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Using block play to enhance preschool children’s mathematics and executive functioning: A randomized controlled trial
Abstract
The current study investigated the extent to which a semi-structured block play intervention supported growth in mathematics and executive functioning for preschool children using a randomized controlled design. A secondary aim was to explore whether differential intervention effects emerged for children from various socioeconomic backgrounds, indicated by parental education level. Participants included59 preschool children. Children ranged in age from 38 to 69 months (M = 55.20, SD = 7.17), and 56% were female. Results from regression models indicated that, although not statistically significant, children who participated in the intervention demonstrated greater gains in three mathematics skills (numeracy, shape recognition, and mathematical language) and two indicators of executive functioning (cognitive flexibility and a measure of global executive functioning) compared to children in a control group. Further, three significant interactions were found, suggesting that for numeracy, cognitive flexibility, and global executive functioning, children of parents with low educational attainment benefited the most from intervention participation. These findings provide preliminary evidence for the effectiveness of a semi-structured block play intervention for improving children’s school readiness and have implications for including intentional instruction using blocks in preschool classrooms.
... Spatial strategies may also change depending on familiarity with the mathematics content-with novel or challenging mathematics tasks using spatial reasoning and more familiar tasks completed using other analytic or memory-based approaches (Mix et al., 2016). Although Bower et al. (2020) and Schmitt et al. (2018) did not find main effects of transfer between their spatial interventions and mathematics, they did find a moderation effect of socioeconomic status (SES). Bower et al. (2020) showed that copying simple puzzles containing geometric figures (e.g., oval, square, or triangle) increased performance on the Woodcock Johnson IV (WJ-IV; Schrank et al., 2014) but not on the Test of Early Mathematics Ability-Third Edition (TEMA-3; Ginsburg & Baroody, 2003) for children from low-SES backgrounds. ...
... The authors suggested that the WJ-IV includes novel and complex word problems that may elicit spatial reasoning, whereas the TEMA-3's focus on nonsymbolic number knowledge and number order may not. Schmitt et al. (2018) asked children to build prompted designs using blocks, which similarly increased performance for children from low-SES backgrounds on the Preschool Early Numeracy Skills Screener-Brief Version (PENS-B; Purpura et al., 2015), a broad measure of numeracy. Together, these studies highlight the potential connection between spatial visualization skills and broader, novel mathematics tasks. ...
... Identifying factors that moderate the effects of spatial training programs is also crucial for understanding when and why they transfer to mathematics achievement. Only two studies to date included moderation, both of which found a role of SES (Bower et al., 2020;Schmitt et al., 2018). Given that students with lower initial levels of spatial reasoning stand to have the largest improvements (David, 2012;Taylor & Hutton, 2013), we examined whether initial spatial reasoning skills moderate the effects of spatial training on mathematics understanding (Research Question 3). ...
We assessed the efficacy of two spatial learning programs grounded in early years learning pedagogical theory to improve numeracy performance in preschool. Engagement with a play-based spatial program led to better overall spatial reasoning and transferred to better numeracy compared with a business-as-usual control, underscoring the importance of embedding spatial learning within strong pedagogy and authentic preschool contexts. Engagement with the same spatial program using a spatialized curriculum (e.g., gesture, sketching) showed large additive effects, highlighting the role of spatial reasoning tools to support transfer of spatial reasoning to numeracy. The effects of the two interventions were moderated by spatial reasoning, with children with lower spatial reasoning making the most gains in numeracy.
... Block play promotes socialization, verbal communication, and encourages collaborative play, providing children with a chance to share ideas with their peers and cooperate with another [9,10]. Sharing blocks or ideas with peers is an essential aspect of block play that fosters social and emotional development. ...
... Counting and measuring are essential math skills that children develop through block play. For example, children can count the number of blocks they have and compare quantities using comparative language such as "more" and "less," as well as use blocks to measure distances or heights and compare the relative sizes of various objects by using "tall," "short," "big," and "small" [9]. ...
... Cohen and Janet showed that block play and Lego activities play an important role in children's spatial skills [12]. Children learn spatial vocabulary such as "in front of," "on top of," and "underneath" through interactions with caregivers or parents during block play [9]. These words can help children better understand their environment. ...
Cognitive, social, as well as affective development are significantly influenced by early childhood development. This study investigates how block play and pretend play independently or jointly influence the development of young children. The positive effects of block play and pretend play on early childhood development include language and communication skills, problem-solving abilities, social skills, and emotional regulation. In addition, research indicates that children who engage in block play later demonstrate superior academic achievement. It has been discovered that playing with blocks improves spatial reasoning, problem-solving, and creativity. Children gain a deeper comprehension of fundamental concepts, such as shape, size, and measurement, through block play. In this paper, the author discussed that block play and pretend play should be emphasised in the toddler years so as to promote the development of young children. This paper provides parents, educators, and policymakers with insights for fostering childrens cognition, sociability, and emotion through play-based learning environments.
... Block construction toys such as LEGO ® are extremely popular, and evidence suggests that block construction skills in childhood are positively related to mathematics performance, cross-sectionally (e.g., Nath and Szücs 2014), and longitudinally (e.g., Verdine et al. 2014a). There is also some preliminary evidence that training block construction skills can improve children's mathematics performance (Newman et al. 2020;although, see Bower et al. 2020a;Schmitt et al. 2018). Therefore, and as outlined by Verdine et al. (2014b), early spatial skills may be key for school readiness in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) subjects. ...
... However, not all studies support a causal effect of block construction on numeracy. Schmitt et al. (2018) completed a block construction intervention with 3-5year-olds and found no significant effect on numeracy outcomes. However, the analysis was underpowered to find small effects (N = 59), and the authors commented on the favourable effect sizes given the restricted power levels. ...
... This group also found that spatial training was particularly effective for 3-year-olds from low SES groups, again measured using mother's education level (Bower et al. 2020a). Schmitt et al. (2018) similarly found greater benefits of a block play intervention on numeracy for 3-to 5-year-olds from low SES families (determined using the parent's education level). These arguments are further supported by evidence from the wider spatial literature, where it has been found that spatial skills partially mediate SES-based differences in mathematics performance in children (Johnson et al. 2022; SES determined using household income and free school meal status of child's school). ...
Research shows that children’s block construction skills are positively associated with their concurrent and later mathematics performance. Furthermore, there is evidence that block construction training is particularly beneficial for improving early mathematics skills in children from low-Socio Economic Status (SES) groups who are known to have lower maths performance than their peers. The current study investigates (a) the association between block construction and mathematics in children just before the start of formal schooling (4 years-of-age in the UK) and (b) whether the association between block construction and mathematics differs between children from more compared to less affluent families. Participants in this study included 116 children (M = 3 years 11 months, SD = 3 months) who all completed numeracy, block construction, and receptive vocabulary tasks. Socio-economic status and demographic information (child age, gender, ethnicity) were also obtained from parents. Findings show a strong positive association between block construction and early numeracy skills. Block construction skills explained approximately 5% of the variation in numeracy, even after controlling for age in months, household income, and child receptive vocabulary. When separated by SES group, for children from less affluent families, block construction explained a significant amount of variability (14.5%) in numeracy performance after covariates. For children from more affluent families, block construction did not explain a significant amount of variation in numeracy. These findings suggest that, interventions involving block construction skills may help to reduce SES-based attainment gaps in UK children’s mathematics achievement.
... For example, in one classroom-based intervention with 5-to 7-year-olds, training, which targeted intrinsic skills using materials such as multi-link cubes and magnetic shapes, was found to be effective at improving both spatial and mathematics ability (Hawes et al., 2017). Block building and puzzle training in pre-school children has also been shown to be effective (Schmitt et al., 2018) and appears to be particularly beneficial for pre-school children from disadvantaged backgrounds Schmitt et al., 2018) and thus might go some way to closing attainment gaps when children start school. ...
... For example, in one classroom-based intervention with 5-to 7-year-olds, training, which targeted intrinsic skills using materials such as multi-link cubes and magnetic shapes, was found to be effective at improving both spatial and mathematics ability (Hawes et al., 2017). Block building and puzzle training in pre-school children has also been shown to be effective (Schmitt et al., 2018) and appears to be particularly beneficial for pre-school children from disadvantaged backgrounds Schmitt et al., 2018) and thus might go some way to closing attainment gaps when children start school. ...
... Conversely, the spatial reasoning literature has primarily focused on intrinsic skills. This has demonstrated that the development of intrinsic skills from at least age 3 years is particularly important for later spatial reasoning ability and mathematics (Atit et al., 2021;Hawes et al., 2022;Schmitt et al., 2018), yet there is very little knowledge of the relationship between extrinsic spatial skills and mathematics in young children. This difference in the balance of practitioner definitions versus research focus demonstrates a specific gap between research and practitioner knowledge where better translation of research findings into practice is clearly needed. ...
Background:
There is a growing evidence base for the importance of spatial reasoning for the development of mathematics. However, the extent to which this translates into practice is unknown.
Aims:
We aimed to understand practitioners' perspectives on their understanding of spatial reasoning, the extent to which they recognize and implement spatial activities in their practice, and the barriers and opportunities to support spatial reasoning in the practice setting.
Sample:
Study 1 (questionnaire) included 94 participants and Study 2 (focus groups) consisted of nine participants. Participants were educational practitioners working with children from birth to 7 years.
Methods:
The study was mixed methods and included a questionnaire (Study 1) and a series of focus groups (Study 2).
Results:
We found that whilst practitioners engage in a variety of activities that support spatial reasoning, most practitioners reported little confidence in their understanding of what spatial reasoning is.
Conclusion:
Informative and accessible resources are needed to broaden understanding of the definition of spatial reasoning and to outline opportunities to support spatial reasoning.
... For example, in one classroom-based intervention with 5-to 7-year-olds, training, which targeted intrinsic skills using materials such as multi-link cubes and magnetic shapes, was found to be effective at improving both spatial and mathematics ability (Hawes et al., 2017). Block building and puzzle training in pre-school children has also been shown to be effective (Schmitt et al., 2018) and appears to be particularly beneficial for pre-school children from disadvantaged backgrounds Schmitt et al., 2018) and thus might go some way to closing attainment gaps when children start school. ...
... For example, in one classroom-based intervention with 5-to 7-year-olds, training, which targeted intrinsic skills using materials such as multi-link cubes and magnetic shapes, was found to be effective at improving both spatial and mathematics ability (Hawes et al., 2017). Block building and puzzle training in pre-school children has also been shown to be effective (Schmitt et al., 2018) and appears to be particularly beneficial for pre-school children from disadvantaged backgrounds Schmitt et al., 2018) and thus might go some way to closing attainment gaps when children start school. ...
... Conversely, the spatial reasoning literature has primarily focused on intrinsic skills. This has demonstrated that the development of intrinsic skills from at least age 3 years is particularly important for later spatial reasoning ability and mathematics (Atit et al., 2021;Hawes et al., 2022;Schmitt et al., 2018), yet there is very little knowledge of the relationship between extrinsic spatial skills and mathematics in young children. This difference in the balance of practitioner definitions versus research focus demonstrates a specific gap between research and practitioner knowledge where better translation of research findings into practice is clearly needed. ...
Studies show that spatial interventions lead to improvements in mathematics. However, outcomes vary based on whether physical manipulatives (embodied action) are used during training. This study compares the effects of embodied and non-embodied spatial interventions on spatial and mathematics outcomes. The study has a randomised, controlled, pre-post, follow-up, training design (N=182; mean age 8years; 49%female; 83.5% White). We show that both embodied and non-embodied spatial training approaches improve spatial skills compared to control. However, we conclude that embodied spatial training using physical manipulatives leads to larger, more consistent gains in mathematics and greater depth of spatial processing than non-embodied training. These findings highlight the potential of spatial activities, particularly those that use physical materials, for improving children’s mathematics skills.
... It allows children to build spatially and represent ideas with wooden blocks to create artefacts and products. Prior research indicated F I G U R E 1 Matatalab coding set | 5 ROBOT PROGRAMMING VERSUS BLOCK PLAY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION the use of block play could effectively promote children's multiple concepts and skills such as math thinking and even CT (Schmitt et al., 2018;Trawick-Smith et al., 2017), and executive functioning such as self-regulation, flexible thinking and planning (Hanline et al., 2010). Moreover, block play aids children in developing language skills (Cohen & Uhry, 2007), creativity and imagination (Cohen & Emmons, 2017;Robbins et al., 2011), physical development and social development (Wellhousen & Kieff, 2001). ...
... 174) and understand concepts of space and physical properties of objects (Wolfgang et al., 2001). First, block play facilitated students to learn numeracy which includes counting, comparison, and operations (Schmitt et al., 2018). Second, researchers investigated how young children learn mathematical thinking to categorize geometric shapes, sequencing, compose a larger shape with smaller shapes and transform shapes when playing with wooden blocks (Park et al., 2008;Sarama & Clements, 2009). ...
... Second, researchers investigated how young children learn mathematical thinking to categorize geometric shapes, sequencing, compose a larger shape with smaller shapes and transform shapes when playing with wooden blocks (Park et al., 2008;Sarama & Clements, 2009). Third, block play could support children's CT to solve problems (Newman et al., 2021) and mathematical language development to express quantitative and spatial words (Schmitt et al., 2018). Although few researchers used block play to facilitate students to apply CT skills and practices, some researchers mentioned the potential of transferring the mathematical skills to CT abilities such as decomposing blocks, pattern recognition, step-by-step instruction and abstractions (Soleimani et al., 2016). ...
Programmable robotics is recently used in early childhood education (ECE) to introduce programming and computational thinking (CT) skills. However, there is a further need for research to contrast the efficacy of children's participation in robot programming and traditionally beneficial ECE activities. The present study thus investigated the effects of a robot programming intervention versus a block play program on kindergarteners' CT, sequencing ability, and self‐regulation. The experiment (robot programming) versus comparison (block play) condition was randomly assigned to four kindergarten classes, which included 101 kindergarteners ( M = 64.78 months, SD = 7.64). Statistical analyses revealed that the robot programming group ( N = 54) had experienced greater gains over time in sequencing ability relative to those in the block play group ( N = 47; F = 5.09, p < 0.05). Children in the robot programming group with lower level of self‐regulation at baseline showed larger improvements in sequencing ability over time relative to the block play group ( F = 2.37, p = 0.01). Also, children in the robot programming group with older age showed larger improvements in CT over time relative to the block play group ( F = 2.40, p < 0.01). The study demonstrates the positive benefits of robot programming to early childhood development in terms of CT and sequencing ability, compared to a traditional curriculum activity in ECE—block play.
Practitioner notes
What is already known about this topic Screen‐free robot programming can enhance preschool children's computational thinking (CT).
Block play can enhance preschool children's mathematics and executive functioning.
Both robot programming and block play are engaging for preschool children.
What this paper adds An unplugged CT assessment is used to measure and compare the effects of both robot programming and block play interventions among preschool children.
Robot programming outperforms block play in promoting children's school readiness skills such as sequencing ability.
Children with lower self‐regulation skills benefited more from the robot programming intervention.
Implications for practice and/or policy Robot programming and CT education should be expanded in diverse early childhood settings to boost the positive effects.
Technology‐enhanced curricula should be integrated into early childhood education.
Teachers should receive training on robot programming in addition to more traditional skills such as scaffolding children's block play.
... Al respecto, Fletcher y Reese (2005), en concordancia con Sonnenschein y Munsterman (2002), encontraron que la capacidad de respuesta de la madre a su bebé durante el juego predice positivamente capacidades y habilidades cognitivas (resolución de problemas, conocimientos y memoria). El niño fortalece su desarrollo cognitivo mediante la actividad lúdica; por ello, es preciso señalar la relación entre el juego y el desarrollo de habilidades matemáticas, así como de las comunicativas (Orr, 2021;Schmitt et al., 2018). ...
... Los resultados de este estudio son coherentes y similares con los hallazgos en la temática que sugieren que el niño fortalece su desarrollo cognitivo mediante la actividad lúdica. En especial, en la relación entre el juego y el desarrollo de habilidades comunicativas y matemáticas (Orr, 2021;Schmitt et al., 2018). Se obtiene, por tanto, una relación positiva entre el tipo de juego psicomotor y las nociones numéricas a los 5 años; sin embargo, no existe una asociación signi#cativa entre el juego natural y el juego simbólico con las competencias cognitivas. ...
(analítico)Este estudio cuantitativo tiene por objetivo analizar la relación entre el juego padres-hijos (entre los seis a dieciocho meses de edad) con el desarrollo cognitivo y socioemocional. Para la recolección de la información se aplicó el cuestionario del hogar a una muestra de 2052 niños; este incluye actividades y frecuencia de juego entre los seis y dieciocho meses. El desarrollo cognitivo se evaluó mediante pruebas de vocabulario y matemáticas, mientras el desarrollo socioemocional por medio de las escalas de agencia, orgullo, autoeficacia y autoestima a los cinco, ocho, doce y quince años. Los resultados muestran mayor significancia en el desarrollo cognitivo y socioemocional en el juego con ambos padres y con frecuencia diaria. Se concluye que el juego diario entre padres e hijos promueve el desarrollo cognitivo y socioemocional. Palabras clave: Juego; desarrollo cognitivo; desarrollo afectivo; relación padres-niño; desarrollo social.
... Although studies on the impact of block construction training on spatial skills are limited, there are more studies investigating the impact of block construction training on mathematical outcomes. Evidence is mixed, with some finding support for an effect of structured block construction of mathematical outcomes (Hawes et al., 2017;Newman et al., 2020;Pirrone et al., 2018) and others finding no evidence of an effect (Lindh & Holgersson, 2007;Schmitt et al., 2018). ...
... (as opposed to both high and low) level of mathematics pre-training showed improvements on mathematics following the training. Again, although showing no overall effect, Schmitt et al. (2018) found that children with low parental education level did show improvements on numeracy. However, without a theoretical backing for splitting the sample, and without replication, these results should be interpreted with caution. ...
Lego construction ability is associated with a variety of spatial skills and mathematical outcomes. However, it is unknown whether these relations are causal. We aimed to establish the causal impact of Lego construction training on: Lego construction ability; a broad range of spatial skills; and on mathematical outcomes in 7-9-year-olds. We also aimed to identify how this causal impact differs for digital versus physical Lego construction training. One-hundred and ninety-eight children took part in a six-week training programme, delivered twice weekly as a school lunch time club. They completed either physical Lego training (N = 59), digital Lego training (N = 64), or an active control condition (crafts; N = 75). All children completed baseline and follow-up measures of spatial skills (disembedding, visuo-spatial working memory, spatial scaling, mental rotation, and performance on a spatial-numerical task, the number line task), mathematical outcomes (geometry, arithmetic, and overall mathematical skills) and Lego construction ability. Exploratory analyses revealed evidence for near transfer (Lego construction ability) and some evidence for far transfer (arithmetic) of Lego training, but overall transfer was limited. Despite this, we identified key areas for further development (explicit focus on spatial strategies, training for teachers, and embedding the programme within a mathematical context). The findings of this study can be used to inform future development of Lego construction training programmes to support mathematics learning.
... kan bahwa permainan balok dapat membantu anak dalam mengembangkan imajinasi, keterampilan manipulasi, pengalaman kreatif, dan dramatik (Dodge. D. T. et al, 2002;Pankratz, 2015); meningkatkan kemampuan numerikal (Bojorque. G. et al, 2018); meningkatkan kemampuan matematik yakni berhitung, mengenal bentuk, dan bahasa matematika (Pirrone et al., 2018;Schmitt. S. A. et al, 2018). Studi lain dari (Hanline et al., 2010) menyatakan adanya hubungan yang erat antara bermain balok para anak prasekolah dengan kemampuan membaca dan matematika. Casey, (Casey. B. M. et al, 2008) mengungkap bahwa kegiatan permainan balok membangun dapat meningkatkan perkembangan keterampilan spasial. Permainan balok juga secara natural ba ...
... tugas-tugas perkembangan anak usia dini. Permainan balok selain banyak digemari anak juga memberi manfaat luas terhadap perkembangan seperti pengalaman kreatif, imajinasi, dramatik, numerikal, berhitung, membaca, kemampuan bereksperimen, keterampilan tentang teknik (Bojorque. G. et al, 2018;Cohen & Emmons, 2017;Hanline et al., 2010;Pankratz, 2015;Schmitt. S. A. et al, 2018;Simoncini et al., 2020). Menurut Piaget, dalam (Morrison G. S, 2012), kemampuan berpikir anak usia dini berada dalam tahap berpikir pra-operasional, sehingga untuk kegiatan-kegiatan yang berkaitan dengan berpikir abstrak membutuhkan bimbingan orang dewasa. Permainan balok membangun termasuk salah satu kegiatan bermain yang memacu imajina ...
Salah satu cara mengembangkan kreativitas anak usia dini melalui permainan konstruktif (balok). Indonesia masih jarang dikembangkan teknik permainan balok. Beberapa teknik dari luar sulit diaplikasikan guru PAUD di Indonesia. Model Pengembangan Kreativitas Permainan Konstruktif (PKPK) dikembangkan tahun 2008 dan direkonstruksi 2019 pada skenario dan tahapan disesuaikan jenis balok untuk mempermudah guru dan telah diuji efektivitasnya. Penelitian menguji apakah pelatihan model PKPK berkontribusi dalam meningkatkan keterampilan guru membimbing siswa bermain. Penelitian menggunakan pre-experimental dengan one-group pretest-posttest design. Alat pengumpul data menggunakan observasi dan ceklis. Analisis data menggunakan statistik deskriptif. Temuan penelitian menunjukkan pelatihan berkontribusi meningkatkan keterampilan guru dalam: (a) menguasai prosedur, skenario, tahapan bermain; (b) melaksanakan kegiatan bimbingan bermain secara menarik dan menyenangkan; (c) kemudahan menggunakan alat main dan pengaturan waktu, (d) kemampuan menilai siswa. Peningkatan tersebut diikuti partisipasi siswa dan efektivitas bermain. Hasil penelitian berimplikasi bagi guru untuk mengikuti pelatihan sebelum mengaplikasikan model PKPK di lembaga PAUD.
... These findings suggest dramatic play facilitates numerate skills and offers a valid context for the establishment of numerate behaviors. In a randomized controlled trial, greater gains in math skills-such as numeracy, shape recognition, and mathematical language-were noted among children who engaged in semistructured block play in a treatment group to enhance math learning compared to the control group (Schmitt et al. 2018). On the other hand, Elliot and Bachman (2018) suggest that numeracy may be best promoted through more formal than informal math activities with children at home. ...
The authors examine the relationships between home play and learning—
measured by reading and teaching practices at home—among low-income
families, including those with mental health issues. Based on a large database
from the Family Map Inventory, a screening tool for home visiting programs,
the authors’ findings revealed that play-related concerns such as play materials,
home play, and the variety of play away from home had significant
impact. They conclude that care givers who provide children with more
play opportunities both at home and away from home tend to read books
with children more frequently and to teach them more basic academic skills.
This suggests that early play interactions can contribute to early learning
and implies that intervention programs such as Early Head Start and homevisiting
programs focusing on play may boost a family’s resilience and add
value to existing services. Key words: infant and toddler play; learning and
play; mental health and play; play in low-income families
... Alternatively, dialogic story book reading promoting the use of spatial terms might be a fruitful avenue, since a similar intervention focussing on mathematical language not only increased the latter but also general mathematical knowledge in 3-to 5-year-old children [69]. A final possibility is the use of semi-guided block play, since guided interactions with blocks were shown to not only naturally increase the use of spatial language in young children [144], but also positively affect numeracy skills in preschool [145]. ...
Recent evidence suggests that spatial language in preschool positively affects the development of verbal number skills, as indexed by aggregated performances on counting and number naming tasks. We firstly aimed to specify whether spatial language (the knowledge of locative prepositions) significantly relates to both of these measures. In addition, we assessed whether the predictive value of spatial language extends beyond verbal number skills to numerical subdomains without explicit verbal component, such as number writing, symbolic magnitude classifications, ordinal judgments and numerosity comparisons. To determine the unique contributions of spatial language to these numerical skills, we controlled in our regression analyses for intrinsic and extrinsic spatial abilities, phonological awareness as well as age, socioeconomic status and home language. With respect to verbal number skills, it appeared that spatial language uniquely predicted forward and backward counting but not number naming, which was significantly affected only by phonological awareness. Regarding numerical tasks that do not contain explicit verbal components, spatial language did not relate to number writing or numerosity comparisons. Conversely, it explained unique variance in symbolic magnitude classifications and was the only predictor of ordinal judgments. These findings thus highlight the importance of spatial language for early numerical development beyond verbal number skills and suggest that the knowledge of spatial terms is especially relevant for processing cardinal and ordinal relations between symbolic numbers. Promoting spatial language in preschool might thus be an interesting avenue for fostering the acquisition of these symbolic numerical skills prior to formal schooling.
... Finally, a playful but intentional teaching approach is more effective in promoting math learning than laissez-fair approaches or teaching based only on "teachable moments" [55,89,[101][102][103], including in free play contexts, such as the block center [88,104]. This is especially true for children with disabilities [105]. ...
The increasing interest in early childhood mathematics education for decades has increased the need for empirically supported pedagogical strategies. However, there is little agreement on how early math might best be taught. We draw from the empirical literature to paint a picture of research-based and research-validated pedagogical approaches and strategies for teaching early math. Most approaches share core characteristics, including concern for children's interests and engagement and for working on content matched to children's level of thinking. Learning trajectories are an especially useful organizing structure because they combine and integrate educational goals, development of children's thinking, and empirically supported pedagogical strategies. Therefore, they help teachers interpret what the child is doing, thinking, and constructing, and offer instructional activities that extend children's mathematical thinking. Simultaneously, teachers can see instructional strategies from the child's perspective, offering meaningful and joyful opportunities to engage in learning. There has been increasing interest in early childhood mathematics education for decades. However, there is less agreement on how early math might best be taught. Here we draw from the empirical literature to paint a picture of what research tells us about ped-agogical approaches and strategies for teaching early math. These include understanding learning trajectories, formative assessment, small-group instruction, rich math discussions, strong examples and non-examples, and ensuring children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds are represented in classrooms, curricula, and all educational experiences [1].
... They can bring in additional loose parts to represent characters, objects, or settings, enhancing the depth and breadth of their imaginative play. An active play partner in pretend or symbolic play can benefit young children's LPP, resulting in longer and more complex play episodes than when they play alone (Balfanz et al. 2003;Ramani and Eason 2015;Schmitt et al. 2018). Children frequently involve others in their play in early learning environments. ...
Play is an integrative process, and the skills acquired in it-overcoming impulses, behavior control, exploration and discovery, problem-solving, reasoning, drawing conclusions, and attention to processes and outcomes are foundational cognitive structures that drive learning and motivation. Loose parts play is a prominent form of play that many scholars and educators explicitly endorse for cognitive development (e.g., divergent thinking, problem-solving). It is unique among play types because children can combine different play types and natural or manufactured materials in one occurrence. While educators and policymakers promote the benefits of loose parts play, no previous research has explored the direct relationship between preschool-age children's indoor loose parts play experiences and cognitive development. We address this gap by bringing together the relevant literature and synthesizing the empirical studies on common play types with loose parts, namely object and exploratory, symbolic and pretend, and constructive play. We also focus on studies that examine children's experiences through loose parts, highlighting the impact of different play types on learning through the reinforcement of cognitive skills, such as executive function , cognitive self-regulation, reasoning, and problem-solving. By examining the existing literature and synthesizing empirical evidence, we aim to deepen our understanding of the relationship between children's play with loose parts and its impact on cognitive development. Ultimately, pointing out the gaps in the literature that would add to the body of knowledge surrounding the benefits of play for cognitive development and inform educators, policymakers, and researchers about the significance of incorporating loose parts play into early childhood education.
... Guided play was more beneficial than free play in promoting spatial vocabulary (g = 0.93 SD). Further experimental and quasi-experimental research indicates the benefits of guided play for early literacy skills (Cavanaugh et al., 2017), vocabulary (Han et al., 2010;Toub et al., 2018), early math skills (Bustamante et al., 2022;Eason & Ramani, 2020), the use of spatial terms (Borriello & Liben, 2018), knowledge of shapes (Fisher et al., 2013), social skills (Li et al., 2016), and executive function skills (Schmitt et al., 2018). ...
A growing body of evidence from the science of learning demonstrates the educational effectiveness of active, playful learning. Connections are emerging between this pedagogy and the broad set of skills that it promotes in learners, but potential mechanisms behind these relations remain unexplored. This paper offers a commentary based on the science of learning and interest development literature, suggesting that interest may mediate the relation between active, playful learning and student outcomes. This theory is established by identifying principles of active, playful learning that predict interest development and associations between learner interest and key skills for success in the classroom and beyond. Future research should investigate the dynamic relation between active, playful learning, interest, and student achievement over time and across phases of interest while taking a broader set of student outcomes into account.
... However, it remains unclear whether teachers' overall instructional quality or specific dimensions of instructional quality are associated with children's cognitive or self-related aspects. Nevertheless, studies have indicated that structured interventions with building blocks and geometric shapes can enhance children's stability knowledge (e.g., A. M. [Author] et al., 2020;Pine & Messer, 2003), spatial knowledge (Ferrara et al., 2011) and math knowledge (Fisher et al., 2013;Schmitt et al., 2018). ...
... The lockdowns would have restricted access to the materials usually provided in physical preschool classrooms needed for the children to develop their visual-spatial abilities. As it has been suggested that guided block play could enhance preschool children's mathematical skills [61], the lower BDT performance, as a measure of visuospatial abilities, would predict lower mathematical achievements and later quantitative ability [30,31]. Thus, children without sufficient education access during the COVID-19 lockdown period might have poor learning outcomes [51,62], worsening their visuospatial ability development. ...
The COVID-19 outbreak has led to the closure of educational institutions, which may prevent children from attaining skills essential for learning, such as visual–motor integration (VMI) and visuospatial constructional ability (often reflected with the Block Design Test, BDT). This study compares VMI and BDT performance between a pre-pandemic cohort (children who attended preschool in late 2019) and a post-pandemic cohort (those physically attending preschool for the first time at the end of 2021). Participants were children attending government preschools with similar syllabi catered for low-income families. The pre-pandemic cohort was part of an earlier study (n = 202 for VMI and n = 220 for BDT) before lockdowns commenced in March 2020. The post-pandemic cohort comprised 197 children who completed the Beery-VMI and 93 children who completed the BDT. Compared to the pre-pandemic cohort, the post-pandemic cohort had significantly lower mean Beery-VMI scores (t(397) = 3.054, p = 0.002) and was 3.162-times more likely to have a below average Beery-VMI score (OR = 3.162 (95% CI 1.349, 7.411)). The post-pandemic cohort also had significantly lower BDT scores than the pre-pandemic cohort (t(311) = −5.866, p < 0.001). In conclusion, children with disrupted conventional preschool education due to the COVID-19 lockdowns were more likely to have below-average VMI and lower BDT scores.
... Lego building recruits block construction ability, an ability that involves assembling objects, such as Lego or other similar block materials, to create a structure or model. There is robust evidence that block construction ability is positively related to mathematics outcomes from concurrent studies (e.g., Nath & Szücs, 2014;Richardson et al., 2014;, longitudinal investigations (e.g., Verdine, Irwin, et al., 2014;Wolfgang et al., 2003), and from intervention studies (e.g., Hawes et al., 2017;Newman et al., 2021;Schmitt et al., 2018). Despite this, there is little knowledge of the underlying mechanisms which support this association. ...
There is a known association between LEGO® construction ability and mathematics achievement, yet the mechanisms which drive this association are largely unknown. This study investigated the spatial mechanisms underlying this association, and whether this differs for concrete versus digital construction. Between January 2020 and July 2021, children aged 7–9 years (N = 358, 189 female, ethnicity not recorded) completed spatial and mathematics tasks, and either a concrete or digital Lego construction task. Mediation analyses examining direct and indirect pathways (through spatial skills) between Lego construction ability and mathematics explained 8.4% to 26.6% of variance in mathematics scores. Exploratory moderated mediation analyses revealed that only the indirect path through mental rotation differed between Lego conditions. Findings are discussed in relation to theories of spatial-numerical associations and the potential of Lego training for mathematics improvement.
... A growing body of research offers evidence for a guided or active playful pedagogical approach (Alfieri et al., 2011;Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2022;Skene et al., 2022). Benefits of guided play, compared to traditional direct instruction, have been found across subject areas, including mathematics (Fisher et al., 2013) literacy (Han et al., 2010;Toub et al., 2018), and executive functioning skills (Schmitt et al., 2018;see, Zosh Hassinger-Das, et al., 2022, for a review). Guided play is also superior to free play if there is a curricular goal in mind (K. ...
Research from the interdisciplinary science of learning indicates that children learn best when they are actively engaged in learning that is meaningful, socially interactive, iterative, and joyful. These principles coalesce in active playful learning, especially guided play. This active, playful pedagogy enhances learning through intentional instruction that activates students’ autonomy and intrinsic motivation while teachers guide them towards a learning goal. In this paper, we provide a framework for facilitating guided play through a three-part equation of incorporation of cultural values, the science of how children learn, and the science of what children need to learn to thrive in school and beyond. A summary of the research supporting the efficacy of this approach is provided, as are recommendations for how to implement the equation through guided play in our schools.
... Moreover, several studies noted that children with the lowest baselines gained most from the intervention (e.g. Gerholm et al., 2019;Romero-Lopez et al., 2020;Schmitt et al., 2018;Tominey & McClelland, 2011), paralleling previous findings (Blair & Raver, 2014;Diamond & Ling, 2016). Still other studies noted better outcomes for boys (Kats Gold et al., 2020;Williams & Berthelsen, 2019), for children from higher income families (Thibodeau-Nielsen et al., 2020), or for English Language Learners (Schmitt et al., 2015). ...
This systematic literature review sought to reconcile the evidence of efficacy for interventions and approaches to enhancing self-regulation and/or executive function in preschool settings. Following PRISMA methodology, a comprehensive search of 20 years of intervention research identified 85 studies that met inclusion criteria. Interventions were categorised by intervention approach and coded for their characteristics (e.g. sample size, dose, duration, interventionist, intervention activities), outcomes (e.g. significance, size of effects) and study quality (i.e. risk of bias). Reconciliation of intervention results indicated (1) within intervention approaches, some approaches had more consistent and robust evidence of efficacy (e.g. mindfulness, mediated play, physical activity) and (2) across intervention approaches, characteristics that had greater (or exclusive) presence amongst the higher efficacy interventions (e.g. cognitive challenge, movement, as well as interventionist, fidelity and dose considerations). Implications for future intervention (re)design, and for theorising about mechanisms of self-regulation and executive function change, are discussed.
... From the perspective of construction, Pilger analyzed that building block games in primary schools, preschools, and kindergartens play an important role in social cognition, logical mathematics, and physical health of children. Schmitt et al. (2018) found that building block games can effectively alleviate the symptoms of children with ADHD and contribute to the development of their mental health. Compared with traditional game intervention, theme building block games are popular among children, particularly preschool children. ...
Background:
Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are mainly characterized by learning difficulties, emotional impulsion, excessive activity, and distracted attention, which have a certain impact on their social ability, physical and mental health, and their living ability. This study aims to explore the effects of theme building block games on the psychological behaviors of children with ADHD, and to provide some reference for promoting the mental health development of children with ADHD.
Subjects and methods:
A total of 180 children with ADHD in Healthcare Center for Children from January 2020 to June 2021 were selected via convenient sampling. They were randomly divided into control (n=90) and observation (n=90) groups. Children in the control and observation groups received routine and theme building block games, respectively, once a week and a total of 8 weeks of building block game interventions. Improvement of symptoms, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), Achenback Child Behavior Scale List (CBLC), Child Sensory Integration Development Scale, and Piers-Harris Child Self-concept Scale (PHCSS) of two groups were compared before and after intervention.
Results:
After intervention, children in the two groups showed lower T scores in P and N, and higher T scores in E and L of EPQ; T scores of children in the observation group improved more significantly. Children (boys) in the two groups showed lower scores in discipline violation, hostility, compulsion, immaturity, poor communication, schizophrenia-like, and physical complaints in CBCL. Moreover, those in the observation group obtained significantly lower scores in CBCL than those in the control group. Children (girls) in the two groups showed lower scores in cruelty, aggressiveness, immaturity, depression withdrawal, schizophrenia-like, somatic complaints, and anxiety compulsion in CBCL. Meanwhile, those in the observation group obtained significantly lower scores in CBCL than those in the control group. After intervention, scores of children in the two groups in symptom improvement, sensory integration ability, and PHCSS were significantly improved. Lastly, those in the observation group obtained higher scores in these aspects compared with those in the control group.
Conclusions:
The theme building block game can effectively improve symptoms of children with ADHD and also help promote their sensory integration ability, self-concept, and personality development, as well as improve their psychological and behavioral status. Accordingly, this rehabilitation intervention method is worthy of promotion, which can be recognized and accepted easily.
... Third, training studies showed that the training of spatial processing ability can promote mathematical problem-solving (e.g., Cheng & Mix, 2013;Lowrie et al., 2017;Schmitt et al., 2018). For example, one study showed that training students to improve mental rotation and spatial visualisation in first-and sixth-grade students led to significant enhancement in mathematics scores (Cheng & Mix, 2013). ...
Students' ability to solve mathematical problems is a standard mathematical skill; however, its cognitive correlates are unclear. Thus, this study aimed to examine whether spatial processing (mental rotation, paper folding, and the Corsi blocks test) and logical reasoning (abstract and concrete syllogisms) were correlated with mathematical problem-solving (word problems and geometric proofing) for college students. The regression results showed that after controlling for gender, age, general IQ, language processing, cognitive processing (visual perception, attention, and memory skills), and number sense and arithmetic computation skills, spatial processing skills still predicted mathematical problem-solving and geometry skills in Chinese college students. Contrastingly, logical reasoning measures related to syllogisms did not predict after controlling for these variables. Further, notably, it did not correlate significantly with geometry performance when no control variables were included. Our results suggest that spatial processing is a significant component of math skills involving word and geometry problems (even after controlling for multiple key cognitive factors).
... Although these ideas about families are not specific to engineering or STEM, we believe -program participant the engineering design process and using engineering thinking skills (Gold et al., 2020;Schmitt et al., 2018). In our work, we have seen that as families develop a broader sense of what engineering is-more than building bridges but a process for solving problemsthey begin to connect it with many of the things they are doing every day, from fixing a broken piece of furniture to planning the morning routine for getting their children to school . ...
For decades, scholars across a variety of fields have been calling for a re-examination of the ways we address inequities in STEM education.
Over the last year, we have been able to take a few hours each week to step back from our current work, reflect on our assumptions, learn from others, and explore new ways that our research could both uncover and help dismantle inequities and racism in the STEM education system. This eBook, and the series of blog posts on which it is based, is the result of these conversations and this reflective process. Our goal is to explore the themes and ideas that emerged from the year and how these might fundamentally change the way we think about STEM, work with families and children, and conduct research. We also hope this resource will serve as a catalyst for ongoing discussions within and beyond the STEM education research community. In the following chapters, we reflect on a variety of topics, including approaches to collaborating with families, asset-based perspectives on STEM education, and equity- based strategies for engaging families with engineering. While our reflections focus on engineering education and our work with families, we believe the themes that emerged for us over the last year have implications across STEM domains and learning contexts.
... In addition to full programs, there is some evidence that short preschool interventions can benefit children's EF skills. A "block play" intervention (Schmitt et al., 2018) improved children's EF skills, shown by improvements on the HTKS and DCCS assessments. Further, a study on a "red light/purple light" game (Tominey & McClelland, 2011), which measured children's EF skills through HTKS, has also been shown to improve children's EF skills. ...
Many of the skills children need to be successful in school are related to executive functioning (EF) skills. There is evidence that preschoolers’ EF skills, including their working memory, attention shifting, inhibition, and emotional regulation, help them to develop the academic and social-emotional skills required for success in school. Given how critically important these skills are, it is somewhat surprising that EF skills are not typically assessed in early education settings. Despite the absence of EF assessments in early childhood classrooms, there are a number of developmentally appropriate assessments that measure young children’s EF skills. This chapter focuses on the various methods used to assess EF skills in early childhood education settings. First, this chapter reviews the literature on EF skills in preschool-age children. Next, assessments that are appropriate for measuring EF skills in young children are described. Then, several evidence-based interventions that incorporate assessment of EF skills into the preschool program are discussed. The chapter concludes with recommendations for implementing EF assessments in early childhood education settings and future directions for research related to early assessment of EF skills.KeywordsExecutive functionEarly educationEarly interventionPreschoolAssessment
... Students from many countries, including the UK and US, show relative weaknesses in shape and space domains on international assessments of mathematics (e.g., PISA and TIMMS) compared to other mathematics sub-domains 16 suggesting that spatial instruction should be increased rather than eliminated. The impact of weak or non-existent spatial instruction is further pronounced when one considers preliminary evidence that the associations between spatial skill and mathematics may be particularly strong in children from lower socio-economic status (SES) backgrounds 17 and that spatial instruction may be particularly effective for improving mathematics for pre-schoolers from lower SES families 18,19 . These findings may reflect lower starting points in spatial skill for children from lower SES families compared to their higher SES peers, which may be attributable to reduced access to spatial toys and resources, or lower quality of spatial play for children from lower SES groups. ...
It is well established that spatial thinking is central to discovery, learning, and communication in mathematics, as indicated by convincing evidence that those with strong spatial skills also demonstrate advantages for Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) performance. Yet, spatial thinking—the ability recall, generate, manipulate, and reason about spatial relations—is often absent from modern mathematics curricula. In this commentary, we outline evidence from our recent meta-analysis, demonstrating a causal role of spatial thinking on mathematics. We subsequently discuss the implications of educational policy decisions made across different countries, regarding the prioritization of spatial reasoning in the classroom. Given the increasing global demand for highly qualified STEM graduates, and evidence that spatial skills promote improvements in STEM outcomes, we argue that it is remiss to continue to ignore spatial skill development as a component of educational policy.
... Other research studies focused on how experiences with constructive play, such as play with LEGO, during the early years enhance their cognitive processes necessary for performing better with abstract mathematical content, such as geometry (Wolfgang, Stannard, & Jones, 2003). Also, specific structured block play interventions have been proven to support children's cognitive processes (e.g., cognitive flexibility, executive functioning) thus supporting their school readiness (Schmitt, Korucu, Napoli, Bryant, & Purpura, 2018). ...
... For instance, the findings highlight the potential importance of spatial skills training in preschool mathematical education. Home and preschool learning activities such as block building (Schmitt, Korucu, Napoli, Bryant, & Purpura, 2018) and spatial talk (Pruden, Levine, & Huttenlocher, 2011) that facilitate the development of spatial skills should be promoted. In addition, adequate attention should be paid to young children's spatial anxiety. ...
Spatial ability is a strong and stable predictor of mathematical performance. However, of the three key components of spatial ability, spatial perception and spatial visualization have received less attention than mental rotation in relation to specific mathematical competencies of young children. Even less is known about the role of spatial anxiety in this relationship. This study examined the longitudinal relations of spatial perception and spatial visualization to three number skills (i.e., number line estimation, subitizing, and word problem-solving) among 190 preschool children, and whether these relations varied as a function of spatial anxiety. The results showed that children's spatial perception and spatial visualization skills, measured in the third preschool year (Time 1 [T1]), were positively associated with their word problem-solving six months later (Time 2 [T2]). Children's T1 spatial perception was also positively associated with their T2 subitizing and number line skills. In addition, T1 spatial anxiety moderated the relation between T1 spatial perception and T2 subitizing: the relation between the two was stronger for children with low levels of spatial anxiety than it was for those with moderate or high levels. The findings offer valuable insights into how spatial cognition and affect jointly relate to children's early number skills.
... environmental changes and the changing demands they need to shift their attention and effort to meet demands of new tasks, being this capacity linked to the functioning of the CF [43,44]. ...
Described as the ability to begin solving a problem in one way and then to shift to another strategy efficiently according to the new demands, cognitive flexibility (CF) can be associated, like other executive functions (EF), to math performance. However, CF is not yet a systematically reviewed component of EF in relation to math outcomes. As an effort to better understand the data available, a meta-analysis of random effects with 23 studies including children (N=35.355; M age=5,8; 46% male) was conducted, using for search the databases Scopus, Science Direct, PsycARTICLES, SciELO and also lists of references. Results showed that CF and math are related, with a moderate heterogeneity and significant weighted effect size (r=0,35; Q=67,82; p=0,01; I² = 57, 24%). The results of different types of mathematics skills showed similar effects (general math r = 0,35; conceptual math r=0,34; procedural math r=0,33). Correlational and univariate analysis of variance data showed that age negatively impacts the magnitude of the overall correlation between CF and math, indicating that in younger children mathematics performance is more strongly impacted by cognitive flexibility (r=0,40; p=0,05). Thus, the assumption that CF have an important influence on mathematical performance is supported, especially in younger children, which indicates that cognitive assessment of CF in educational settings from early childhood can help guide important actions, as by knowing these underlying skills implicated in math performance interventions can focus on them aiming to improve math skills.
... Other research studies focused on how experiences with constructive play, such as play with LEGO, during the early years enhance their cognitive processes necessary for performing better with abstract mathematical content, such as geometry (Wolfgang, Stannard, & Jones, 2003). Also, specific structured block play interventions have been proven to support children's cognitive processes (e.g., cognitive flexibility, executive functioning) thus supporting their school readiness (Schmitt, Korucu, Napoli, Bryant, & Purpura, 2018). ...
Okul öncesi dönemde temel geometrik şekillerin öğrenilmesi ilk önce şekillerin fark edilmesi ve isimlerinin öğrenilmesi aşamaları ile başlamaktadır. Çocuklar gelişim sürecinde ilerledikçe, şekiller arasındaki benzerlik ve farklılıkları da görebilmektedirler. Çocukların sonraki aşamalarda şekiller arasında ilişki kurabilmeleri ve daha karmaşık geometri işlemlerini yapabilmeleri için, oyun ve somut materyallerle şekilleri öğrenme gereksinimleri vardır. Geometrik şekillerin kazanılmasını destekleyen araçlardan biri geometri tahtasıdır. Bu araştırmada çocukların üçgen, kare ve dikdörtgen şekillerinin farklı türdeki örneklerini (farklı konum, basıklık ve çarpıklık özelliği olan) geometri tahtası üzerinde tanıma ve oluşturma süreçleri incelenmiştir. Anasınıfına devam eden 24 çocuk ile bireysel görüşmeler yapılmıştır. Çocuklar geometri tahtası üzerinde verilen yönergeleri uygularken gözlem yapılmış ve değerlendirme formuna kaydedilen bu gözlem notları betimsel analiz değerlendirilmiştir. Elde edilen bulgulara göre, çocuklar bu şekilleri tanımakta ve özelliklerini açıklarken en çok “kenar-köşe” kavramlarını kullanmaktadır. Tahta üzerinde şekilleri oluştururken bu şekillerin en çok bilinen biçimlerini oluşturma eğiliminde oldukları görülmüştür. Temel geometrik şekilleri ve özelliklerini ezberlemeden, somut bir materyal üzerinde uygulamalı öğrenilmesi için geometri tahtası gibi materyallerin çocuklar için önemli olduğu düşünülmektedir.
Early mathematics skills relate to later mathematics achievement and educational attainment, which in turn predict career choice, income, health and financial decision-making. Critically, large differences exist among children in early mathematics performance, with parental mathematics engagement being a key predictor. However, most prior work has examined mothers' mathematics engagement with their preschool- and school-aged children. In this Registered Report, we tested concurrent associations between mothers' and fathers' engagement in mathematics activities with their 2- to 3-year-old toddlers and children's mathematics performance. Mothers and fathers did not differ in their engagement in mathematics activities, and both parents' mathematics engagement related to toddlers' mathematics skills. Fathers' mathematics engagement was associated with toddlers' number and mathematics language skills, but not their spatial skills. Mothers' mathematics engagement was only associated with toddlers' mathematics language skills. Critically, associations may be domain-specific, as parents' literacy engagement did not relate to measures of mathematics performance above their mathematics engagement. Mothers' and fathers' mathematics activities uniquely relate to toddlers' developing mathematics skills, and future work on the nuances of these associations is needed.
Mounting longitudinal evidence demonstrates that young children's numeracy knowledge before kindergarten determines their mathematics achievement path in primary grades and high school graduation. Mathematics education and children's play do not have to be binary and compete for time in early learning and childcare learning environments. Indeed, researchers demonstrate that play and planned mathematical activities enrich one another and ultimately contribute to children's learning outcomes. Guided play, in which educators combine planned learning experiences with the child-directed nature of play, focuses on learning outcomes through adult scaffolding. This chapter synthesizes research on how play experiences can be an organic but powerful process for scaffolding and elevating young children's mathematical understanding in light of current evidence from early numeracy research. In the conclusion of this chapter, evidence-based recommendations are introduced for facilitating children's developing numerical competencies and activating existing knowledge through guided play.
Spatial skills are fundamental for mentally manipulating objects, visualizing and remembering the locations of objects and their paths, reconstructing patterns, and recognizing locations from a variety of perspectives. Despite their link to children's performance in mathematics and to later success in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) careers, spatial skills are notably absent from most educational curricula. This chapter addresses key questions in the field of spatial development: What do we mean when we talk about spatial skills? How do they develop during early childhood? And why is it important to promote them early in life? This chapter reviews the available evidence for these general questions and discusses the efficacy of playful interventions and educational technology to incorporate spatial learning into homes, preschool classrooms, and community settings.
Bu araştırmanın amacı, "Erken Çocuklukta STEM Öğretmen Eğitimi Programının" erken çocukluk öğretmenlerine yansımalarının incelenmesidir. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, kartopu örnekleme yöntemi ile belirlenen 12 erken çocukluk öğretmeni oluşturmaktadır. Karma deneysel desenin kullanıldığı bu araştırmanın nicel ve nitel olmak üzere iki boyutu bulunmaktadır. Nicel boyutta, öğretmen eğitim programının erken çocukluk öğretmenlerinin STEM eğitimine yönelik tutumları, STEM uygulama öz-yeterlikleri ve öğretimsel inançlarına etkisi yarı deneysel desen türlerinden kesikli-zaman serileri deseni ile, nitel boyutta ise uygulama sürecine ilişkin öğretmenlerin deneyimleri ve bu deneyimlere yönelik algıları fenomonoloji deseni aracılığıyla incelenmiştir. STEM eğitim programı 9 modül, 43 etkinlik ve 22 oturumdan oluşan 12 haftalık bir programdır. Modüller, tanıtım, sunum, etkinlikler, tartışma, eylem planlama ve değerlendirme kısımlarından oluşmaktadır. Her modül erken STEM eğitiminin farklı bir boyutuna odaklanmaktadır. Bu boyutlar arasında STEM eğitimi ile ilgili temel kavramlar, STEM disiplinlerinin içeriği, resimli çocuk kitapları ile STEM, sınıf dışında STEM, kodlama ve robotik uygulamalar, çocuklarla mühendislik uygulamaları, öğrenme merkezlerini düzenleme, aile katılımı ve değerlendirme yer almaktadır. Katılımcılara eğitim programı uygulanmadan önce ön test verileri öz-değerlendirme formu, modül kazanımları öz-değerlendirme formu, öğretmen inançları anketi, STEM eğitimi uygulamaları öz-yeterlik ölçeği, STEM eğitimine yönelik tutum ölçeği, modül değerlendirme formu, gözlemci değerlendirme formu ve yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu aracılığıyla toplanmıştır. Eğitim programının uygulamasının ardından aynı ölçme araçları son test olarak tekrar uygulanmıştır. Ayrıca, eğitim sürecinde öğretmenlerin çocuklar için hazırlamış oldukları STEM etkinlikleri "etkinlik değerlendirme formu" aracılığıyla değerlendirilmiştir. Nicel veriler Wilcoxon işaretli sıralar testi, nitel veriler ise içerek analizi ile çözümlenmiştir. Bulgular; eğitim programının katılımcı öğretmenlerin STEM eğitimine yönelik tutumları, STEM uygulamaları öz-yeterlikleri ve öğretimsel inançları üzerinde olumlu etkileri olduğunu göstermektedir. Araştırmada, öğretmenlerin STEM eğitimine yönelik tutum ölçeği alt boyutlarından anlamlılık ve yapılabilirlik puanlarının ön ve son test ölçümleri arasında, son test ölçümleri lehine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir farklılık olduğu saptanmıştır. Öğretimsel inanç ölçeği alt boyutlarından olan, yapılandırmacı inançlar ve geleneksel inançlar puanlarının ön test ve son test ölçümleri arasında, yapılandırmacı inançlarda son test, geleneksel inançlarda ise ön test lehine, istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir farklılık olduğu belirlenmiştir. Ek olarak, eğitim programının katılımcı öğretmenlerin STEM eğitimine yönelik bakış açılarını etkilediği, içerik, 21. yüzyıl, pedagoji, bağlam ve entegrasyon bilgi ve becerileri ile ilgili kazanımlarını desteklediği, erken çocuklukta STEM eğitiminin önemine yönelik farkındalıklarını artırdığı ve STEM öğretmeni algılarını etkilediği saptanmıştır. Bulgular, STEM öğretmen eğitiminin erken çocukluk öğretmenlerine olumlu yansımaları olduğuna işaret etmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Erken çocuklukta STEM, STEM öğretmen eğitimi, tutum, öz-yeterlik, öğretimsel inanç, STEM deneyimleri.
This study aimed to examine the reflections of the "Early Childhood STEM Teacher Training Program" on early childhood teachers. The participants of the study consisted of 12 pre-school teachers determined by the snowball sampling method. This research, in which a mixed experimental design was used, had quantitative and qualitative dimensions. The quantitative dimension of the study investigated the effects of the teacher training program on the attitudes of early childhood teachers towards STEM education, STEM practices self-efficacy, and instructional beliefs, with the discrete-time series design, which is one of the semi-experimental design types. In the qualitative dimension, the teachers' experiences, and perceptions about these experiences were explored through using phenomenology design. The STEM education program is a 12-week program consisting of 9 modules, 43 activities, and 22 sessions. Modules consisted of a presentation, activities, discussion, action planning, and evaluation sections. Each module focused on a different aspect of early STEM education. These dimensions included the basic concepts of STEM education, the content of STEM disciplines, use of illustrated children's books, STEM outside the classroom, coding and robotic practices, engineering practices with children, organizing learning centers, family participation, and evaluation. Before implementing the training program, pre-test data were collected by using the self-evaluation form, module outcomes self-evaluation form, teacher beliefs questionnaire, STEM education practices self-efficacy scale, attitude scale towards STEM education, module evaluation form, observer evaluation form, and semi-structured interview form. After the implementation of the training program, the same measurement tools were applied again for the purpose of post-test assessment. In addition, the STEM activities prepared by the teachers for children during the education process were evaluated through the "activity evaluation form". Quantitative data were analyzed by employing the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and qualitative data were analyzed by content analysis. Results showed that the curriculum had positive effects on participant teachers' attitudes towards STEM education, STEM practices self-efficacy, and instructional beliefs. In the study, there were statistically and significantly difference between the pre and post-test measures of the meaningfulness and feasibility scores of the teachers' attitude towards STEM education's sub-dimensions. In the study, it was determined that there was a statistically significant difference between the pre and post-test measures of the meaningfulness and feasibility scores of the teachers' attitude towards STEM education's sub-scales. The difference was in favor of the posttest measurements. It was found that there is a statistically significant difference between the pre-test and post-test measures of the scores of constructivist beliefs and traditional beliefs, which are sub-dimensions of the instructional belief scale, in favor of the post-test for constructivist beliefs and the pre-test for traditional beliefs. In addition, it was determined that the training program influenced participant teachers' perspectives on STEM education, supporting their acquisitions of content, 21st century, pedagogy, context and integration knowledge, and skills, increased their awareness of the importance of STEM education in early childhood, and affected their perceptions about STEM teachers. The findings indicate that STEM teacher training had positive reflections on early childhood teachers. Keywords: STEM in early childhood, STEM teacher training, attitude, self-efficacy, instructional beliefs, STEM experiences.
During the international coronavirus lockdowns of 2020–2021, millions of children, youth, and adults found their usual play areas out of bounds and their friends out of reach. How did the pandemic restrict everyday play and how did the pandemic offer new spaces and new content? This unique collection of essays documents the ways in which communities around the world harnessed play within the limiting frame of Covid-19.
Folklorists Anna Beresin and Julia Bishop adopt a multidisciplinary approach to this phenomenon, bringing together the insights of a geographically and demographically diverse range of scholars, practitioners, and community activists. The book begins with a focus on social and physical landscapes before moving onto more intimate portraits of play among the old and young, including coronavirus-themed games and novel toy inventions. Finally, the co-authors explore the creative shifts observed in frames of play, ranging from Zoom screens to street walls.
This singular chronicle of coronavirus play will be of interest to researchers and students of developmental psychology, childhood studies, education, playwork, sociology, anthropology and folklore, as well as to toy, museum, and landscape designers. This book will also be of help to parents, professional organizations, educators, and urban planners, with a postscript of concrete suggestions advocating for the essential role of play in a post-pandemic world.
Parenting skills, such as Autonomy Support (AS), have been proposed as a potential mechanism explaining the intergenerational contiguity of Executive Function (EF). However, few studies have focused on mothers and fathers among non-Western families. The current study investigated the role of maternal and paternal AS in the relation between parental EF and infant EF at 14 months of age among 123 Dutch and 63 Chinese first-time mothers and fathers and their infants. Multiple-group structural equation models were built for mothers and fathers separately with country as a grouping variable. Results showed that parental AS did not mediate the relation between parent EF and infant EF at 14 months. Mean-level differences were found in parental AS, maternal EF, and infant inhibition across countries, while no country differences were found in the relation between parent EF, AS and infant EF. Our findings suggested that individual differences in early EF may not be stable enough to be reliably predicted from parental factors across the Netherlands and China.
Identifying the underpinnings of mathematics proficiency is relevant for all societies. A growing literature supports a relation between executive function (EF) and mathematics across a wide age range, but causal links are not well understood. In the current study, typically developing preschool children (N = 104) were randomly assigned to one of four training conditions: EF, Number, EF + Number, or an active Control. They participated in three brief training sessions and pretest and posttest sessions measuring EF and mathematics skills. EF training improved EF skills on a task similar to the training but did not extend to an untrained EF task. In addition, the EF training improved number skills but not general mathematics skills. The EF + Number training improved number and general mathematics skills but not EF skills. The EF + Number training did not yield significantly greater benefits for EF and mathematics beyond other training conditions. Finally, differential training effects emerged, such that children with lower pretest EF skills had greater EF benefits on only the trained EF skill. In addition, children from lower versus higher socioeconomic households had greater gains in numerical skills following EF training. No training condition improved verbal knowledge, suggesting that results were specific to the targeted skills. These results extend prior findings on the effectiveness of improving EF and mathematical skills through short-term trainings during early childhood.
Social-emotional competencies are important for school-readiness and can be supported through social-emotional learning (SEL) interventions in the preschool years. However, past research has demonstrated mixed efficacy of early SEL interventions across varied samples, highlighting a need to unpack the black box of which early interventions work, under what conditions, and for whom. In the present article we discuss the critical implementation component of active child engagement in an intervention as a potential point of disconnect between the intervention as designed and as implemented. Children who are physically present but unengaged during an intervention may lead to decreased average impacts of an intervention. Furthermore, measuring young children’s active engagement with an intervention may help to guide iterative intervention development. We propose a four-step protocol for capturing the multi-dimensional and varied construct of active child engagement in a SEL intervention. To illustrate the utility of the protocol, we apply it to data from a pilot study of a researcher-implemented, semi-structured block play intervention focused on supporting the development of SEL and math skills in preschoolers. We then present future directions for the integration of active participant engagement into the measurement of implementation of SEL interventions for young children.
For many years, researchers studied EFs in the laboratory with a focus on understanding an individual child's development and brain processes in a controlled environment. Building on this foundational research, there is a growing interest in EFs in the context of a child's dynamic, social world and the contextual and compositional factors influencing EF development. This paper provides a descriptive view of EFs in 1,112 K‐3 children from six schools in Phoenix, AZ. The study's goals were to examine (1) variation in EF scores between and within schools and classrooms, (2) predictors of variation in children's spring EF scores, and (3) individual and compositional predictors of children's spring EF scores. Our findings indicate greater variation in children's EF within schools than between, with very little or no variation arising from differences between schools. Though we observed greater variation within classrooms than between them, a notable amount of variance in children's spring EF scores appears to arise from differences between classrooms. Classroom‐level variables, including a fall leave‐out classroom mean (without the students’ own score) and the number of children in the top or bottom grade‐level quartiles in each classroom, were significant predictors of variation in spring EF scores as well as in fall to spring changes in EF. In some cases, the classroom variables were stronger predictors than individual fall scores. Findings suggest that understanding variation and cultivating growth in EF skills requires intervention, measurement, and analytic approaches that extend beyond the individual to include compositional features of the classroom environment. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Parents support their children’s language and cognitive development through everyday, informal learning opportunities. We discuss how parents can capitalize on current research and theories of children’s development to cultivate the foundational skills needed to succeed in the twenty-first century. We first examine how children learn; specifically, how being active, engaged, meaningful, socially interactive, and joyful leads to optimal learning. We then discuss the 6 Cs (collaboration, communication, content, critical thinking, creativity, and confidence), or what children learn, and how parents can play a central role in supporting their children’ development of these skills.
Parenting is a critical influence on the development of children across the globe. This handbook brings together scholars with expertise on parenting science and interventions for a comprehensive review of current research. It begins with foundational theories and research topics, followed by sections on parenting children at different ages, factors that affect parenting such as parental mental health or socioeconomic status, and parenting children with different characteristics such as depressed and anxious children or youth who identify as LGBTQ. It concludes with a section on policy implications, as well as prevention and intervention programs that target parenting as a mechanism of change. Global perspectives and the cultural diversity of families are highlighted throughout. Offering in-depth analysis of key topics such as risky adolescent behavior, immigration policy, father engagement, family involvement in education, and balancing childcare and work, this is a vital resource for understanding the most effective policies to support parents in raising healthy children.
Children's play time has declined in recent decades, which could negatively impact early self-regulation—a vital component of school readiness. To date, studies have not fully explored how the time spent playing relates to children's self-regulatory skills, and in turn, their early reading and math competencies. Using data from time diaries and direct assessments of self-regulation, prereading, and math skills, this study examined how minutes spent playing at home predict these skills in a sample of 128 children followed from age four to five. Additionally, it considered whether self-regulation explained links between play time and prereading and math. Results showed that the time spent playing positively related to children's self-regulation. Moreover, through its association with self-regulation, play time had indirect effects on prereading and math skills measured one year later. Results suggest that fostering opportunities for play time during the preschool years may help to boost school readiness skills.
As play is diminishing and the need to prepare students to enter the STEM workforce is rising, we conducted a literature review to examine how play in STEM learning environments may address issues in STEM, and conversely, how STEM learning environments can be framed as a context for human development through play. Findings highlight the value of all types of play for development within STEM across a range of learning environments. Yet, the scholarship seems to point to adults as vital to the play STEM learning environment as they provide connections between play and STEM concepts, practices and processes.
Research Findings: Although the importance of block play to children’s spatial ability has been recognized globally, little is known about children’s use of spatial frames of reference during spatial processing. This study investigated the intervention with guided block play to promote children’s use of their intrinsic frame of reference, an identified effective frame of reference for spatial information. Participants included 42 kindergarten children (Mage=67.12 months, SD = 3.91, 48% girls) and 42 pre-kindergarten children (Mage=55.80 months, SD = 3.63, 57% girls) from one public kindergarten in Shanghai, China. A quasi-experiment method was used with a four-month intervention program designed for the experiment groups. Statistically significant differences were identified in the performance of the spatial tasks between the experiment and control groups in both kindergarten and pre-kindergarten children after the intervention. The results revealed that block-play interventions can effectively increase children’s ability to use their intrinsic frame of reference and their preference in using this frame for spatial representations. Practice or Policy: These findings provided a new perspective on analyzing children’s spatial competence and supported the benefits of block play interventions with empirical evidence.
Written for pre-service and in-service educators, as well as parents of children in preschool through grade five, this book connects research in cognitive development and math education to offer an accessibly written and practical introduction to the science of elementary math learning. Structured according to children's mathematical development, How Children Learn Math systematically reviews and synthesizes the latest developmental research on mathematical cognition into accessible sections that explain both the scientific evidence available and its practical classroom application. Written by an author team with decades of collective experience in cognitive learning research, clinical learning evaluations, and classroom experience working with both teachers and children, this amply illustrated text offers a powerful resource for understanding children's mathematical development, from quantitative intuition to word problems, and helps readers understand and identify math learning difficulties that may emerge in later grades. Aimed at pre-service and in-service teachers and educators with little background in cognitive development, the book distills important findings in cognitive development into clear, accessible language and practical suggestions. The book therefore serves as an ideal text for pre-service early childhood, elementary, and special education teachers, as well as early career researchers, or as a professional development resource for in-service teachers, supervisors and administrators, school psychologists, homeschool parents, and other educators.
Music training programs have shown mixed results on children's executive functions. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the impact of a 10‐week multimodal music program with vocal development, bimanual coordination, and musical improvisation, on children's executive functions. We hypothesized that a 10‐week music program would enhance executive functions in working memory in 4‐ to 6‐year‐old children. Eighty‐four children were randomly assigned to a multimodal music program, an active control Lego program, or no treatment control condition (i.e., randomized controlled design). All children completed measures of music aptitude, music achievement, and executive functions (i.e., EF Touch) pre‐ and post‐training. Results revealed enhanced pitch accuracy and working memory for children in the music training group as compared to the other conditions. Children in the Lego condition demonstrated significant enhancements of spatial working memory. Tonal music aptitude significantly predicted performance on measures of working memory. Contributions to the literature include the randomized controlled design, group multimodal music program appropriate for 4‐ to 6‐year‐old children, and the use of executive function measures sensitive to individual differences. Early childhood is a pivotal period of cognitive development, particularly in inhibition and working memory. Inhibition refers to the ability to control automatic responses, resisting impulse responses. Working memory requires individuals to hold two or more pieces of information in short‐term memory storage while processing other information. We hypothesized these components of children's EF could be enhanced through participation in a multimodal music program.
Froebel Gifts are the first educational materials designed for kindergarten children in the education history. After Froebel introduced the first construction and design materials for early childhood mathematics education in 1850’s, several companies such as Lego Bricks, Lincoln Logs, and K’nex were influenced by his design. Considering the influence of Froebel Gifts on mathematics and geometry education tools for young children, it is important to analyze their impact on pre-school children’s geometry skills. This study investigated the effects of a geometry education program mediated with Froebel Gifts on 5-6 years-old children’s geometric skill development. The participants consisted of 40 pre-school children in Istanbul, Turkey. Twenty children in the experimental group received an 8-week intervention with Froebel Gifts while the control group continued their regular program. Early Geometry Skill Test (EGST) was used before and after the intervention and the collected data were analyzed with an independent sample T-test. The results indicate a significant change in favor of the experimental group in the skills of building with blocks, recognizing the three-dimensional objects, predicting the surface shape of the three-dimensional objects, and recognizing the side and corner properties of two-dimensional shapes. The teacher’s instructional strategies and the physical and representational properties of Froebel Gifts are discussed and evaluated in the light of these results to provide insight into the features of an effective geometry education.
This review examines the relationship between spatial abilities and students' mathematics achievements and the neurobiological substrates underlying their association. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies suggested a positive association between spatial and math skills, while the relationship may vary depending on the participants' age or grade. Although numerous researchers claimed that in-class or out-of-class spatial training programmes enhance students' mathematics achievements over the past decade, few studies could reveal the mechanisms for the transfer effects. Based on neuroimaging evidence, the intraparietal sulcus is one of the most robust brain regions related to both spatial and math skills, indicating that the two skills may share some mental processes. These neural and cognitive results provide grounds for educational interventions. Further studies employing complex math skills will provide opportunities to guide classroom teaching practices.
Block building—a prevalent play activity—allows children to practice and develop spatial skills, including learning about the intrinsic properties and extrinsic spatial relations of blocks. Performance on block building taps individual differences in spatial skill and relates to later science and math skills. However, studies of block building typically ignore moment-to-moment block-building behaviors, and rarely target children from diverse backgrounds. We observed the real-time block-building behaviors of 120 5-year-olds from African American, Dominican, Mexican, and Chinese backgrounds as they attempted to replicate 3D block structures built by a researcher. For each structure, we coded time spent building, attention to the target structure, alignment of structure with the target, intrinsic and extrinsic errors, and final success. Alignment and checking related to low errors and high success, with Chinese children showing the most alignment, checking, and success. Shifting attention from “performance” to “process” sheds light on real-time learning during spatial tasks.
This study describes the implementation and effects of a 32-week teacher-led spatial reasoning intervention in K–2 classrooms. The intervention targeted spatial visualization skills as an integrated feature of regular mathematics instruction. Compared to an active control group, children in the spatial intervention demonstrated gains in spatial language, visual-spatial reasoning, 2D mental rotation, and symbolic number comparison. Overall, the findings highlight the potential significance of attending to and developing young children's spatial thinking as part of early mathematics instruction.
The present study explored the bidirectional and longitudinal associations between executive function (EF) and early academic skills (math and literacy) across 4 waves of measurement during the transition from preschool to kindergarten using 2 complementary analytical approaches: cross-lagged panel modeling and latent growth curve modeling (LCGM). Participants included 424 children (49% female). On average, children were approximately 4.5 years old at the beginning of the study (M = 4.69, SD = .30) and 55% were enrolled in Head Start. Cross-lagged panel models indicated bidirectional relations between EF and math over preschool, which became directional in kindergarten with only EF predicting math. Moreover, there was a bidirectional relation between math and literacy that emerged in kindergarten. Similarly, LGCM revealed correlated growth between EF and math as well as math and literacy, but not EF and literacy. Exploring the patterns of relations across the waves of the panel model in conjunction with the patterns of relations between intercepts and slopes in the LGCMs led to a more nuanced understanding of the relations between EF and academic skills across preschool and kindergarten. Implications for future research on instruction and intervention development are discussed.
This 2003 book comprehensively covers all major topics of Vygotskian educational theory and its classroom applications. Particular attention is paid to the Vygotskian idea of child development as a consequence rather than premise of learning experiences. Such a reversal allows for new interpretations of the relationships between cognitive development and education at different junctions of the human life span. It also opens new perspectives on atypical development, learning disabilities, and assessment of children's learning potential. Classroom applications of Vygotskian theory are discussed in the book. Teacher training and the changing role of a teacher in a sociocultural classroom is discussed in addition to the issues of teaching and learning activities and peer interactions. Relevant research findings from the US, Western Europe, and Russia are brought together to clarify the possible new applications of Vygotskian ideas in different disciplinary areas.
The ‘Executive Functions’ (EFs) of inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility enable us to think before we act, resist temptations or impulsive reactions, stay focused, reason, problem-solve, flexibly adjust to changed demands or priorities, and see things from new and different perspectives. These skills are critical for success in all life's aspects and are sometimes more predictive than even IQ or socioeconomic status. Understandably, there is great interest in improving EFs. It's now clear they can be improved at any age through training and practice, much as physical exercise hones physical fitness. However, despite claims to the contrary, wide transfer does not seem to occur and ‘mindless’ aerobic exercise does little to improve EFs. Important questions remain: How much can EFs be improved (are benefits only superficial) and how long can benefits be sustained? What are the best methods for improving EFs? What about an approach accounts for its success? Do the answers to these differ by individual characteristics such as age or gender? Since stress, sadness, loneliness, or poor health impair EFs, and the reverse enhances EFs, we predict that besides directly train EFs, the most successful approaches for improving EFs will also address emotional, social, and physical needs.
Both mathematical language and the approximate number system (ANS) have been identified as strong predictors of early mathematics performance. Yet, these relations may be different depending on a child's developmental level. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relations between these domains across different levels of ability. Participants included 114 children who were assessed in the fall and spring of preschool on a battery of academic and cognitive tasks. Children were 3.12 to 5.26 years old (M = 4.18, SD = .58) and 53.6% were girls. Both mixed-effect and quantile regressions were conducted. The mixed-effect regressions indicated that mathematical language, but not the ANS, nor other cognitive domains, predicted mathematics performance. However, the quantile regression analyses revealed a more nuanced relation among domains. Specifically, it was found that mathematical language and the ANS predicted mathematical performance at different points on the ability continuum. These dual nonlinear relations indicate that different mechanisms may enhance mathematical acquisition dependent on children's developmental abilities. (PsycINFO Database Record
Some children fare better academically than others, even when family background and school and teacher quality are controlled for (Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005). Variance in performance that persists when situational variables are held constant suggests that individual differences play an important role in determining whether children thrive or fail in school. In this chapter, we review research on individual differences in self-regulation and their relation to school success. Historically, research on individual differences that bear on school success has focused on general intelligence. A century of empirical evidence has now unequivocally established that intelligence, defined as the “ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought” (Neisser et al., 1996, p. 77) has a monotonic, positive relationship with school success (Gottfredson, 2004; Kuncel, Ones, & Sackett, 2010; Lubinski, 2009). In contrast, the relation between school success and temperamental differences among children has only recently attracted serious attention from researchers. Temperament is typically defined as “constitutionally based individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation, in the domains of affect, activity, and attention” (Rothbart & Bates, 2006, p. 100). While assumed to have a substantial genetic basis, temperament is also influenced by experience and demonstrates both stability and change over time.
Although growing numbers of young English language learners (ELLs) from low-income homes enroll in U.S. schools, there remains a lack of research on how they respond to common school literacy practices including a literacy-enriched play. This exploratory study aims to examine the writing behaviors of six kindergarteners in their classroom's literacy-enriched block center. The results were varied since all children engaged in different types and frequencies of writing. However, most ELLs responded positively to the intervention and practiced their emergent writing skills. Therefore, literacy-enriched play centers can benefit early childhood classrooms serving culturally, linguistically, and socioeconomically diverse students.
Effective early education is essential for academic achievement and positive life outcomes, particularly for children in poverty. Advances in neuroscience suggest that a focus on self-regulation in education can enhance children's engagement in learning and establish beneficial academic trajectories in the early elementary grades. Here, we experimentally evaluate an innovative approach to the education of children in kindergarten that embeds support for self-regulation, particularly executive functions, into literacy, mathematics, and science learning activities. Results from a cluster randomized controlled trial involving 29 schools, 79 classrooms, and 759 children indicated positive effects on executive functions, reasoning ability, the control of attention, and levels of salivary cortisol and alpha amylase. Results also demonstrated improvements in reading, vocabulary, and mathematics at the end of kindergarten that increased into the first grade. A number of effects were specific to high-poverty schools, suggesting that a focus on executive functions and associated aspects of self-regulation in early elementary education holds promise for closing the achievement gap.
Decades of research demonstrate that a strong curricular approach to preschool education is important for later developmental outcomes. Although these findings have often been used to support the implementation of educational programs based on direct instruction, we argue that guided play approaches can be equally effective at delivering content and are more developmentally appropriate in their focus on child-centered exploration. Guided play lies midway between direct instruction and free play, presenting a learning goal, and scaffolding the environment while allowing children to maintain a large degree of control over their learning. The evidence suggests that such approaches often outperform direct-instruction approaches in encouraging a variety of positive academic outcomes. We argue that guided play approaches are effective because they create learning situations that encourage children to become active and engaged partners in the learning process.
Although there is evidence that young children's inhibitory control (IC) is related to their academic skills, the nature of this relation and the role of potential moderators of it are not well understood. In this meta-analytic study, we summarized results from 75 peer-reviewed studies of preschool and kindergarten children (14,424 children; 32-80 months old [M = 54.71 months; SD = 9.70]) across a wide range of socioeconomic status. The mean effect size (r) across studies was .27 (95% confidence interval [.24, .29]), indicating a moderate and statistically significant association between self-regulation and academic skills. The association between IC and academic skills was moderated by type of IC behavior task (i.e., hot vs. cool behavior task), by method of assessing IC (i.e., behavior task vs. parent report), and by academic subject (i.e., literacy vs. math), but not by other methods of assessing IC (i.e., behavior task vs. teacher report, parent report vs. teacher report) or by grade (i.e., preschool vs. kindergarten). The results of this meta-analysis suggest that there are preferred methods for assessing IC (i.e., cool behavior tasks, teacher reports) that should be considered when examining the relations between IC and academic skills in young children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
This important new book synthesizes relevant research on the learning of mathematics from birth into the primary grades from the full range of these complementary perspectives. At the core of early math experts Julie Sarama and Douglas Clements's theoretical and empirical frameworks are learning trajectories-detailed descriptions of children's thinking as they learn to achieve specific goals in a mathematical domain, alongside a related set of instructional tasks designed to engender those mental processes and move children through a developmental progression of levels of thinking. Rooted in basic issues of thinking, learning, and teaching, this groundbreaking body of research illuminates foundational topics on the learning of mathematics with practical and theoretical implications for all ages. Those implications are especially important in addressing equity concerns, as understanding the level of thinking of the class and the individuals within it, is key in serving the needs of all children.
Fifty-one preschoolers’ play preferences, skills at assembling block structures, and spatial abilities were recorded in this study. There were no sex differences in children’s visual-spatial skills, and play with art materials and children’s free and structured play with blocks were related to spatial visualisation. Two patterns emerged from the findings: (1) activity and performance representing skills in spatial visualisation and visual-motor coordination; and (2) creativity, or the ability to break set and to produce varied solutions using visual materials. Future research might examine the extent to which children’s play activities and experiences predict these types of skills.
We investigated criteria preschool children use to distinguish members of a class of shapes from other figures. We conducted individual clinical interviews of 97 children ages 3 to 6, empha- sizing identification and descriptions of shapes and reasons for these identifications. We found that young children initially form schemas on the basis of feature analysis of visual forms. While these schemas are developing, children continue to rely primarily on visual matching to distinguish shapes. They are, however, also capable of recognizing components and simple properties of familiar shapes. Thus, evidence supports previous claims (Clements & Battista, 1992b) that a prerecognitive level exists before van Hiele Level 1 ("visual level") and that Level 1 should be reconceptualized as syncretic (i.e., a synthesis of verbal declarative and imagistic knowledge, each interacting with the other) instead of visual (Clements, 1992).
Understanding the determinants of socioeconomic status (SES) is an important economic and social goal. Several major influences on SES are known, yet much of the variance in SES remains unexplained. In a large, population-representative sample from the United Kingdom, we tested the effects of mathematics and reading achievement at age 7 on attained SES by age 42. Mathematics and reading ability both had substantial positive associations with adult SES, above and beyond the effects of SES at birth, and with other important factors, such as intelligence. Achievement in mathematics and reading was also significantly associated with intelligence scores, academic motivation, and duration of education. These findings suggest effects of improved early mathematics and reading on SES attainment across the life span.
Research Findings: Behavioral regulation (the integration of attention, working memory, and inhibitory control) is critical for school readiness and early academic achievement. In Taiwan, however, where academic success is highly valued, there is a dearth of assessments available to measure young children's behavioral regulation. The present study examined the validity of a direct measure of behavioral regulation, the Head-to-Toes Task (HTT), in Taiwanese 3.5- to 4.5-year-olds. The goals were to (a) investigate the nature and variability of HTT scores and (b) explore relations between HTT scores and early math and vocabulary skills and teacher-rated classroom behavioral regulation in the spring of the preschool year. Results indicated that the HTT captured substantial variability and was significantly related to early math and vocabulary skills after controlling for age, mother's education level, and teacher-rated classroom behavioral regulation but was not significantly related to teacher ratings of classroom behavioral regulation. Practice or Policy: These findings suggest that the HTT may be a useful measure of behavioral regulation for Taiwanese preschoolers and provide evidence for the importance of behavioral regulation for academic achievement in Taiwan. Practical implications focus on supporting the development of behavioral regulation in early childhood settings, which can promote early school success.
Research Findings: The present study examined the efficacy of a self-regulation intervention with 65 preschool children. Using circle time games, the study examined whether participating in a treatment group significantly improved behavioral self-regulation and early academic outcomes. Half of the children were randomly assigned to participate in 16 playgroups during the winter of the school year. Behavioral aspects of self-regulation and early achievement were assessed in the fall and spring. Although there was no treatment effect in the overall sample, post hoc analyses revealed that participation in the treatment group was significantly related to self-regulation gains in children who started the year with low levels of these skills. Children in the treatment group also demonstrated significant letter-word identification gains compared to children in the control group. Practice or Policy: The findings from this study provide preliminary evidence for the efficacy of the intervention in terms of improving preschoolers’ behavioral self-regulation for children low in these skills and improving letter-word identification. Although preliminary, these results have the potential to inform preschool curricula that emphasize behavioral self-regulation as a means of facilitating school readiness.
The aim of this study was to examine relationships among pretend play, creativity, emotion regulation, and executive functioning in children. Pretend play processes were assessed using the Affect in Play Scale (APS), which measures children's cognitive and affective processes, such as organization of a plot or use of emotions. Sixty-one female participants, in kindergarten through fourth grade, were assessed using the APS to measure pretend play ability, a divergent thinking task (the Alternate Uses Test), a storytelling task to assess creativity, a measure of executive functioning (the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, Short Form; WCST-64), and parent report on the Emotion Regulation Checklist (ERC). Using correlational analyses, pretend play significantly related to creativity as measured by divergent thinking and storytelling, and related to emotion regulation. Affect expression in play was significantly related to affect expression in storytelling suggesting cross-situational stability. Divergent thinking ability was significantly related to creativity in storytelling. In general the magnitudes of the correlations were of medium effect size. No significant relationships were found with executive functioning. The results of this study support theories that suggest play, creativity, and emotion regulation are linked. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Attempted to examine the generalizability of environment/development relationships among 3 ethnic groups across the first 3 years of life. Social status did not show a consistent relationship to either quality of home environment or children's developmental status across the various groups. Results indicated a fairly consistent relationship between HOME scores and children's developmental status, although there were some ethnic and social status differences in the relationship. Measures of specific aspects of the child's home environment, such as parental responsivity and availability of stimulating play materials, were more strongly related to child developmental status than global measures of environmental quality such as SES. When the child's developmental status
and early home environment were both very low, the likelihood of poor developmental outcomes was markedly increased compared with cases when only one was low. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Abstract— Children’s ability to direct their attention and behavior to learning tasks provides a foundation for healthy social and academic development in early schooling. Although an explosion of research on this topic has occurred in recent years, the field has been hindered by a lack of conceptual clarity, as well as debate over underlying components and their significance in predicting school success. In addition, few measures tap these skills as children move into formal schooling. This article describes the aspects of self-regulation that are most important for early school success. It then discusses methodological challenges in reliably and validly assessing these skills in young children and describes recent advances in direct measures of self-regulation that are reliable and ecologically valid and that predict children’s school success. It concludes by summarizing critical issues in the study of self-regulation in school contexts and discussing next steps.
Identifying the types of mathematics content knowledge that are most predictive of students' long-term learning is essential for improving both theories of mathematical development and mathematics education. To identify these types of knowledge, we examined long-term predictors of high school students' knowledge of algebra and overall mathematics achievement. Analyses of large, nationally representative, longitudinal data sets from the United States and the United Kingdom revealed that elementary school students' knowledge of fractions and of division uniquely predicts those students' knowledge of algebra and overall mathematics achievement in high school, 5 or 6 years later, even after statistically controlling for other types of mathematical knowledge, general intellectual ability, working memory, and family income and education. Implications of these findings for understanding and improving mathematics learning are discussed.
There is growing evidence that socioeconomic (SES)-related differences in mathematical knowledge begin in early childhood, because young children from economically disadvantaged families receive less support for mathematical development than their middle-class peers receive. A pre-kindergarten mathematics intervention, including a pre-kindergarten mathematics curriculum, was developed and implemented in public and private preschools serving low- and middle-income families. Mathematical knowledge of intervention and comparison children was comprehensively assessed. A significant SES-related gap in mathematical knowledge was found at the beginning of the pre-kindergarten year. The intervention significantly enhanced the mathematical knowledge of children at both levels of SES. Low-income children acquired more knowledge, relative to their starting point, than middle-income children. The extent of mathematical knowledge was similar in low-income intervention children and middle-income comparison children. Implications of this research for early childhood education curricula and educational policy are discussed.
In this chapter, the authors provide an overview of research on the relationship of block play to the spatial and mathematics skills of young children, with a focus on gender differences.
Understanding the development of spatial skills is important for promoting school readiness and improving overall success in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields (e.g., Wai, Lubinski, Benbow, & Steiger, 2010). Children use their spatial skills to understand the world, including visualizing how objects fit together, and can practice them via spatial assembly activities (e.g., puzzles or blocks). These skills are incorporated into measures of overall intelligence and have been linked to success in subjects like mathematics (Mix & Cheng, 2012) and science (Pallrand & Seeber, 1984; Pribyl & Bodner, 1987). This monograph sought to answer four questions about early spatial skill development: 1) Can we reliably measure spatial skills in 3- and 4-year-olds?; 2) Do spatial skills measured at 3 predict spatial skills at age 5?; 3) Do preschool spatial skills predict mathematics skills at age 5?; and 4) What factors contribute to individual differences in preschool spatial skills (e.g., SES, gender, fine-motor skills, vocabulary, and executive function)? Longitudinal data generated from a new spatial skill test for 3-year-old children, called the TOSA (Test of Spatial Assembly), show that it is a reliable and valid measure of early spatial skills that provides strong prediction to spatial skills measured with established tests at age 5. New data using this measure finds links between early spatial skill and mathematics, language, and executive function skills. Analyses suggest that preschool spatial experiences may play a central role in children's mathematical skills around the time of school entry. Executive function skills provide an additional unique contribution to predicting mathematical performance. In addition, individual differences, specifically socioeconomic status, are related to spatial and mathematical skill. We conclude by exploring ways of providing rich early spatial experiences to children.
Block play has been included in early childhood classrooms for over a century, yet few studies have examined its effects on learning. Several previous investigations indicate that the complexity of block building is associated with math ability, but these studies were often conducted in adult-guided, laboratory settings. In the present investigation, the relationship of block play variables to both the complexity of block structures and math learning was studied in naturalistic free play settings. A total of 41 preschool children were videorecorded playing with blocks. Time in blocks, number of structures built, levels of social participation, frequency of teacher interactions, percentage of buildings without replica play toys, and structure complexity were coded. Findings indicated that level of social participation and percentage of structures built without toys predicted the complexity of children’s buildings. This building complexity was, in turn, associated with growth in math learning, as measured by Tools for Early Assessment in Mathematics. Based on these findings, a path model was constructed to hypothesize causal relationships between block play features, structure complexity, and math learning.
The current study investigated the relations between the three cognitive processes that comprise executive functioning (EF)-response inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility-and individual components of mathematics and literacy skills in preschool children. Participants were 125 preschool children ranging in age from 3.12 to 5.26years (M=4.17years, SD=0.58). Approximately 53.2% were female, and the sample was predominantly Caucasian (69.8%). Results suggest that the components of EF may be differentially related to the specific components of early mathematics and literacy. For mathematics, response inhibition was broadly related to most components. Working memory was related to more advanced mathematics skills that involve comparison or combination of numbers and quantities. Cognitive flexibility was related to more conceptual or abstract mathematics skills. For early literacy, response inhibition and cognitive flexibility were related to print knowledge, and working memory was related only to phonological awareness. None of the EF components was related to vocabulary. These findings provide initial evidence for better understanding the ways in which EF components and academic skills are related and measured. Furthermore, the findings provide a foundation for further study of the components of each domain using a broader and more diverse array of measures.
A decade ago I wrote an article entitled Technology as play in which I called for early childhood educators to rethink the way in which they regard play. This involved not only incorporating the notion of playing with new technologies but also critiqued the essence of what constituted play and the link with learning that was viewed uncritically. Here, I review and update this discussion, revisit the literature about how play is conceptualised and suggest that, while play is an essential component of exemplary early childhood experiences, it needs to be related to new technologies and pedagogical practices that are designed to support learning in diverse ways, rather than being regarded as the only catalyst for learning that occurs automatically in all types of play contexts.
The development of early numeracy knowledge is influenced by a number of non-mathematical factors—particularly language skills. However, much of the focus on the relation between language and early numeracy has utilized general language measures and not domain-specific measures of mathematical language. The primary purpose of this study was to determine if the variance accounted for by general language skills in predicting numeracy performance was better accounted for by mathematical language. Further, age- and parental education-related differences in mathematical language performance were explored. Using a sample of 136 3- to 5-year-old preschool and kindergarten children (M = 4.28 years, SD = 0.67 years), a series of mixed-effect regressions were conducted. Results indicated that although general language performance was initially a significant predictor of numeracy performance, when both mathematical language and general language were included in the model, only mathematical language was a significant predictor of numeracy performance. Further, group-difference analyses revealed that children from families where both parents had less than a college education performed significantly lower on mathematical language than their peers; and even by 3-years-old, children have acquired a substantial body of mathematical language skills. Implications and future directions are discussed.
Research findings: Young children develop numeracy competencies during interactions with more knowledgeable others. Such interactions typically occur in the 'Home Numeracy Environment' (HNE). In this study a non-intensive intervention procedure was developed to improve both the HNE and numerical competencies. All parents of 113 Australian children (aged 4 years, 5 months on average at the beginning of the study) were invited to participate in a two-part intervention that included attending one group meeting at which information regarding the HNE was provided, and participating in an additional individual session that introduced them to the principles of counting. The HNE and children's numerical competencies were assessed before and after the intervention. Participating and non-participating families did not differ in any of the study variables at the beginning of the study, yet the intervention group not only significantly improved their HNE, and the children in this group also showed significantly greater numerical competency development when compared with the non-participating group. Practice or Policy: Results indicate that less
intensive interventions can have effects on the HNE and children's numerical competencies. Consequently, even on small budgets interventions should be undertaken.
Research Findings: Children from families of lower socioeconomic status (SES) enter kindergarten with less developed mathematical knowledge compared to children from middle SES families. This discrepancy is present at age 3 years and likely stems from differences in the home learning environment. This study reports SES-related differences both in the quantity and quality of mathematical support children receive in the home and in parent beliefs about early mathematical development and then compares both with children's performance on a comprehensive mathematics assessment. Participants included 90 children in their 1st year of preschool (2 years before kindergarten entry) and 88 children in their prekindergarten year (the year just prior to kindergarten entry). Both cohorts were balanced for SES and gender. The results suggested minimal SES-related variation in mathematical support received in either cohort but clear SES differences in parents’ beliefs about early mathematical development. Middle SES parents of children in both cohorts held higher expectations in terms of skills they expected children to possess by age 5, as well as a more accurate understanding of which skills are within the developmental range of most children by age 5. These differences accounted for unique variance in children's scores on the mathematics assessment. Practice or Policy: Implications are discussed.
A critical component in enhancing academic success is identifying children at risk of later academic difficulties. Although significant efforts have been devoted to design effective assessment processes in elementary school, fewer efforts (particularly for mathematics) have been made for preschool. The focus of this study was to design and evaluate a brief early numeracy skills screening tool. Measure development and validation occurred in a two-stage process with diverse and distinct samples. In the first stage, 393 preschool children were assessed on a battery of early numeracy tasks. By use of an item response theory framework, 24 items that spanned the ability continuum were selected for inclusion in the brief measure. In the second stage, 129 preschool children were assessed on the brief measure, the Test of Early Mathematics Ability–Third Edition, and two literacy measures. The data resulted in acceptable psychometric properties and strong diagnostic accuracy. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
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