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Educational Status and Constraints of Rural Women in India: Evidence from a Study of Rural Punjab

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This paper presents evidence based on a study conducted on 600 rural women in Malwa region of Punjab. Rural women's educational status has been gauged through the prism of two parameters: first their literacy status with levels of education, and second, the constraints faced by them to avail of educational opportunities. The findings reveal that literacy among rural women is much below the state and national average. Out of the literates, educational status of women in rural areas is very low. Even across all social groups, the substantially low levels of education among rural women present a grim picture of educational attainment in rural areas. A comparison of women from different social groups reveals that scheduled caste women are at the bottom of the scale with abysmally marginal levels of education; among upper caste women, a vast majority are educated but below primary and elementary level. Further, constraints for their educational participation cited by women respondents included: poverty in the family, parental illiteracy, weak socio economic status of family, non-availability of educational institutions, social barriers, negative attitude of parents towards girls' education, lack of security for the girl child, cost of education, lack of employment opportunities and socio-cultural practice of dowry. Findings clearly indicate that a state which is among the most developed states of the country is still lagging behind in providing the majority of rural women with equal opportunities in life. It is suggested that mere increase in literacy figures does not depict the educational development of people, rather the focus must be on ensuring certain minimum levels of education to all. The constraints in educational participation of rural women need to be addressed in every context.
Article
Educational Status and Constraints
of Rural Women in India: Evidence
from a Study of Rural Punjab
Satvinderpal Kaur
Research Journal
Social Sciences,
©2016 Panjab University
Chandigarh-160 014 India
ISSN 0251-348X
24 (3):70-84
Abstract
This paper presents evidence based on a study conducted on 600
rural women in Malwa region of Punjab. Rural women's
educational status has been gauged through the prism of two
parameters: first their literacy status with levels of education, and
second, the constraints faced by them to avail of educational
opportunities. The findings reveal that literacy among rural
women is much below the state and national average. Out of the
literates, educational status of women in rural areas is very low.
Even across all social groups, the substantially low levels of
education among rural women present a grim picture of
educational attainment in rural areas. A comparison of women
from different social groups reveals that scheduled caste women
are at the bottom of the scale with abysmally marginal levels of
education; among upper caste women, a vast majority are
educated but below primary and elementary level. Further,
constraints for their educational participation cited by women
respondents included: poverty in the family, parental illiteracy,
weak socio economic status of family, non–availability of
Satvinderpal Kaur is Associate Professor, Department of Education at Panjab
University Chandigarh. Email: satvinder2002@gmail.com
educational institutions, social barriers, negative attitude of
parents towards girls' education, lack of security for the girl child,
cost of education, lack of employment opportunities and socio-
cultural practice of dowry. Findings clearly indicate that a state
which is among the most developed states of the country is still
lagging behind in providing the majority of rural women with
equal opportunities in life. It is suggested that mere increase in
literacy figures does not depict the educational development of
people, rather the focus must be on ensuring certain minimum
levels of education to all. The constraints in educational
participation of rural women need to be addressed in every
context.
Keywords: Women, rural opportunities, constraints, literacy
Introduction
The value of education for development is increasingly recognized
both in the instrumental sense of enabling rapid national growth
and in the direct attainment of human self-consciousness and
capability. India is a country of grand contradictions, rich diversity
and sharp disparities. The country accounts for 30 percent of the
world's total non-literate population and out of which 70 percent
are women. Women constitute 48.2 percent of the total population
and 37.6 percent are still non-literate. The non-literacy is much
more intense in rural areas at 53.9 percent. We cannot forget that
68.84 per cent of the Indian population lives in villages. Although
the gaps between male and female literacy rate is a rough measure
of education, it is a good indicator of gender differences in varied
forms of development in human capital (Schultz, 2002). The
education of women has remained an overarching concern of
policy makers and academia. Since Independence the policy
framework and provisions of educational opportunities for
women and girls have remained an important part of the national
endeavor in the field of education. National Policy of Education
Research Journal Social Sciences, 24,3 (2016) : 70-84
Educational Status and Constraints of Rural Women in India 71
(1986-92) also recognized that empowerment of women is possible
only with the critical pre condition of participation of girls and
women in the educational process. The program of Action (1992)
focused on empowerment of women and emphasized the
participation of women in the education process. But despite all
forceful interventions of affirmative action, feminist movements,
constitutional guarantees, protective laws, state efforts and also
with the pressure from the United Nations' with regard to the
uplift of women by expansion of education, the education of
women is still in the state of an enigma after 69 years of
independence. It is a matter of great concern that on one hand the
nation is becoming a global leader in the knowledge economy, and
on other hand is a home of more than half of the world's poor and
non-literate people out of which a vast majority are women.
Equal opportunities and status are two dimensions of
empowerment which define, challenge and overcome barriers of
life with which one's ability to shape up life and environment get
increases. Although women are vital human resources, their
economic, educational, social and political empowerment
hastened the pace of social development. On similar lines Patnaik
(2000) argued that investing in women's “capabilities” and
empowering them to achieve their “choices” and “opportunities”
is the surest way to contribute to economic growth and overall
development of society.
Arguably, there is an uneven rate of progress at all levels of
education. Economic status, class, caste and locale play a
significant role in determining the extent of availability of equal
opportunities. Rural women have historically been denied access
to education due to vicious cycles of poverty, patriarchy, class,
caste and gender divisions. Feudal and patriarchal social
structures on the one hand and neglect by developmental policies
of the state on the other, have pushed them to the margins
rendering them more vulnerable to different kinds of
discrimination. As per Census 2011 figures the literacy rate among
rural women is 58.75 percent as compared to 72.9 percent among
urban women; which is much lower than literacy rates among
Research Journal Social Sciences, 24,3 (2016) : 70-84
72 Satvinderpal Kaur
rural and urban men, which stand at 70.7 percent and 86.3 percent
respectively. Evidently gender gaps in literacy in rural India
declined in recent years due to concerted efforts in school
enrollment of the girl child in many states.
Since last decades, education of rural women remained a
serious concern among academia and researchers. Bhandari and
Smith (1997) found that rural women in Madhya Pradesh have a
mere 0-8 years of schooling. 47 percent of rural women are engaged
in agriculture whereas 53 percent women supplement family
income through paid labour. Mazumdar (1987) found that
discrimination in terms of education against women is maximum
among families of low socio-economic status and in rural areas
even in families with middle and high socio-economic.
Emphasizing the need of women's education, Kabeer (2001)
argued that education is a catalyst for empowerment. Access to
education may in itself not be a relevant measure of women's
empowerment, but the level of education has a potential to
enhance women's capacities and self-determination. Similarly,
Sadgopal (2003) and Mukhopadhyaya (2009) concluded that
educational empowerment of rural women is meaningless unless
the society and its institutions respond to the discriminatory
practices against rural women. Women can transform their life
situation through education. Expressing concerns on low
education levels of rural women, Dreze and Sen (2013), affirmed
that in India, the mean years of schooling stand at 4.4 years and for
females is even lower.
Status of Women in Punjab
Punjab state has the dubious distinction of devaluation of women
as apparent from the adverse sex ratio. The sex ratio in the state is
895/1000, much below the national figure of 940/1000 (Census
2011) and also is much below the 'less developed' Bihar. More
alarming is a steep decline in number of girl children in age group
of 0 to 6 years, which drastically declined from 901 in 1961 to 846
per 1000 boys in 2011. The sex ratio brings into question the vital
Research Journal Social Sciences, 24,3 (2016) : 70-84
Educational Status and Constraints of Rural Women in India 73
issue of the right to life and the right to be born for the girl child.
Despite high levels of economic growth and per capita income,
there is pervasive gender bias in the state. However, the declining
sex ratio and the high mortality rates for females reveal not only
outright discrimination, but also the fact that women are left out
when it comes to utilizing the advantages which development has
showered upon the State.
People simply cannot afford to bring female children into the
world as girls are viewed as a liability. Arguably, levels of
development in the state have not been able to translate into
change in the status, position and progress of women. The state is
predominantly a rural economy with 62.25 percent of its total
population and 70 per cent of its total workers living in villages.
Out of the total 17,344,192 rural population, 8,250,716 are females.
The average literacy rate for the rural population is 71.42 with rural
male literacy rate at 76.62 percent and rural female literacy rate at
58.9 percent. Rural female literacy is far below the state and
national literacy figures. Wider educational disparities exist across
gender, location, region and social groups. Punjab ranks 14th on
the Human Development Index among 35 States/UTs, but for the
Gender Development Index it plummets down to the 19th
position, pointing toward the need to improve social, educational
and economic status of women.This implies that the development
process in the state is highly skewed against the female population
and the fruits of educational expansion and income have not been
borne by the female population in the state. In other words the state
lags behind in quality of life indicators such as literacy rate, infant
mortality rate and availability of clean drinking water supply. It is
generally believed that a greater degree of urbanization would
make the area more conducive to learning for women. But it has
not been happened and holds true only to a very limited extent in
Punjab. The issue of lack of security of women and girl children
merits serious attention. Invisible participation in economic
activities, little representation in the political decision-making
bodies and cumulative socio cultural milieu attributes poor social
status of women in the state.
Research Journal Social Sciences, 24,3 (2016) : 70-84
74 Satvinderpal Kaur
Sample and Methodology
This study was conducted on 600 rural women residing in
villages of four districts namely Sangrur, Mansa, Bathinda and
Muktsar of Punjab. Women were selected in the age group of 25 to
45 years and those who have been living in village since last 20
years outside the urban metropolitan area. The villages were
selected through proportionate random sampling located at least
10 kilometers away from the main road. Data was collected in 2014
through a questionnaire, structured interviews, observations and
focussed group discussions.
Results and Discussions
Educational Status of Rural Women:
Out of a total sample of 600 rural women, 279 (46.5 percent)
were non-literate and 321 (53.5 percent) were found to be literate
(Table 1). Caste differences in literacy rates are apparently visible
across social groups as upper caste women include 36 percent
non-literate and 64 percent literate women. Values reveal that the
percentage of literates is significantly higher for the upper castes.
Similarly, in the backward category 53 percent were found to be
literate. The corresponding figure in scheduled caste category
depicts that fairly small percentage (37%) of SC women are literate
whereas non-literacy is much higher among scheduled castes and
marginalized groups. It is pertinent to mention here that Punjab
has the highest SC population(31.94%),among all states of the
country. Out of this, 73.33 percent of SC (Dalit) population lives in
rural areas. In the surveyed villages, some have more than 50
percent of Dalit population and non-Dalit are from economically
weaker sections. The livelihood of rural women largely depends
upon labour and agriculture due to scarcity of employment and
skill. The inference drawn here clearly indicates that those who are
already under privileged are not able to access equitable
educational opportunities. Low literacy figures depict the severity
Research Journal Social Sciences, 24,3 (2016) : 70-84
Educational Status and Constraints of Rural Women in India 75
of the issue and point out that educational status of rural women is
abysmally low.
Literacy figures alone do not provide any meaningful clue
regarding actual levels of educational attainment. Hence the other
question explored was the years of schooling and levels of
education in rural women. Figures presented in Table 2 show that
36.4 percent women had education below primary level and 18.2
percent had just primary education. Similarly, only 11.4 percent of
rural women have education below elementary level. Overall, 66
percent had schooled below elementary level. A small percentage
(8.9 percent and 6.4 percent) women had elementary and Matric
levels of education respectively, whereas only 4.6 percent of total
literates have secondary level of education. A very small
percentage (3.7 percent) had some skill based training and are
largely from the upper caste groups. The graduate and post
graduate levels of education are available to 2.4 percent and 1.8
percent of rural women respectively.
The comparison across social groups on the basis of education
levels clearly reveals that SC women have terribly low levels of
education as compared to upper caste women. Out of SC women,
37 percent are literate women and out of literates 47.9 percent have
accessed education below primary level. None of the SC rural
Research Journal Social Sciences, 24,3 (2016) : 70-84
Table- 1
Literacy
rates
in Rural Women
Total
General
category
Backward
Caste
Scheduled
Caste
(A)Illiterate 279 (46.5) 111 (36) 46(47) 122(63)
(B)Literate 321 (53.5) 198 (64) 50 (53) 73 (37)
Grand Total 600 309 96 195
Note: - Figures in parenthesis are percentage share.
Source: - Primary survey.
76 Satvinderpal Kaur
women had been able to access graduation or post-graduation.It
presents in clear sense that out of literate rural women, the level of
educational attainment is alarmingly low. Even where education
opportunities are availed, this is largely by upper caste groups
which are dominant groups in the society. On the other hand it
reveals that presence of illiteracy, ignorance and lack of skill are
deeply ingrained in the rural set up. The poor educational
development of rural people and further that of women is a cause
of concern. Moreover, rural Punjab is already facing an agrarian
crisis, which has deeply affected the life of women and of children.
Research Journal Social Sciences, 24,3 (2016) : 70-84
Table-2
Educational Attainment Levels among Rural Women
Total General
category
Backward
Caste
Scheduled
Caste
Literate Below
Primary
115 (36.4) 62(32) 18 (36) 34(47.9)
Primary 59 (18.2) 37(18.6) 9(18) 13(17.8)
Below
Elementary
37 (11 .4 ) 21(10.6) 7(14) 9(13.6)
Elementary 29 (8.9) 20(9.5) 4(8) 5(6.8)
Below
Matric
21
(6.4)
14(6.9)
3(6) 4(5.4)
Matric
19
(5.9
)
14(6.9)
2(4) 3(4.1)
Secondary
15
(4.6)
11(5.5)
2(4) 2(2.7)
Skill
Training
12
(3.7)
8(4)
3(6) 1(1.4)
Graduate
8
(2.4)
7
(3.5)
1(2) Nil
Post
Graduate.
6
(1.8)
5
(2.5)
1 (2) Nil
Total
321
198
50 73
Note:
-
Figures
in
parenthesis
are
percentage
share of women at different levels of educational
attainment
out
of
literate
group.
Source: - Primary survey.
Educational Status and Constraints of Rural Women in India 77
Padhi (2012) in a study explored the impacts of agrarian crisis on
rural women and concluded that structural oppressions of caste,
culture and patriarchy in rural setting is layered and affect women
in multiple ways. Women in Punjab are bearing the brunt of
agrarian distress in the rural economy and are surviving with
dispossessions and deprivations. High dropout rate among girls in
this region has curtailed the educational development of rural
women.
The low educational participation of women hinders their
political awareness, self consciousness and participation in the
development process. Denial of equal opportunities does not
augur well for democracy which is largely dependent on equal
participation of all sections of the society.
Constraints in Educational Opportunities
What makes women remain outside the purview of the
educational arena? The focussed group discussions with rural
women pointed to the numerous constraints and social obstacles
behind low educational empowerment, which according to the
respondents, contributed significantly to educational deprivation
in one way or another. A majority were of the view that the
negative attitude of parents towards girls' education is responsible
for low levels of women's education. Poverty stood as major
barrier for educational drop out of girls, as cited by maximum
respondents -- 83 percent of the illiterate women viewed that
parents were not in a position to afford educational expenses.
Similarly, non-availability of educational institutions near village
and poor academic performance at the school level led to exclusion
of girls from the educational system. Further, lack of literacy
among parents and distance of school were also cited as hurdles in
educational access of rural girls. A large proportion of rural
women interviewed observed that the lack of employment
opportunities after education discouraged parents to invest on
education of daughters. Another social factor which played a
significant role in keeping rural women deprived from education
Research Journal Social Sciences, 24,3 (2016) : 70-84
78 Satvinderpal Kaur
was early marriage and practice of dowry. People viewed dowry
practice as a great liability for parents. Parents preferred to marry
daughters instead of investing on their education. 78 percent of
the non-literate women and 81 percent of those with education
below primary level alleged that the cost of marriage was the major
reason for low levels of education among rural girls. Further, 62
per cent of non-literate women cited that parents feel that co -
education schools and schools in another town are unsafe for
Research Journal Social Sciences, 24,3 (2016) : 70-84
Table -3
Constraints in Educational Opportunities cited by Rural Women
(Percentage)
Level of Education Non-
literate
Literate
(Below
primary)
Primary Elementary Matric Secondary
Family Attitude 76.4 81 64 58 46 47
Poverty 83
86
78
84
78 74
Social Barrier 62
58
36
62
51 26
Parental illiteracy 84
79 67 58
42 26
Distance of school 34
22 68 51
59 29
Non Availability
of Ed. Institute for
further study at
parental village
3.4
18 39 52
66 69.4
Poor academic
performance
2
32 56 72
51 43
Dowry and cost
of marriage
78
81 72.4 79.3
69 58
Un –safety 62 74 56 65 63 59
Lack of
employment after
education
13 15 31 37 49 63
Irrelevance of
education
41 32 46 35 32 19
Source: - Primary Survey.
Educational Status and Constraints of Rural Women in India 79
daughters. The non availability of educational institutions at an
approachable distance remained a major factor behind their
exclusion from education after primary and upper primary level.
Clearly, rural women experience numerous constraints which
severely affect their ability to compete, their efficiency and morale.
An effort to address these constraints can go a long way in
reducing gender inequalities, dismantling various forms of
discrimination and increasing their access to resources, which may
also prove a necessary pre-condition to achieve social justice and
equity.
Research Journal Social Sciences, 24,3 (2016) : 70-84
Table- 4
Percentage of Rural Women with Availability of Educational
Institutions in Village
Type of
School
Distance
from
parental
home
Non-
liter
ate
Literate
(Below
primary)
Primar
y
Eleme
ntary
Matric Secon
dary
Graduate
Primary <1 Km 21 33 52 54 52 57 58
Between
1-2 Km
45 44 42 42 42 41 39
>3Km 34
23
6
4
6
2 3
Elementary
<1 Km 12
44
31
39
37
43 46
Between
1-2 Km
38
35
26
32
36
35 39
>3Km 40
21
42 29
27
22 15
Secondary
school
<1 Km 6
3
7
9
11
36 38
Between
1-2 Km
12
14
8
12
38
53 52
>3Km 82
83
85
79
51
11 10
College
<3 Km 0 0 1.2 1.6 1.2 1.4 1.2
Between
4-10 Km
0.5 1.2 2.1 2.4 2.9 2.7 3.7
11-20 Km 1.4 5.6 5 7 7.9 5.9 9.1
>20 Km 98.1 93.2 91.7 89 88 90 76
Source: -Primary Survey
80 Satvinderpal Kaur
Availability of Educational Institutions
The next objective of the study was to evaluate the extent of
availability of educational institutions to rural women and how it
contributed to their educational deprivation. Table 4 presents the
same figures with respect to educational attainment level.
Out of non-literate rural women, a mere 21 percent had the
primary school available at a distance less than 1 kilometer,
whereas 33 percent gave up education below primary level only
due to availability of school at distance more than one kilometer in
their parental village. Among literates, 52 percent primary level
and 54 percent elementary level educated women have primary
schools at a distance less than one kilometer. Further, 57 percent of
women with secondary and 58 percent of women with graduation
level educational qualification could study only because they have
educational institution at distance of one kilometer. Similarly, 45
percent of the non-literate and 44 percent of below primary level
educated women had primary school at distance between 1 to 2
kilometers from their parental home. For primary and elementary
level educated women, 42 percent in each category have facility of
school at distance in same range. This reveals that parents
withdrew daughters from school due to non-availability of school
at approachable distance. This phenomenon also works today on
for younger girls and is one reason for dropout of girls as explored
also in the previous studies (Kaur, 2012). It clearly points out that
availability of educational institutions near the parental village
plays a determining role in educating rural girls whereas non
availability causes educational deprivation.
It seems very clear that Punjab one of the prosperous states of
India in per capita income, could not address the varied forms of
gender discrimination and developmental issues. Arguably, in a
state the education system is deeply rooted in class, caste, cultural,
regional, linguistic and patriarchal hegemony, which has
reinforced the exclusionary practices in varied forms. The
information collected through interviews of respondents revealed
that a hefty sum of money spent on dowry results in weighing the
Research Journal Social Sciences, 24,3 (2016) : 70-84
Educational Status and Constraints of Rural Women in India 81
cost of girls' education against cost of marriage. And also at times,
the demands from the groom's family continue even after
marriage.
Gender discrimination and insensitivity is one of the most
crucial challenges in Punjab today. The need is to bring girls
and women out of the clutches of ignorance and non-literacy.
Government incentives can be useful to encourage poor families to
invest in education of girls, but it is not the ultimate tool. However,
state sponsored schemes should be simplified and made more
flexible to enable more girls to benefit from them (Singh , 2016).
Conclusion
The inferences drawn from the discussion clearly indicate that the
educational system and developmental plans in the state have
definitely been showing the presence of exclusionary processes,
particularly in rural areas and especially for women in weaker
sections of state. It has emerged from the study that factors behind
educational deprivation of women do not work in isolation, rather
there are multiple causes —cultural, social, psychological and
political determinants. Along with caste, class and cultural
hegemony, patriarchal ethos reflect clearly, as vast majority of
women are deprived of the basic opportunities of life. Low levels of
education and the nexus of the structural oppression of class, caste
and patriarchy is layered in such a way that still women are in the
grip of the vicious cycle of ignorance and non-literacy. Evidently,
the high quantitative growth rate of general education in Punjab,
is not rationally commensurate with the development of human
resources especially for females in rural areas. For addressing
these failures, a significant rethinking of state policy and clear
public understanding of the abysmal extent of social, economic
and educational status of rural women is required urgently.
Punjab, which is one of the prosperous states in India, is now at the
top in terms of gender discrimination, gender bias, violence and
lowest female child sex ratio. The solution for all these ailments lies
Research Journal Social Sciences, 24,3 (2016) : 70-84
82 Satvinderpal Kaur
in education of women significantly. Policy makers must learn that
issues such as disparities, socio-economic stratifications, class and
caste hierarchies, identities, patriarchy and regional and gender
imbalances have a decisive impact on social and economic
development of the country.
It is needed that state should develop clear and specific plans
to address the quality of rural education and participation of
women in the developmental process. Instead of allowing the
mushrooming growth of private, ill equipped, profit oriented,
poor quality teaching shops to mislead the rural population, there
is urgent need to strengthen the public education system to
improve quality of rural education. Further, in order to address
the dwindling rural economy of the state, investment in human
resources irrespective of gender is mandatory to augment the
assets of people, through skill development and employment
generation. Ensuring rural women's rights, opportunities,
participation and leadership in developmental processes, requires
comprehensive gender-responsive measures at different levels. In
addition to legal, policy and institutional frameworks, civil society
should also come forward. Illiteracy, low levels of education and
socio-economic marginalization are serious impediments to
women empowerment that are required to be addressed in every
context.
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84 Satvinderpal Kaur
... From Table 1, 28% of women had education above higher secondary level, which still makes our study population relatively better educated compared to other studies from rural India that show 8% and 13.8%, respectively. [28,29] Education may greatly influence the acceptability of mHealth interventions. It is also related to region-specific differences in economy, access and distance to educational facilities in different areas. ...
... The early initiation of breastfeeding within one hour of birth is 41.6% nationally, according to the National Family Health Survey 4 NFHS 4 (2015-2016. [44] Our study showed that 48% of women initiated early breastfeeding. ...
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... The findings are in line with the findings of Kaur [13] as she also emphasized that the education of the respondents also played an important role in the skill development of an individual as more educated respondents were more aware of getting training. ...
... The findings are in line with the findings of Warkade 12], and Kaur [13] as they also emphasized that more grown-up respondents were more aware of getting training and more educated respondents were more conscious of getting training. ...
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