi. Another unique
feature is that urushiol can cause an allergicreaction, such as a severe skinrash on contact, for most
individuals. A third unique feature is that lacquer can be used not only as a binder to make paint, but also as
a glue, filling or forming material. This feature made it possible to create new kinds of objects that humans
had never obtained before. An example of this might be a more complex form such as a lacquered comb. As
lacquer can be applied to many kinds of material including wood, fiber and pottery, it can transform both
organic and inorganic materials with dull colour and porous surfaces into bright red, shiny objects.
2 Earliest Evidence of Lacquerware
The origin of lacquer technology is a hotly debated topic (Kudo, 2017). The possibly earliest evidence of
lacquer was found from Kakinoshima B site in Hokkaido, Japan, based on a radiocarbon dating of 9000
cal BP (Minamikayabe-cho Maizobunkazai Chosadan, 2002; Yotsuyanagi, 2009, Okamura, 2010). The date
is, however, controversial as the dating was carried out with soil samples taken from the floor of the burial
that was presumed to contain residue of the brain and small flakes of lacquer (Kudo, 2017). If the dating is
not sound enough, contextual information of the burial indicates that it belongs to the late Initial Jomon
Period (8000–7000 BP). A lacquered comb from Mibiki site, Ishikawa prefecture, has the earliest direct
radiocarbon date of 7200 cal BP (Kudo & Yotsuyanagi 2015). Another lacquered comb from Torihama shell
midden, Fukui prefecture, is also directly radiocarbon dated to be 6100 cal BP (Kudo & Yotsuyanagi, 2015).
The earliest evidence of lacquer production is a pottery vessel containing refined lacquer from Sorete
site, Shimane prefecture, which was radiocarbon dated as 6800 cal BP (Nagashima & Kobayashi, 2007).
Increasing findings of lacquered objects, tools for lacquer production, and palaeobotanical evidence for
the urushi tree, suggest that lacquer technology existed in the Japanese archipelago from the Early Jomon
Period (7000–5500 cal BP) onwards (Noshiro & Suzuki, 2004).
Until the discovery of the earliest lacquered objects at Kakinoshima B site, a lacquered bowl from
Hemudu site, Zhejiang, China, had been considered as the earliest evidence of lacquer use, dating back to the
Japan: The Earliest Evidence of Complex Technology for Creating Durable Coloured Goods 209
5th millennium BC (Li, 2011). Recent examination of lacquered objects from Tianluoshan site and Kuahuqiao
site, also situated in the Zhejiang province, indicate that they could date back to about 7400–8000 years
ago (Cultural Relics Archaeological Institute in Zhejiang Province, Xiaoshan Museum, 2004; Nakamura,
2010; Jiang, 2013). It had been considered that the sumac tree and lacquer production technology diffused
from China to Japan, but currently, Kakinoshima B is the earliest, and the origin of this technology is not
clear. A piece of urushi tree excavated from the Incipient Jomon period layer of Torihama Shellmidden was
dated to be 10000–11000 cal BP (Suzuki et al., 2012). However, evidence of its utilization for adhesive or
lacquer at this early stage has not been obtained.
Recent DNA analysis revealed three types of genetic variations in urushi trees: Hubei-Hebei Province
type, Zhejiang Province type and Japan type (Suzuki et al., 2014). Japan type urushi trees grow in Japan,
the northern part of China and Korea. Botanists have assumed that urushi trees in Japan and Korea are not
native but were introduced as a cultivated species from the continent as they don’t grow in virgin forest,
but can be found only near human activity areas (Iwatsuki et al., 1999, Suzuki et al., 2014). We don’t have
enough evidence to judge whether the urushi tree is native to the Japanese Archipelago (Okamura, 2010) or
if it was brought in from the continent with the arrival of homo sapiens about 37,000 years ago, or with the
spread of microblade culture around 20,000 years ago (Kudo, 2017).
Whichever the case, the development of lacquer technology should be considered separately as there
is more than 3000 years between the earliest evidence for the urushi tree and that of lacquer technology
in Japan. It is possible that lacquer technology was invented independently in southern China and Japan
(Okamura, 2010). This hypothesis may be supported by the observation that early lacquer applications in
the Jomon are found on ornamental objects such as threads and combs, while those in southern China are
on utility goods such as bows and bowls. It is also possible that lacquer technology in Japan was introduced
from the continent as the dating of Kakinoshima B example is not sound enough. Although direct evidence
for interaction with, or migration from, the Chinese continent to Japanese archipelago in Initial Jomon is
lacking, the sudden appearance of slit stone earrings at the end of the Initial Jomon may indicate a cultural
influence from the continent (Kawasaki, 2004).
The invention of lacquer technology dates back to the early Holocene in East Asia. The archaeological
contexts of the early examples suggests sedentary lifeways such as settlement or cemetery, indicating
that lacquer technology was invented in the course of increasing human-plant interaction in the warming
climate. We need more evidence in order to resolve the debate pertaining to the time and place of its origin.
3 Complex Nature of Lacquer Production Technology
3.1 Systematic Production
Although the urushi tree has been growing in the Japanese archipelago since the Incipient Jomon Period,
detailed planning and control of complex technologies are required in order to obtain enough sap for
lacquer production. Firstly, constant tending is necessary to utilize the sap effectively. The tree grows well
in a warm climate with a lot of sunshine and good ventilation. In order to maintain the best condition for
the trees, it is necessary to control the forest so that taller trees will not block the light and urushi trees grow
at appropriate intervals (Nagashima, 1996; Noshiro, Suzuki, & Sasaki, 2007).
Effective management and utilization methods for the urushi tree in the Jomon Period are reconstructed
based on the examination of the abundant material remains excavated at the Late Jomon Period site,
Shimo-yakebe Tokyo (Chiba, 2014). Examination of 44 stakes of urushi trees suggests that periodic thinning
of the forest was practiced by cutting down young urushi trees of five to six years, and possibly redundant
shoots, to maintain the best environment for urushi trees. Systematic cuts are seen on the excavated stakes,
indicating that the sap was collected before cutting down the tree. Examination of growth rings revealed
that the trees were cut down from early summer to late fall when the amount of sap increases (Noshiro &
Sasaki, 2006).
210 N. Matsumoto
3.2 Colouring Technique
The sap freshly tapped from the tree is a milky white, oily liquid. It consists of about 80% of urushiol, 20%
of water, and a nominal volume of gum, carbohydrate, and so on. The sap must be stirred in mildly heated
conditions to reduce the amount of water to a few % in order to produce lacquer that can be applicable
to the surface of objects. If this process is done successfully, brownish, translucent lacquer is obtained,
which can be mixed with pigment to produce coloured lacquer. Intentional colouring of lacquer was mostly
restricted to red during the Jomon period.
There are a number of examples with apparently black lacquer, including many pottery and bows
showing red on black patterns. However, most of the blackness comes from natural blackening by
oxidization as a result of a thickening process. Carbon powders are occasionally mixed into the naturally
blackened lacquer, however, it may not be for colouring but for making the texture more suitable for a base
coat or forming material.
There are two kinds of pigment used for producing red lacquer in the Jomon period: red iron oxide
“bengara” (Fe2O2) and cinnabar “shu” (HgS). In addition to hematite, which has been utilized since the
Palaeolithic, Jomon people began to use bog iron as a raw material of bengara. Bog iron forms in the water
when iron bacteria sticks to a vegetable fiber; it shows a unique tube-like structure that can be identified
with microscopic analysis (Okada, 1997).
While the source of bengara is ubiquitous, that of cinnabar is restricted to around the Median Tectonic
Line. Many sources are known in Mie, Nara, Tokushima and Hokkaido prefectures. Currently the earliest
evidence of the use of cinnabar is a grinding stone from the Miyanotaira site, Nara prefecture, dating to the
end of the Middle Jomon (Archaeological Institute of Kashihara, 2005). Cinnabar was actively used in Kinki
region and Hokkaido where the material is available from nearby mines in the Late Jomon Period. While
Bengara was more universally used to manufacture red lacquer in the northeastern part of Japan throughout
the Jomon Period, cinnabar was obtained from Hokkaido to make red lacquer (Nagashima, 2014).
In order to get a beautiful, even coating of lacquer, it must be applied to the surface of an object several
times. Microscopic examination of the section of a lacquer coating from the Kitaekoda site in Tokyo shows
four layers of lacquer (Fig. 2). Red lacquer was applied three times on top of the base coat of uncoloured
lacquer mixed with carbon powder. Red lacquer with bengara is used for the first layer, followed by the layer
with coarse grained cinnabar, and the top coat with fine grained cinnabar (Nagashima, 2014). In addition
to the difference in redness between Bengara and shu, Jomon people were also able to control the colour
by way of grinding the pigment; the finer the pigment, the more vivid and bright the colour (Yotsuyamagi,
2009). In cases where both bengara and shu were used, shu is used for the top coat over the layers of red
lacquer with bengara in the Late Jomon period. Such a difference in the usage of bengara and shu clearly
indicates that Jomon people were aware of the difference in redness, and preferred a vivid, bright red.
Delicate control of colour by repeated coating can also be recognized for a red lacquered bracelet
excavated from Yoneizumi site, Ishikawa prefecture. Microscopic examination identified six layers of red
lacquer with bengara on the lacquer base containing carbon powder that worked as a forming material
(Yotsuyamagi, 2009). Heavy mineral pigments in the urushi layers of both Kitaekoda and Yoneizumi
cases are evenly dispersed, indicating that the craftsperson probably rotated the object after each coating
to prevent the pigment from sinking, as the colour becomes darker if that happens (Nagashima, 2014;
Yotsuyanagi, 2009).
While both red and black were two very important colours all through the Jomon period, intentional
control of red colour was prominent. Red and black were also conspicuous in the following Yayoi and Kofun
periods, supporting the theory of universal tendency in colour cognition based on human neurological
foundation. Which of the two dominates seems to depend on the sociocultural situation, and also on
the nature of the object. The focal colour of Jomon lacquer was red, but in the Yayoi period, intentionally
blackened lacquer became dominant (Yotsuyanagi, 2009)
Japan: The Earliest Evidence of Complex Technology for Creating Durable Coloured Goods 211
Figure 2. Red lacquer coating on wood and microphotograph of its section. Photographs kindly provided by Masaharu Naga-
shima with permission.
3.3 Unique Nature of Urushi
The urushi tree and its products have a number of unique characteristics that would enhance the symbolic
significance of lacquer production. Firstly, urushiol causes allergic contact dermatitis on humans and
several higher primates (Fisher, 1996). Although the urushi tree only grows in Asia, other Toxicodendron
species, such as poison ivy, causes the weeping, itchy rash on 10–50 million people in North America per
year (Gladman, 2006). The level of allergic reaction varies according to one’s genetic susceptibility and the
level of sensitization. While about 10% of people don’t have any allergic reaction, the majority would have
a minor to serious rash on contact with the sap. It has been known among Japanese lacquer craftsmen
that frequent contact with lacquer leads them to develop an immunity to it. Experimental researches have
confirmed that hyposensitization to urushiol does occur (Epstein et al., 1981; Kawai et al., 1991). As the
experiments show that tolerance is weakened with time, constant contact with urushiol is required to keep
hyposensitivity.
The poisonous nature of urushiol would promote a specialized production by a restricted group of
people. As urushiol sensitivity seems to be genetically determined to some extent (Epstein, 1987), and some
212 N. Matsumoto
people show persistently strong reactions, inheritance of lacquer technology through particular lineage
may have been encouraged.
A second unique feature is a counter-intuitive drying process of lacquer. Other kinds of paint dry faster
under lower humidity. Contrary to our common expectation, however, lacquer hardens in warm and humid
atmosphere. The hardening occurs by the chemical reaction of urushiol to humidity. Thus, the rainy season
in early summer is the best season for lacquer production in Japan. Such intricate knowledge about the
nature of lacquer is indispensable for lacquerware production (Matsuda, 2001).
The third unique feature is the extraordinary durability of this organic substance. Although it is
affected by direct sunlight and extreme change of temperature, lacquer is resistant to water, heat, acid and
other chemical influences. The amazing stability of lacquer coating is evident in well preserved excavated
artefacts, even when the organic object under the coating is almost completely decomposed. Its colour also
does not change over thousands of years.
4 Specific Nature of the Jomon Lacquer
Lacquer was applied to various kinds of material and objects in the Jomon Period, including various forms
of containers, clay figurines, bows, and various kinds of ornaments. At the Korekawa-nakai site, Aomori
prefecture, a large number of lacquered artefacts were found from in a water-logged peat layer, showing
the variety and sophisticated technology of lacquer use in the Final Jomon Period (Hachinohe City Board of
Education, 2002; Okamura, 2010). More than 70 pieces of pottery sherds, 14 woodenware, 3 bark containers,
10 baskets, 1 sword-shaped object, 19 bows, 10 combs, 11 bracelets and 5 earrings were found coated with
lacquer. Most of them are of applied red lacquer with bengara on black basecoat. Such a wide application
of lacquer is not surprising because it not only enhances the appearance, but also increases the durability,
of the object. Pieces of large bark containers coated by black and red lacquer are examples of the unique
nature of lacquer that works both as an adhesive and as a hardener. By applying lacquer on the surface of
bark, large, water-proof, and very light containers can be created.
While both aesthetic and utilitarian aspects of lacquer were fully recognized and exploited in the Jomon
Period, it should be noted that personal ornaments such as strings, combs and bracelets appeared from the
early stage of lacquer production. This suggests that the original motivation behind the invention of lacquer
technology was symbolic and social rather than practical.
At the Kakinoshima B site, bundles of string that probably decorated the head, shoulders, arms and
legs of a buried person were found in a pit grave (Fig. 3). Some of them could be a part of the clothing. Close
examination revealed that it was made by twining lacquer-coated thread around string. Lacquer becomes
very hard when dried, but microscopic observation indicates that each thread had been coated by lacquer
two or three times before twining (Nagashima, 2002). It is considered that wild sesame oil was mixed with
lacquer to maintain flexibility in the drying process. This observation suggests that those who produced the
string gems coated with lacquer already had a deep knowledge about the nature of lacquer from the Initial
Jomon period.
A number of bundles of red lacquered string have been found from the Late and Final Jomon sites in
Hokkaido, Tohoku, Kanto and Hokuriku regions. Their production method is basically the same as the
Kakinoshima B example, in that each string is first coated with red lacquer and then bound up. It is called
Itodama in Japanese, meaning a string gem. Otherwise, vulnerable plant fiber is transformed into durable
ornaments by lacquer. How string gems were used is unknown, but the act of tying red thread might have
had a symbolic significance in the Jomon Period (Yotsuyanagi, 2009).
The use of lacquer as a forming material is another conspicuous feature of the Jomon lacquer technology.
Combs in the Jomon Period are not for combing hair but are personal ornaments worn on the head. Jomon
combs are made either by sculpting the teeth from a piece of wood, or by binding a number of thin sticks
to make teeth. In the case of the latter, Lacquer is used very effectively as an adhesive, forming material
and paint. At the Karinba site, Hokkaido prefecture, 56 red lacquered combs were excavated from16 pit
burials of the Late Jomon Period. All of them are of the stick-binding type, and their production method is
Japan: The Earliest Evidence of Complex Technology for Creating Durable Coloured Goods 213
a)
b) c)
d) e)
Figure 3. Lacquered strings excavated from Kakinoshima B site, Hokkaido a) Excavated state, b) Lacquered strings on the left
shoulder of the buried person, c) Close-up of the excavated state, d) and e) Microphotographs of the section of a lacque-
red string. Photographs kindly provided by Hakodate City Board of Education (a, b) and Masaharu Nagashima (c, d, e) with
permission.
214 N. Matsumoto
reconstructed based on close examination of the Karinba combs (Uwaya & Kimura, 2016). About half of the
combs have delicate openwork decoration, which was made by carving hardened lacquer.
It is also noted that many kinds of red can be observed. At the pit grave no.123, remaining teeth indicate
that five individuals were buried together on a layer of bengara which is about 4 cm thick (Fig. 4). Each
individual wore two to three combs on their head. The colour of the combs varies from pink and scarlet to
orange, indicating a sophisticated technique of colour control (Uwaya, 2003). There are three more multiple
burials similar to the burial No.123 at the Karinba site. Why four to five individuals were buried together
in the same grave is still not clear. Uwaya and Kimura suggest a possibility of martyrdom. Although poor
preservation of bones makes it impossible to identify the sex of buried individuals, Uwaya and Kimura
assume that the combs belong to female shamans who played a significant role in the process of social
stratification (Uwaya & Kimura, 2016).
Lacquer was also applied to containers and tools to enhance their symbolic importance. Lacquered
objects have a very impressive appearance, as the application of lacquer transforms the surface texture of
an object, be it pottery, wooden object, or strings, to red and shiny. Red and shiny objects are rare in the
natural world and it appeals to the eye of human beings.
Figure 4. Excavated state of the pit grave no.123 at Karinba site, Hokkaido. Photograph kindly provided by Eniwa City Board of
Education with permission.
5 Conclusion
The invention of lacquer technology was a significant step in human history as the first method to create
durable coloured artefacts. Although it is not clear how and when the urushi tree was introduced to the
Japanese archipelago, lacquer technology developed in the course of increasing human-plant interaction
when sedentary lifeways emerged in the early Holocene. Lacquer production requires constant control of
the forest with strategic planning and successful transmission of complex technological knowledge. Thus,
Japan: The Earliest Evidence of Complex Technology for Creating Durable Coloured Goods 215
it certainly signifies the development of complex society. At the same time, it is also possible that lacquer
production was one of the factors driving social complexity. From the beginning to the end of Final Jomon,
red lacquer continued to be the center of production. This is additional supporting evidence for the earliest
appearance of red in intentional colouring practice. It is also significant that lacquer technology allowed
the pursuit of various shades of red. The quest for more saturated, bright, or nuanced red was developed
during the Jomon Period. The strong attention to colour and intensive application on personal ornaments,
indicate that the creation of symbolic artefacts in the context of emergent social complexity was at the core
of Jomon lacquer technology.
Acknowledgements: I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and
suggestions.
I wish to express my special thanks to the organisers of the conference Art and the Brain for inviting
me to participate.
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