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Biochemical Profile and Body Composition Alteration of Amateur Bodybuilders during the Pre-Contest Period

Authors:

Abstract

The paper aims to analyze body composition and biochemical profile alterations in amateur bodybuilders during the cutting phase of a contest preparation, and to discuss them in light of scientific evidence. For the purpose of this study, bodybuilders and coaches provided details of drug administration, supplement use and training schedule. The four participants were two men competing in different Men’s Physique categories, one woman in the Wellness category, and one woman competing in the Bikini category. Participants were evaluated for anthropometry and body composition before and after the cutting phase. There was an evident decrease in body fat for most of the participants during the cutting phase without evident loss of fat-free mass. In general, participants performed high volume resistance training combined with aerobic training. Regarding drug administration, participants used high doses of anabolic androgen steroids (AAS), combined with clenbuterol, thyroid hormone, and ephedrine. Blood analysis revealed alterations in lipid profiles, with increased total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and reduced high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels. There were marked alterations in markers of liver (aspartate aminotransferase) and cardiac (MB isoenzyme creatine kinase) damage. Our analysis suggests that the strategies adopted by bodybuilders during the pre-contest phase (high use of AAS and stimulant-based substances) may result in an increased risk of heart disease and liver dysfunction.
Journal of
Functional Morphology
and Kinesiology
Article
Biochemical Profile and Body Composition
Alteration of Amateur Bodybuilders during the
Pre-Contest Period
Daniel Costa de Souza 1ID , JoséAlexandre Barbosa dos Santos 2, Daniery Marques de Jesus 3
and Paulo Gentil 4, *ID
1Departamento de Educação Física, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, 59072-970 Natal, Brazil;
daniel_souza86@hotmail.com
2Universidade Estadual de Roraima, 69306-530 Boa Vista, Brazil; xandre2.0@hotmail.com
3Instituto Federal de Roraima, 69000-000 Boa Vista, Brazil; danierym6@gmail.com
4Faculdade de Educação Física e Dança, Universidade Federal de Goiás, 74690-900 Goiânia, Brazil
*Correspondence: paulogentil@hotmail.com; Tel./Fax: +55-062-3521-1105
Received: 19 March 2018; Accepted: 7 May 2018; Published: 8 May 2018


Abstract:
The paper aims to analyze body composition and biochemical profile alterations in amateur
bodybuilders during the cutting phase of a contest preparation, and to discuss them in light of
scientific evidence. For the purpose of this study, bodybuilders and coaches provided details of
drug administration, supplement use and training schedule. The four participants were two men
competing in different Men’s Physique categories, one woman in the Wellness category, and one
woman competing in the Bikini category. Participants were evaluated for anthropometry and
body composition before and after the cutting phase. There was an evident decrease in body
fat for most of the participants during the cutting phase without evident loss of fat-free mass.
In general, participants performed high volume resistance training combined with aerobic training.
Regarding drug administration, participants used high doses of anabolic androgen steroids (AAS),
combined with clenbuterol, thyroid hormone, and ephedrine. Blood analysis revealed alterations
in lipid profiles, with increased total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and reduced
high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels. There were marked alterations in markers of liver (aspartate
aminotransferase) and cardiac (MB isoenzyme creatine kinase) damage. Our analysis suggests
that the strategies adopted by bodybuilders during the pre-contest phase (high use of AAS and
stimulant-based substances) may result in an increased risk of heart disease and liver dysfunction.
Keywords: ergogenic aids; muscle hypertrophy; fat loss; resistance training; aerobic exercise
1. Introduction
Bodybuilding contests involve the evaluation of aesthetic appearance and body composition.
Participants are judged on aspects, such as muscle size, definition, and symmetry. Bodybuilding
preparation is usually divided into two phases (bulking and cutting), and aims to increase muscle
mass followed by decrease in body fat (BF) [1].
Specifically in the pre-contest or cutting phase, the participants often abruptly reduce their caloric
intake and increase the total time spent on concurrent training, with high volume aerobic exercise [
1
].
During this period, high doses of anabolic androgen steroids (AAS) are used in association with
stimulant-based substances [
2
4
]. However, most recommendations in this regard are not based on
scientific evidence, and could lead to adverse health effects [5].
Long-term abuse of AAS is associated with cardiovascular and hepatic toxicity [
6
8
]. Some
case studies call attention to the chronic use of anabolic androgen steroids (AAS) and the potential
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2018,3, 26; doi:10.3390/jfmk3020026 www.mdpi.com/journal/jfmk
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2018,3, 26 2 of 10
risk for atherosclerotic disease, myocardial dysfunction, acute myocardial infarction (MI), and liver
injury [
9
12
]. Moreover, the addition of stimulant-based substances in association with AAS during
the pre-contest season may lead to additional risk of MI [11].
Regarding training recommendations, an increase in the volume of training is commonly
observed during the pre-contest phase, with an emphasis on concurrent training. Strength training is
often performed with high numbers of repetitions, combined with high volume moderate-intensity
continuous exercise (60 to >120 min a day) in a fasting state [
1
3
]. Gentil et al. [
2
], and Viana et al. [
3
]
suggest that these practices might impair morphological adaptations (loss of muscle mass) and/or
lead to some adverse health effects.
Considering that bodybuilding is becoming increasingly popular, and many exercise enthusiasts
might be likely to engage in it [
13
], it is important to provide some critical analysis of its procedures to
better inform the general public. Therefore, the purpose this study is to describe alterations in the body
composition and biochemical profile of amateur bodybuilders during the cutting phase of contest
preparation, and to discuss these in light of scientific evidence.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Experimental Procedures
This research is an observational study. All data comprises information provided by participants
and their coaches. For the purposes of this study, bodybuilders and coaches provided details of
drug administration, supplement use, and training schedules in both phases of preparation (bulking
and cutting). Additional details were obtained directly from bodybuilders/coaches when necessary.
The study protocol was approved by the Ethical Board of the Federal University of Goiás, and the
participants provided written informed consent for the use of these data, in conformity with the
Declaration of Helsinki.
2.2. Participants
The four participants enrolled in the study were selected through convenience sampling and
included two men competing in different Men’s Physique categories (MP1 and MP2), one woman in the
Wellness category (WW), and one woman in the Bikini category (WB). All participants were amateur
competitors, and were competing in accordance with the standards of the International Federation
of Bodybuilding and Fitness (IFBB). All participants had some experience as contests. MP1 and MP2
were 24 and 26 years old, and had 7 and 8 years of experience of resistance training, respectively,
and both were competing in their third contest. WW was 34 years old, had 16 years of experience of
resistance training, and was competing in her second contest. WB was 37 years old, had 9 years of
experience of resistance training, and was competing in her fourth contest. It is important to point out
that the participants were well ranked in the contest analyzed. MP1 and MP2 won in their respective
categories, WW was placed fourth, and WB was placed second.
2.3. Anthropometry and Body Composition
Participants were evaluated for anthropometry and body composition before and after the cutting
phase. Body mass was measured on a digital scale to the nearest 0.1 kg, with the individual barefoot and
wearing light clothes. A portable stadiometer with an accuracy of 1 mm was used to measure height
with the individuals in the Frankfurt position. Body composition was assessed by an experienced
examiner using a whole-body tetrapolar bioimpedance analyzer (Inbody230, Biospace, Seoul, Korea)
with an eight-point tetrapolar electrode system. The participants were oriented to stand upright, and
to grasp the handles of the analyzer, thereby providing contact with eight electrodes (two for each foot
and hand). Five segments (right and left arm, trunk, right and left leg) were independently analyzed
using two different frequencies (20 kHz and 100 kHz). The input variables included the participants’
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2018,3, 26 3 of 10
age, sex, height, and actual body weight. The percentage of body fat was computed through the
proprietary algorithms, displayed on the analyzer’s control panel, and recorded.
2.4. Biochemical Analysis
Whole blood samples were taken from the antecubital vein to determine the biochemical profile
after the bulking and cutting phases. Participants were in the bulking phase for approximately 3 months,
and were AAS users prior to preparation. However, they interrupted AAS administration 3–4 months
prior to the bulking phase. Blood was collected after overnight fasting, and was immediately analyzed
for the lipid profile (total cholesterol; high-density lipoprotein (HDL); low-density lipoprotein (LDL);
triglycerides), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), MB isoenzyme
creatine kinase (CK-MB), and cardiac troponin T (cTnT). The last blood sample was obtained 48–72 h
prior to competition. Exercise was not well controlled prior to blood being drawn, and thus, some
participants performed light workouts 24 h prior to or on the same day as blood collection. The lipid
profile, ASTs, and cardiac damage markers were determined by colorimetric methods using commercial
kits (DOLES®kit, Goiania, Brazil) specific to each parameter.
3. Results
The evaluations of the anthropometric measures and body composition of the participants before
and after the cutting phase are described in Table 1. For each participant, the first date represents
the beginning, and the second the end of the pre-contest phase. A decrease in body mass can be
observed for most of the participants, with the exception of MP2, who gained 0.7 kg in two months.
All participants lost a large amount of body fat. MP1, MP2, and WW were able to increase muscle
mass during the cutting phase, while MB and WB present reductions of 6.67% and 3% of muscle
mass, respectively.
Table 1. Characteristics of the participants.
Participants Date (Month/Day) Height (cm) Body Weight (kg) Muscle Mass (kg) Body Fat (%)
Men’s Physique 1 07/18 170 76.3 38 13.3
09/14 77 39 4
Men’s Physique 2 09/20 178 87.8 42 17.4
11/09 80.4 42.4 8.6
Wellness 09/20 158 61.6 26.4 23.6
11/10 58.9 27.2 17.3
Bikini 08/22 171 68 33 18
10/11 58 32 8.9
Note: the first date is the beginning of the cutting phase and the second date is the last measurement taken before
the competition at the end of the cutting phase.
The training schedules are available in Supplementary Material. In general, participants aimed
to train each muscle group once a week through multiples sets of multi- and single-joint exercises,
with the exception of calves and abdominals, which in some cases, were trained more times per week.
During the bulking phase, MP1 performed sets of 6–10 repetitions with 2–3 min rest between sets
for most muscle groups. During the cutting phase, the number of repetitions increased to 10–15 and
the rest between sets decreased to 45–60 s. MP1 trained calves and abdominals twice a week, and
performed 15–20 repetitions in both phases of preparation (bulking and cutting). In the cutting phase,
MP1 stopped aerobic exercise. MP2, WW, and WB performed the same routines in both phases of
preparation. MP2 and WW performed 12–20 repetitions with 1–2 min rest between sets. WB performed
8–20 repetitions with 1–2 min rest between sets. During the cutting phase, MP2, WW, and WB
performed around 80–120 min aerobic exercise in a fed or fasting state every day. WB, in particular,
undertook more than 2 h aerobic exercise every day prior to the contest.
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2018,3, 26 4 of 10
Drug use is presented in Table 2. MP2 reported no use of AAS during the bulking phase. In general,
participants used supratherapeutic doses of AAS in different combinations. Stimulant-based substances
were added during the cutting phase.
Table 2. Drug administration during bulking and cutting phases (mg/week).
Drug MP1 MP2 WW WB
Bulking
Testosterone Enanthate 500 - - -
Testosterone Propionate - - - 600
Nandrolone Decanoate 400 - - -
Boldenone Undecylenate 200 - - 400
Trenbolone Acetate 225 - - -
Methandrostenolone - - - -
Metenolone Enanthate - - 300 200
Cutting
Testosterone Propionate 300 300 -
Trenbolone Acetate - 300 -
Drostanolone Propionate 300 - 300 300
Stanozolol 300 300 150 200
Oxandrolone 140–210 280 - 140–280
Clenbuterol - 140 280–420 280–420
T3 87.5–262.5 140 87.5–262.5 87.5–262.5
T4 175–525 140 175–525 175–525
Ephedrine 105–315 - -
Aspirin 1750–5250 - -
All participants were supplemented with whey protein isolate, chromium picolinate, omega 3
fatty acids, branched chain amino acids (BCAA), vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, poly-vitamins, and
glutamine in both phases of preparation. During the cutting phase, high doses of caffeine were added
to nutritional supplements, with doses in the range 420–960 mg/day.
Blood was analyzed before and after the cutting phase, and the results are shown in Table 3.
There were changes in the lipid profiles of all participants. Total cholesterol and LDL increased after
the cutting phase for MP2 and WW, and decreased for the other participants. HDL decreased for all
participants after the cutting phase, and triglycerides increased only for WB, but decreased for the other
participants. Regarding aminotransferases, the AST level increased for all participants after the cutting
phase, while ALT increased for MP2 and both women, but decreased for MP1. Most participants
presented increased CK-MB levels after the cutting phase, with the exception of MP2. After cutting,
cTnT levels increased only for WW, did not change for MP2, and decreased for the other participants.
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2018,3, 26 5 of 10
Table 3. Biochemical profile of the subjects.
Participants Date (Month/Day) Cholesterol (mg/dL) HDL (mg/dL) LDL (mg/dL) Triglyceride (mg/dL) AST (U/L) ALT (U/L) CK-MB (ng/mL) cTnT (ng/mL)
Men’s Physique 1 07/18 165 * 30 122.6 * 62 * 41 26 * 2.8 * 0.006 *
09/14 148 * 19 121.8 * 36 * 61 61 7.1 0.005 *
Men’s Physique 2 09/20 193 * 35 149.8 * 41 * 78 61 14.3 0.006 *
11/09 204 * 16 181 35 * 68 59 9.4 0.006 *
Wellness 09/20 230 * 40 * 171 93 * 36 * 14 * 2.6 * 0.003 *
11/10 262 38 212.4 58 * 38 * 27 * 4.7 * 0.005 *
Bikini 08/22 294 24 260.8 46 * 31 * 27 * 3.2 * 0.008 *
10/11 264 11 240.8 61 * 34 * 36 7.3 0.005 *
Note: The first date is the beginning of the cutting phase and the second date is the last measurement taken before the competition at the end of the cutting phase. HDL = high-density
lipoprotein; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; AST = aspartate aminotransferase; ALT = alanine aminotransferase; CK-MB = MB isoenzyme creatine kinase; cTnT = cardiac troponin T.
* Value in normal reference range.
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2018,3, 26 6 of 10
4. Discussion
This study aimed to describe the practices adopted by four amateur bodybuilders during contest
preparation, and their biochemical profile and body composition. In line with the findings of previous
studies [
1
5
], the pre-contest involved high doses of AAS, use of stimulants, severe caloric restriction,
and high volume resistance training and aerobic exercise. However, as previously noted, most
recommendations in this regard are not supported by scientific evidence, and may lead to certain
metabolic alterations and increase the risk of adverse health effects [2,3,5].
The high use of supratherapeutic doses of AAS by bodybuilding participants to improve body
composition is well known [
14
,
15
]. The amounts of AAS used by the participants in this present study
are similar to those previously reported [
2
,
3
], and are many times greater than endogenous testosterone
production, which is around 2.5–11 mg/day for men and 0.25 mg/day for women [
16
]. Long-term
abuse of AAS is associated with cardiomyopathy and atherosclerotic vascular disease caused by
detrimental lipid changes [
15
,
17
]. A recent retrospective study reinforced the association between
long-term abuse of AAS and premature cardiovascular disease (CVD) [
7
]. High total cholesterol and
LDL cholesterol contributes to vascular endothelial dysfunction, and represents an important risk
factor for coronary heart disease [
18
]. Moreover, lower HDL cholesterol levels are associated with
premature mortality [19].
All participants presented suboptimal lipid profile values. After the cutting phase, HDL decreased
for all participants, followed by an increase in total cholesterol and LDL for MP2 and WW. Both women
competitors presented high total cholesterol, while MP2, WW, and WB presented high LDL cholesterol
after the cutting phase [
6
]. CK-MB and cTnT are specific markers for myocardial damage. Increases in
these markers are associated with histological myocardial changes and represent sensitive indicators
for MI or myocardial dysfunction [
20
]. Recently, several studies have called attention to AAS abuse
and the risk of adverse cardiovascular events [
7
,
10
,
12
,
17
,
21
,
22
]. In this study, most of the participants
presented high levels of CK-MB after the cutting phase, with the exception of WW, who presented
borderline values. Although cTnT is a more sensitive marker for cardiac damage, CK-MB is more
effective during pre-procedural monitoring, and its elevation is a significant predictor of adverse
cardiac effects [
23
]. However, considering that CK-MB is a marker of muscle damage, as well as an
indicator of cardiac damage [
20
], the lack of adequate control for training prior to blood collection
may be a potential confounder in using this marker. In contrast, cTnT remained at normal levels for
all participants in both phases of preparation. Regarding AAS use, it is important to highlight the
reversible effect for most markers when AAS use is interrupted, while continued use may increase the
risk of adverse effects [24].
In addition to AAS, the participants used several stimulant-based substances, mainly during the
pre-contest season, which is similar to findings previously reported [
2
,
3
]. In this study, the participants
reported using ephedrine, caffeine, clenbuterol, and synthetic thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) during
the cutting phase. Considering that during the pre-contest phase there is an abrupt reduction in
nutrients and caloric intake [
2
4
,
21
], the rationale for the use of stimulant-based substances during
this phase is thought to be to avoid the reduced performance and increased perception of effort
observed during severe caloric restriction [21,25]. However, the cost–benefit of this practice might be
addressed critically, since the use of AAS might increase catecholamine release and
β
-adrenergic
receptor expression [
12
], which might potentiate the harmful effects of stimulants. Indeed, the
association of AAS with stimulants has been shown to give rise to an additional risk of MI [11].
Another adverse effect associated with long-term use of AAS is hepatotoxicity. The hepatotoxic
effect induced by AAS use has been associated with an increase in oxidative stress in the hepatic cells
through androgen receptor activation [
8
]. These harmful liver alterations could be determined by an
increase in aminotransferases [
26
]. In this study, MP1 and MP2 presented high AST values after the
cutting phase. High values were also observed for ALT, with exception of WW. The alterations observed
in aminotransferases suggest a potential risk of liver injury, in agreement with Schwingel et al. [
27
],
who suggest an association between chronic use of AAS and incidence of non-alcoholic fatty liver
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2018,3, 26 7 of 10
disease, which is commonly associated with metabolic syndrome and could progress to cirrhosis [
28
].
Furthermore, it has been reported that chronic use of AAS might result in cholestasis, peliosis hepatis,
and hepatocellular carcinoma, or adenoma [8,29].
All participants in this study reported use of oral AAS during the cutting phase. This is particularly
alarming considering that orally active 17-
α
-alkyl steroids have been shown to be particularly
dangerous to the liver [
8
], and to promote increases in cholesterol due to hepatic triglyceride lipase
stimulation [30].
The potential harm associated with chronic use of AAS seems to be dose-dependent [
15
]. Whilst
we agree that it might be difficult to become competitive in bodybuilding without drug use, it is
necessary to provide strategies that could provide better results and reduce the reliance on drug abuse
to help, in turn, to reduce the potential deleterious effects on the health of bodybuilders, as previously
discussed [2,3,5].
The dose response of training has recently been debated [
31
,
32
] and it seems that the amount
of resistance training performed by the participants is over the recommended limit for obtaining
optimal results. Moreover, the performance of resistance training concurrently with high volume
aerobic training might also negatively impact muscle mass [
33
]. While the practices adopted might be
considered successful as some participants increased muscle mass and lost body fat, it is important
to consider the extent to which it would be possible to reach similar, or even better results, while
decreasing the amount of drugs used. For example, Pardue et al. [
21
] observed a drop in resting
metabolic rate, reduced T3 and T4 hormones, and an increase in cortisol in natural bodybuilders
during the pre-contest phase. Considering that an excessive amount of training combined with a
restricted diet could lead to a catabolic state and decreased resting metabolic rate, one might question
if the abuse of AAS is a means of counteracting erroneous practices in both exercise and nutrition.
Regarding resistance training, during the cutting phase, participants performed a weekly number
of 10–20 sets for the main muscle group. Despite some authors proposing additional benefits for muscle
hypertrophy using more than 10 sets per week [
34
], there is a paucity of consistent data to support
this conclusion [
31
,
32
]. Furthermore, Wernbom et al. [
35
] suggest there is a plateau in hypertrophy
gain after a certain point, with a risk of muscle loss when the number of sets is carried beyond the
point of plateau. For example, Ostrowski et al. [
36
] observed similar gains for muscle hypertrophy
comparing 3- and 12-per-week sets for muscle groups after 10 weeks. However, the authors reported a
trend for hormonal imbalance, suggesting a catabolic state for the high-volume group [
36
]. Recently,
Viana et al. [
3
] reported a case of an amateur bodybuilder who experienced loss of muscle mass during
the pre-contest period, despite the use of AAS. It is plausible that high volume training plus inadequate
nutrition was responsible for this outcome. With this in mind, adjusting training volume to the reduced
energy intake often used during the pre-contest phases might be necessary to avoid a catabolic state.
One option for adjusting training volume is to review exercise choice, as proposed by
Gentil et al. [
2
] and Viana et al. [
3
]. In accordance with previous studies, training using multi-joint
or single-joint exercise has been shown to result in similar muscle activation, strength, and muscle
size gains in upper limbs [
37
]. Thus, performing multi-joint exercise can be a strategy for reducing
the number of sets and avoiding adverse training effects (overuse and/or overtraining). Another
alternative strategy is based on the high effort paradigm: high intensity training is a time-efficient
strategy and promotes the same muscle gains with a reduced training volume [
38
]. Performing
repetitions until momentary failure plays a key role in low volume resistance training [
39
]. In this
regard, performing multi-joint exercises with an incentive for competitors to perform sets to the point
of failure, as previously defined by Steele et al. [
40
], might be an optimal stimulus for promoting
muscle hypertrophy with reduced training volume, which could help to prevent a catabolic state
during the cutting phase.
In addition to resistance training, MP2, WW, and WB performed a high volume (>80 min) of
aerobic exercise every day during the cutting phase, which is in agreement with the findings of
previous studies [
1
4
]. However, a high volume and high frequency of concurrent aerobic training
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2018,3, 26 8 of 10
may increase catabolic state-led impairment of muscle gains [
33
]. Thus, reducing the volume of aerobic
exercises by performing high intensity aerobic exercises with reduced frequency, and utilizing cycling
instead of running, might contribute to preserving muscle mass [
41
]. In addition, MP2 performed
aerobic exercise in a fasting state. Although this seems to be a common practice in bodybuilding,
it brings no additional benefits in terms of fat loss [
42
], and might reduce energy expenditure and fat
oxidation, and induce a catabolic state [43,44].
By analyzing the current practices adopted by bodybuilders, it is possible to suggest that the high
use of AAS and stimulants during the cutting phase seems to be a strategy adopted to counteract the
potential deleterious effects of some aggressive practices. However, the abuse of these substances
might cause detrimental alterations in the lipid profile, transaminases, and markers of cardiac damage.
Based on this, we highly recommend that bodybuilders adjust their training and nutritional strategies
to reduce their reliance on drug use.
One possible limitation in this study is the lack of nutritional data during the cutting phase.
Notwithstanding, we believe that this limitation does not prevent conclusions being drawn from
the study.
5. Conclusions
These results suggest that the high use of AAS and stimulant-based substances may be necessary
to counteract the deleterious effects of inadequate training strategies adopted by amateur bodybuilders
during pre-contest preparation. However, our analysis shows that these strategies result in deleterious
effects on the lipid profile and alteration of transaminases, increasing the risk of atherosclerotic heart
disease and liver dysfunction.
Supplementary Materials:
The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/2411-5142/3/2/26/s1.
Author Contributions:
P.G. and J.A.B.S. study design; J.A.B.S. and D.M.S. data acquisition; D.C.S. and P.G.
manuscript drafting; D.C.S., J.A.B.S., D.M.S. and P.G. data analysis and manuscript revision.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
... Competitive bodybuilders or physique athletes are judged on aesthetics (13,16,18,21,23,25,26) and aim to develop a combination of extreme leanness, hypermuscularity, and complete symmetry between muscles (18,21,22). To reach these goals, athletes often use rigorous diet and training practices (7,23,27). ...
... In 4 studies, 2 or more methods were used to measure and calculate relative BF% (8,10,17,21), whereas the remaining 10 studies applied a single technique (3,4,7,(16)(17)(18)20,22,25,26). Six used skinfold measurement (3,4,10,15,17,25), 6 used dualenergy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (8,10,16,18,21,22), 5 studies used bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) (7,8,10,17,26), 2 studies used 4-compartment models (4C) (8,21), and one study used ultrasound measurement (US) (20). ...
... In 4 studies, 2 or more methods were used to measure and calculate relative BF% (8,10,17,21), whereas the remaining 10 studies applied a single technique (3,4,7,(16)(17)(18)20,22,25,26). Six used skinfold measurement (3,4,10,15,17,25), 6 used dualenergy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (8,10,16,18,21,22), 5 studies used bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) (7,8,10,17,26), 2 studies used 4-compartment models (4C) (8,21), and one study used ultrasound measurement (US) (20). The mean BF percentages were generally higher in women, with values measured in the general preparation phase ranging from 15.3 to 25.2% for female and from 9.6 to 16.3% for male athletes. ...
Article
The purpose of this review was to systematically summarize studies measuring body composition of competitive bodybuilding athletes to provide recommended values for preparation and during competition. The protocol was pre-registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020197921) and followed the guidelines of the Preferred Reported Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis. A search of five electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, SportDiscus, CINAHL and Scopus) was conducted to retrieve all relevant publications from 01 January 2000 up to 13 June 2021. Of 16 studies meeting inclusion criteria, six presented longitudinal data on competition preparation and were discussed in detail. In the general preparation phase, body fat levels of bodybuilding athletes ranged between 15.3% to 25.2% (female) and from 9.6% to 16.3% (male). Close to competition, however, body fat levels were substantially lower, ranging from 8.1% to 18.3% for female and 5.8% to 10.7% for male athletes. All studies comparing relative body fat values at various time-points during competition preparation found significant reductions between 30-60% in relative body fat while lean mass was mostly maintained. Findings from the studies included in this review suggest that most bodybuilding competitors keep resistance training volume high while increasing aerobic training volume when preparing for competition. Findings on energy intake and macronutrient distribution were unclear and should be addressed in future studies. Further research, especially on contest preparation, is warranted and should include more details about training programs, nutritional strategies, psychosocial situation, anabolic androgen steroid and supplement use as well as measurement protocols and preparation.
... The author of this study also reported that approximately 6 weeks before competition, there was a decrease in the number of muscle groups trained per session, a greater number of repetitions performed per set, and a significant increase in aerobic exercise volume (21). In addition to the nutrition and training practices used by physique competitors, the use of performance-enhancement drugs (PEDs) and dietary supplements has been reported during the 2 phases of physique competition (11,20,21). ...
... Many studies and case reports have documented the nutritional, training, supplement, or PED practices of physique competitors at various time points in their preparation (6,7,10,11,16,20,21,28,30,35,40,45). Although several of these publications have focused on the "precontest" phase of competing, to the best of the authors' knowledge, none have assessed body composition and body fluids 1 day before competition along with investigating the nutrition, training, supplement, and drug practices 30 days before competition. ...
Article
Escalante, G, Barakat, C, Tinsley, GM, and Schoenfeld, BJ. Nutrition, training, supplementation, and performance-enhancing drug practices of male and female physique athletes peaking for competition. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2023-The purpose of this descriptive investigation was threefold: (a) to assess the nutrition, training, supplement, and performance-enhancement drug practices of male and female physique competitors 30 days before competition; (b) to examine the specific water and macronutrient manipulation performed by competitors during the last 3 days before competition; and (c) to assess physiological responses to precontest preparation including body composition, body fluids, resting heart rate, and blood pressure. Competitors reported performing moderately high volume, moderate to high repetition, split-body resistance training programs performed on most days of the week; the programs included the use of a variety of advanced training methods. A majority of competitors included cardio to expedite fat loss, and most reported performing cardio in a fasted state despite a lack of objective evidentiary support for the practice. Competitors substantially restricted calories and consumed protein in amounts well above research-based guidelines (>3 g·kg-1·d-1); carbohydrate and lipid intake were highly variable. Water was substantially reduced in the final 3 days before competition. Competitors used a variety of dietary supplements throughout the study period, many of which are not supported by research. Both male and female competitors reported using performance enhancing drugs (∼48 and ∼38%, respectively) including testosterone derivatives, selective androgen receptor modulators, and human growth hormone. More research is warranted to elucidate safer and more effective peak week practices for physique competitors.
... Some ergogenic substances used by bodybuilding athletes may have contained a higher proportion of fat or illegal substances disadvantaging other macronutrients (Kerksick et al., 2018). Additionally, high use of ergogenic agents, for example anabolic steroids may potentially increase the risk for cardiovascular diseases and liver disfunction (Perry et al., 2020;De Souza et al., 2018). We found weak but significant correlations between BMI, BF%, and WC with some demographic variables such as age, duration of training, and education status of athletes. ...
Article
Full-text available
Bodybuilders in Limpopo Province adhere to various training and dietary routines to attain their desired physique. However, the anthropometric status and macronutrient intake of these athletes remain unknown. A total of ninety-three bodybuilders from the Capricorn District, Limpopo Province, who were members of IFBBSA, participated in the study. Ethics approval was granted by the University of the Free State Health Science. Athletes signed informed consent before participation Measurements of weight and height were taken to calculate body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), and body fat percentage (BF%). Three 24-hour-recall questionnaires were completed. The SAMRC FoodFinder-3 was used to analyse macronutrients, with the mean values considered. Data were exported to the SPSS (v28), and descriptive statistics were applied. Pearson’s correlation test was used to determine the relationship between variables. The BMI was 25.8±4.4 kg/m2 in males and 24.9±3.6 kg/m2 in females, while MUAC was 35.6 cm for males and 28.3 cm for females. About half of both genders exhibited excess BF% (9.9% for males and 17.3% for females). Most males (81.6%) and all females had acceptable WC. Energy intake was 148 kJ/kg/day and 142 kJ/kg/day while carbohydrate intake was 4.7 g/kg/day for males and 4.3 g/kg/day for females. Fat intake was high in both genders. However, protein intake was optimal in males (1.4 g/kg/day) and suboptimal in females (1.1 g/kg/day). About half of the bodybuilders exceeded the sport-specific recommendations for BF%. However, the energy and carbohydrate intakes were suboptimal, while protein and fat intakes were optimal and high respectively.
... 35 A study showed that those with high-intensity training scored higher in MD symptoms and related psychopathy (irregular eating pattern) compared to the control group. 36 Another study proposed that a higher score in MD symptoms is correlated with training addiction, based on it being high among the 151 male gym users and 25 bodybuilders part of that study. 37 As per this study result, a total of 30 participants stated that they often, very often, and always felt guilty if they missed their training. ...
Article
Full-text available
Muscle dysmorphia (MD) has several impacts on the decline in social and health functions. This study aimed to determine the correlation between MD with eating behaviors and exercise loading among fitness center members and analyze the factors affecting it. This study used a cross-sectional design with 100 subjects chosen by a consecutive sampling method at three fitness centers in Semarang City. The subjects were all male members of an active fitness center between 17 and 45 years. The data of MD were obtained using the Drive Muscular Scale (DMS), while eating behavior data were obtained using the Eating Attitude Test-40 (EAT-40) and the training load data, including the duration and frequency of weight training data. Social influence data, self-esteem data, and perfectionism data were obtained using a questionnaire. The findings revealed that 61% of the subjects experienced MD, 80% experienced impaired eating behavior, and 80% consumed supplements. There was a correlation between the occurrence of MD with eating behavior with PR = 2.56 and consumption of supplements with PR = 2.56. The most influential factor on MD was a social influence.
... Despite the efforts of sports federations, the abuse of energy drugs and dietary supplements has taken on a unique and dangerous form. Side effects of supplements and energy products include aggression, changes in eating habits, osteoporosis, hypertension, neurodegenerative diseases, hormonal imbalance, decreased HDL (high-density lipoprotein), infertility, hearing impairment, and liver cancer [11][12][13][14][15][16][17]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the profile of medicines and nutritional supplements usage, including the correctness of consumption manner, among male bodybuilders. Methods: A checklist was applied to gather data from bodybuilders participating in gyms in Hamadan. Questions were asked about the athlete's demographics, medicines and supplements being used in line with their bodybuilding goals. Then, the pharmacist assessed that how correct is the manner of consumption and provided the participants with the needed advices. Results: 82.5% of the respondents were not using any medicines. Supplementation was far more common and magnesium was the most current product. Wrong consumption was very more prevalent for medicines than supplements. Inappropriate dosage was the most frequent mistake in supplementation. Conclusions: Although a majority of the participants reported that they had received consultation, noticeable issues regarding medicine misuse were identified. Totally, the findings demonstrated the importance of pharmacists' collaboration to ensure athletes' access to accurate consultations.
... Recently, a study showed that severe restriction energy intake during the pre-contest period was associated with an increase in oxidative stress markers (TBARS, malondialdehyde and protein carbonyls), impaired upregulation of antioxidant enzymes (glutathione reductase, catalase activity, and superoxide dismutase), and decreased plasma total antioxidant capacity (Rhyu et al., 2014;de Moraes et al., 2019). Moreover, a previous study revealed that during the pre-contest preparation period, different strategies (AS, clenbuterol, thyroid hormone, and ephedrine) might result in maladaptive effects on the lipid profile and alteration of transaminases, increasing the atherosclerotic heart disease risk and liver dysfunction (de Souza et al., 2018). Thus, these adverse effects must be considered in critical periods of bodybuilder preparation (pre-contest) because the underlying systemic changes may potentiate the possible adverse responses related with BFRT. ...
Article
Full-text available
Blood flow restriction training (BFRT) is a modality with growing interest in the last decade and has been recognized as a critical tool in rehabilitation medicine, athletic and clinical populations. Besides its potential for positive benefits, BFRT has the capability to induce adverse responses. BFRT may evoke increased blood pressure, abnormal cardiovascular responses and impact vascular health. Furthermore, some important concerns with the use of BFRT exists for individuals with established cardiovascular disease (e.g., hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and chronic kidney disease patients). In addition, considering the potential risks of thrombosis promoted by BFRT in medically compromised populations, BFRT use warrants caution for patients that already display impaired blood coagulability, loss of antithrombotic mechanisms in the vessel wall, and stasis caused by immobility (e.g., COVID-19 patients, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular disease, orthopedic post-surgery, anabolic steroid and ergogenic substance users, rheumatoid arthritis, and pregnant/postpartum women). To avoid untoward outcomes and ensure that BFRT is properly used, efficacy endpoints such as a questionnaire for risk stratification involving a review of the patient’s medical history, signs, and symptoms indicative of underlying pathology is strongly advised. Here we present a model for BFRT pre-participation screening to theoretically reduce risk by excluding people with comorbidities or medically complex histories that could unnecessarily heighten intra- and/or post-exercise occurrence of adverse events. We propose this risk stratification tool as a framework to allow clinicians to use their knowledge, skills and expertise to assess and manage any risks related to the delivery of an appropriate BFRT exercise program. The questionnaires for risk stratification are adapted to guide clinicians for the referral, assessment, and suggestion of other modalities/approaches if/when necessary. Finally, the risk stratification might serve as a guideline for clinical protocols and future randomized controlled trial studies.
... Without any counteracting stimuli (e.g., RT), attenuation of MPS ultimately leads to a negative net protein balance and, hence, to lean tissue loss (Roth et al. 2021;Pasiakos et al. 2013). This is supported by the data of athletes taking performance-enhancing drugs who, due to ergogenic effects on protein turnover, do not show significant lean tissue loss de Souza et al. 2018;Howard et al. 2020). Although RT is widely recognized as a potent countermeasure against CR-induced alterations, lean tissue loss is also often reported (Weinheimer et al. 2010). ...
Article
Full-text available
Many sports employ caloric restriction (CR) to reduce athletes' body mass. During these phases, resistance training (RT) volume is often reduced to accommodate recovery demands. Since RT volume is a well-known anabolic stimulus, this review investigates whether a higher training volume helps to spare lean mass during CR. A total of 15 studies met inclusion criteria. The extracted data allowed calculation of total tonnage lifted (repetitions × sets × intensity load) or weekly sets per muscle group for only 4 of the 15 studies, with RT volume being highly dependent on the examined muscle group as well as weekly training frequency per muscle group. Studies involving high RT volume programs (≥ 10 weekly sets per muscle group) revealed low-to-no (mostly female) lean mass loss. Additionally, studies increasing RT volume during CR over time appeared to demonstrate no-to-low lean mass loss when compared to studies reducing RT volume. Since data regarding RT variables applied were incomplete in most of the included studies, evidence is insufficient to conclude that a higher RT volume is better suited to spare lean mass during CR, although data seem to favor higher volumes in female athletes during CR. Moreover, the data appear to suggest that increasing RT volume during CR over time might be more effective in ameliorating CR-induced atrophy in both male and female resistance-trained athletes when compared to studies reducing RT volume. The effects of CR on lean mass sparing seem to be mediated by training experience, pre-diet volume, and energy deficit, with, on average, women tending to spare more lean mass than men. Potential explanatory mechanisms for enhanced lean mass sparing include a preserved endocrine milieu as well as heightened anabolic signaling.
... It is suggested that well resistance-trained subjects should perform both MJ and SJ exercises in order to achieve the target volume for a given muscle group [4]. Furthermore, it is often believed that within this population performing SJ exercises may bring further benefits to adaptation of specific muscle groups [5][6][7]. However, previous studies showed that SJ exercises do not appear to bring superior increases in muscle size and strength when compared to MJ [8]. ...
Article
The study compared the effects of resistance training programs composed by multi-joint (MJ), single-joint (SJ) and the combination of multi- and single-joint (MJ+SJ) exercises on muscle strength and hypertrophy in trained women. Thirty participants were divided into groups that performed only MJ exercises, SJ exercises and MJ+SJ exercises for six months. Participants were tested for 1-repetition maximum (RM) and muscle thickness (MT) before and after the intervention. All groups showed significant gains on 1RM tests from pre- to post-training (P<0.01). However, MJ and MJ+SJ groups obtained greater gains in 1RM for the MJ exercises in comparison with the SJ group. Increases in 1RM for the SJ exercises were similar among groups, with the exception of leg curl, where the SJ group obtained greater gains than MJ and MJ+SJ. All groups obtained significant increases in MT from pre- to post-training for all muscle groups. However, MJ and MJ+SJ groups presented greater increases in gluteus maximus, quadriceps femoris and pectoralis major in comparison with the SJ group. Therefore, our results suggest that, in general, performing MJ exercises seems to be necessary to obtain optimal results from a resistance training program; however SJ might be necessary to provide optimal strength gains in knee flexion.
... Aside from losing body fat, a main aim of competition preparation is preventing the loss of LBM associated with energy deficits and low energy availability (EA) [14][15][16]. For example, one amateur (AMA) bodybuilder whose body mass losses during competition preparation consisted of over 40% LBM [17,18], whereas in non-drug tested bodybuilding, such losses may be mitigated by anabolic steroids [19][20][21][22]. Thus, strategies to preserve LBM are a priority in "natural", or drug free bodybuilding. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: To prepare for competition, bodybuilders employ strategies based around: energy restriction, resistance training, cardiovascular exercise, isometric "posing", and supplementation. Cohorts of professional (PRO) natural bodybuilders offer insights into how these strategies are implemented by elite competitors, and are undocumented in the scientific literature. Methods: Forty-seven competitors (33 male (8 PRO, 25 amateur (AMA), 14 female (5 PRO, 9 AMA) participated in the study. All PROs were eligible to compete with the Drug Free Athletes Coalition (DFAC), and all AMAs were recruited from the British Natural Bodybuilding Federation (BNBF). Competitors in these organisations are subject to a polygraph and are drug tested in accordance with the World Anti-Doping Agency. We report the results of a cross-sectional study of drug free bodybuilders competing at BNBF qualifying events, and the DFAC and World Natural Bodybuilding Federation finals. Participants completed a 34-item questionnaire assessing dietary intake at three time points (start, middle and end) of competition preparation. Participants recorded their food intake over a 24-h period in grams and/or portions. Dietary intakes of PRO and AMA competitors were then compared. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to test if nutrient intake changed over time, and for associations with division. Results: Male PROs reported significantly (p < 0.05) more bodybuilding experience than AMAs (PRO: 12.3 +/- 9.2, AMA: 2.4 +/- 1.4 yrs). Male PROs lost less body mass per week (PRO: 0.5 +/- 0.1, AMA: 0.7 +/- 0.2%, p < 0.05), and reported more weeks dieting (PRO: 28.1 +/- 8.1, AMA: 21.0 +/- 9.4 wks, P = 0.06). Significant differences (p < 0.05) of carbohydrate and energy were also recorded, as well as a difference (p = 0.03) in the estimated energy deficit (EED), between male PRO (2.0 +/- 5.5 kcal) and AMA (- 3.4 +/- 5.5 kcal) competitors. Conclusions: Longer diets and slower weight loss utilized by PROs likely contributed towards a lower EED compared to the AMAs. Slower weight loss may constitute an effective strategy for maintaining energy availability and muscle mass during an energy deficit. These findings require corroboration, but will interest bodybuilders and coaches.
Article
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Introduction: Bodybuilding and fitness are sports in which the primary goal is to build and shape a desirable body figure. Consequently, achieving the ideal body composition is the ultimate aspiration of every participant in these sports. Body composition analysis is a valuable tool for assessing body structure and quantifying data for this specific athletic population. The aim of this study was to determine and compare the body composition characteristics of fitness and bodybuilding exercisers, both competitive and recreational. Material and Methods: This study included 89 adult women and men, aged 18 to 37, who were categorized into four groups: female competitors (N = 9), female recreational participants (N = 30), male competitors (N = 15), and male recreational participants (N = 35). Body composition was assessed using the bioelectrical impedance method, specifically the In-Body720. Results: The comparison of bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) obesity parameters revealed that BMI did not significantly differ between competitors and recreational participants in both male and female groups. However, competitors (both male and female) displayed a higher volume of body fluids (ICW and ECW). Body fat mass (BFM) was statistically greater in recreational participants when compared to competitors, with females having 18.58 kg vs. 12.47 kg, and males having 16.64 kg vs. 9.81 kg. Mean values of body fat percentage were also statistically higher in recreational participants compared to competitors, with women at 27.25% vs. 16.39% and men at 19.49% vs. 11.97%. Conclusions: Fitness competitors had a significantly higher fat-free mass and a significantly lower fat component. Recreational exercisers exhibited significantly higher obesity parameters, body fat percentage, and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) compared to competitors in fitness and bodybuilding.
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Background Competitive bodybuilders employ a combination of resistance training, cardiovascular exercise, calorie reduction, supplementation regimes and peaking strategies in order to lose fat mass and maintain fat free mass. Although recommendations exist for contest preparation, applied research is limited and data on the contest preparation regimes of bodybuilders are restricted to case studies or small cohorts. Moreover, the influence of different nutritional strategies on competitive outcome is unknown. Methods Fifty-one competitors (35 male and 16 female) volunteered to take part in this project. The British Natural Bodybuilding Federation (BNBF) runs an annual national competition for high level bodybuilders; competitors must qualify by winning at a qualifying events or may be invited at the judge’s discretion. Competitors are subject to stringent drug testing and have to undergo a polygraph test. Study of this cohort provides an opportunity to examine the dietary practices of high level natural bodybuilders. We report the results of a cross-sectional study of bodybuilders competing at the BNBF finals. Volunteers completed a 34-item questionnaire assessing diet at three time points. At each time point participants recorded food intake over a 24-h period in grams and/or portions. Competitors were categorised according to contest placing. A “placed” competitor finished in the top 5, and a “Non-placed” (DNP) competitor finished outside the top 5. Nutrient analysis was performed using Nutritics software. Repeated measures ANOVA and effect sizes (Cohen’s d) were used to test if nutrient intake changed over time and if placing was associated with intake. ResultsMean preparation time for a competitor was 22 ± 9 weeks. Nutrient intake of bodybuilders reflected a high-protein, high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet. Total carbohydrate, protein and fat intakes decreased over time in both male and female cohorts (P < 0.05). Placed male competitors had a greater carbohydrate intake at the start of contest preparation (5.1 vs 3.7 g/kg BW) than DNP competitors (d = 1.02, 95% CI [0.22, 1.80]). Conclusions Greater carbohydrate intake in the placed competitors could theoretically have contributed towards greater maintenance of muscle mass during competition preparation compared to DNP competitors. These findings require corroboration, but will likely be of interest to bodybuilders and coaches.
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Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS) abuse and misuse is nowadays a harmful habit involving both professional or recreational athletes, as well as general population. AAS are also frequently present in over-the-counter dietary supplements without being declared in the list of ingredients, leaving consumers unaware of the risks of adverse effects. Indeed, health risks of AAS consumption in pharmaceutical preparations or dietary complements seem still underestimated and under-reported. The variety of complications due to AAS misuse involves cardiovascular, central nervous, musculoskeletal and genitourinary systems of both males and females; psychiatric and behavioral effects, damages to metabolic system, skin and mainly liver. For instance, relevant concern has been raised by the AAS hepatotoxicity including adenoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, cholestasis, and peliosis hepatis. The present review reports the information available on the hepatotoxic effects of AAS use in professional and amateur athletes.
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