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Intimate Partner Violence Against Women Among North Korean Refugees: A Comparison With South Koreans
Abstract
North Korean refugees in South Korea have been reported as at higher risk of intimate partner violence (IPV). However, few studies have examined risk factors of IPV among North Korean refugees. This study aimed to report the prevalence of IPV against women among North Korean refugees, and compared the risk factors of IPV against women between South Koreans and North Korean refugees in South Korea. Data from a nationwide survey about domestic violence in South Korea were used. The rate of IPV against women by North Korean refugees was 57.1%, which is considerably higher than that of South Koreans (9.9%). The regression analysis indicated that North Korean refugees perpetrated partner violence against women more frequently than South Koreans, even after controlling for socioeconomic factors. Child abuse victimization and witnessing IPV between parents were the main factors of IPV against women among South Koreans. On the other hand, stress and a tolerant attitude toward using violence were significantly associated with IPV against women among North Korean refugees. The findings suggested that stress management and education on reducing tolerance to violence should be provided to prevent IPV against women among North Korean refugees.
... Immigrant and refugee women are particularly vulnerable to IPV victimization (Um et al., 2018). Although there is limited research on the prevalence of IPV among North Korean (NK) refugee women, IPV victimization following settling down in South Korea is known to be much greater than that in the general South Korean population (Korean Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, 2010;Nam et al., 2020). More specifically, a study reported that approximately 82.0% of NK refugee women in South Korea had experienced IPV in the past year (Korean Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, 2010). ...
... NK refugee women living in South Korea are vulnerable to IPV (Um et al., 2018) and have higher rates of IPV than the general South Korean population (Korean Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, 2010;Nam et al., 2020). Low socioeconomic status, a lack of social networks, and adaptation challenges are risk factors for IPV victimization among immigrant women, including NK refugee women (Nam et al., 2020;Njie-Carr et al., 2021;Um et al., 2018). ...
... NK refugee women living in South Korea are vulnerable to IPV (Um et al., 2018) and have higher rates of IPV than the general South Korean population (Korean Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, 2010;Nam et al., 2020). Low socioeconomic status, a lack of social networks, and adaptation challenges are risk factors for IPV victimization among immigrant women, including NK refugee women (Nam et al., 2020;Njie-Carr et al., 2021;Um et al., 2018). In particular, GBV experiences before and during migration are associated with an elevated risk of IPV among NK refugee women . ...
Objective: This study investigated the relationship between gender-based violence (GBV) experienced before and during migration and increased risk for intimate partner violence (IPV) among North Korean (NK) refugee women after resettlement in South Korea. We also assessed the mitigating role of two types of social networks (i.e., bonding and bridging) in the relationship between GBV and IPV. Bonding networks (i.e., relationships with people sharing similar backgrounds and experiences) have been found to protect IPV victims by providing them with emotional support, and bridging networks (i.e., extended connections with people from different backgrounds) to help victims with their response strategies to IPV. Method: A cross-sectional survey was administered to NK refugee women living in South Korea (N = 212). Results: Multivariate analyses revealed that past GBV exposure was significantly associated with current IPV exposure. Both types of social networks significantly attenuated the relationship between GBV and IPV. Conclusions: The findings of this study showed that a history of GBV victimization could increase risk of IPV from current partners, as male partners of NK refugee women with experiences of GBV might perceive past sexual victimization as a disgrace and perpetrate violence during conflicts. However, IPV victimization might be prevented by enhancing social networks. Bonding networks might provide emotional support for NK refugee women, and bridging networks might help them find necessary resources and information to respond to the violence. Thus, violence prevention and intervention approaches should consider the extent to which bonding and bridging social networks affect IPV victims and revictimization.
... The IPV has been identified among refugee women globally and Syrian refugee women is no exception. [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18] Several social and economic factors have been attributed to IPV including age, education, 19-21 income/economic status, financial stress, 11,14,18,22-24 patriarchal norms, and exposure to violence. 11, 15,17,22,[25][26][27] Studies in general have shown that economic dependence of a woman on husband lead to IPV. 20,28-31 However, literature also suggests women's economic independence is associated with higher IPV. ...
... [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18] Several social and economic factors have been attributed to IPV including age, education, 19-21 income/economic status, financial stress, 11,14,18,22-24 patriarchal norms, and exposure to violence. 11, 15,17,22,[25][26][27] Studies in general have shown that economic dependence of a woman on husband lead to IPV. 20,28-31 However, literature also suggests women's economic independence is associated with higher IPV. 22,[32][33][34][35][36][37] Globally there are mixed results whether financial dependence and economic empowerment increases IPV risks depending on the social and economic contexts. ...
... The final model for this analysis was based on identification of existing factors in the literature and stepwise elimination. 15,[17][18][19][20][21]23,33,[47][48][49] The "IPV ever" variable was excluded from the model due to a concern for multicollinearity. All analyses were conducted using STATA version 16.0. ...
# Background
Globally, several studies show that the prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) is associated with the financial dependence of women on their husbands. Limited research exists on the relationship between IPV and male partner financial dependence among refugees, especially Syrian refuge women in host countries. This paper is designed to examine the relationship between financial dependence of Syrian refugee women on their husbands in the host country and IPV perpetrated by husbands. We hypothesize that women whose financial dependence on their husbands increased in the host country Jordan as a result of displacement caused the Syrian Civil War are more likely to report experiences of IPV within the past 12 months as compared to women whose financial dependence on their husbands did not increase or change.
# Methods
We recruited 507 Syrian refugee women for the project Advancing Solutions in Policy, Implementation, Research and Engagement for Refugees (ASPIRE) study using time and venue-based random sampling from health clinics in Jordan in 2018. Eligibility criteria included: being a female Syrian refugee, living in non-camp settings, and being at least 18 years of age. Women participated in face to face interviews on gendered health and mental health concerns, physical and sexual IPV in the past year, and financial dependence on their husbands. In this paper we focused on women who were married prior to the Syrian civil war (N=313). We asked if the war in Syrian increased, decreased, or did not change the financial dependence on the husband. We used multivariable logistic regression to examine the association between financial dependence and IPV, adjusting for covariates of age, education, family decision-maker in the household, marital status, number of children in the household, and Syrian governorate prior to leaving Syria.
# Results
On average, women were 35.7 (standard deviation, SD=9.05) years. Nearly half (41.2%) reported a decrease in financial dependence on their husbands after the Syrian civil war. A little over one-fifth (20.5%) of the women reported an increase in financial dependence on their husbands after the Syrian civil war. More than one-third (38.3%) of Syrian refugee women in the study reported that their financial dependence on their husbands did not change. Nearly two-fifths of women (38.7%) reported experiencing IPV in the past 12 months. Participants who experienced a decrease in financial dependence had 1.99 higher odds (adjusted odds ratio, aOR=1.99, 95% CI, confidence interval=1.11-3.58) of experiencing IPV in the past 12 months. Participants who experienced an increase in financial dependence also had 1.96 higher odds (aOR=1.96, 95% CI=1.00-3.81) of experiencing IPV in the past 12 months. Therefore, we found that women whose financial dependence on their husbands either increased or decreased were both more likely to report experiencing IPV perpetrated by husbands in the last 12 months, suggesting the possible implications of disrupted stability in a relationship in conflict situations, compared to women whose financial dependence on their husbands did not change after the Syrian civil war.
# Conclusions
IPV prevention efforts in changing household dynamics among Syrian refugee married couples should be considered while developing potential economic empowerment intervention programs. As women may be more likely disclose their financial dependence changes than IPV experiences, these lessons could benefit the health and humanitarian sector in identifying women’s health and protection needs.
... Eighteen studies had a cross-sectional design (Clark & Haj-Yahia, 2011;Falb et al., 2013;Feseha et al., 2012;Haj Yahia & Clark, 2013;Hammoury et al., 2009;Hynes et al., 2004;Keygnaert et al., 2015;Khawaja & Hammoury, 2008a;Khawaja et al., 2008b;Nam et al, 2017;Napolitano et al., 2018;Oliveira et al., 2018;Pannetier et al., 2018;Parmar et al., 2012Parmar et al., , 2014Tappis et al., 2012;Um et al., 2018;Wako et al., 2015), three were prevalence studies (Al-Modallal et al., 2015;Hammoury & Khawaja, 2007;Kim et al., 2017), and two were cohort studies (Rees et al., 2018;Stewart et al., 2012). The length of follow-up in the cohort studies was 4 months and 15 months. ...
... Two reported on domestic violence (Hammoury et al., 2009;Tappis et al., 2012). Two reported on physical IPV only (Khawaja et al., 2008b;Nam et al, 2017). One reported on physical and sexual IPV only (Stewart et al., 2012). ...
... Two studies had other IPV outcomes (Hynes et al., 2004;Kim et al., 2017). According to GRADE criteria, the certainty of evidence was low in four studies and very low in 19 studies (Hammoury et al., 2009;Nam et al., 2017;Rees et al., 2018;Stewart et al., 2012). ...
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a common and serious health and justice problem. Asylum seekers and refugees are generally vulnerable to violence and may be particularly vulnerable to IPV. The aim of this study is to identify factors associated with IPV perpetration and victimization in asylum seeking and refugee populations through a systematic review of the literature. PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Embase, Global Health, PsycINFO, Westlaw, and Social Science Research Network databases were searched. Quantitative studies were included according to a population, exposure, outcome framework. Studies were critically appraised with the Joanna Briggs Institute’s System for the Unified Management, Assessment and Review of Information tool and quality assessed according to the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations approach. Meta-analysis was not possible due to heterogeneity. A complex multitude of factors associated with IPV perpetration and victimization in asylum seeking and refugee populations was found. Narrative synthesis of 23 studies showed an inverse association between both perpetrator and victim education level and IPV. Relationship factors, legal status, and age were also important factors associated with IPV. The majority of studies had a cross-sectional design. Heterogeneity in definitions of IPV, sample, methods, statistical procedures, and outcomes was reported. Low education level is a consistent modifiable factor associated with IPV in asylum seeking and refugee populations. This work points to a testable intervention that stakeholders could trial to address the unjust and unhealthy problem of IPV. More and better quality research using standardized definitions, longitudinal design, and sensitive tools is needed in this area.
... Eighteen studies had a cross-sectional design (Clark & Haj-Yahia, 2011;Falb et al., 2013;Feseha et al., 2012;Haj Yahia & Clark, 2013;Hammoury et al., 2009;Hynes et al., 2004;Keygnaert et al., 2015;Khawaja & Hammoury, 2008a;Khawaja et al., 2008b;Nam et al, 2017;Napolitano et al., 2018;Oliveira et al., 2018;Pannetier et al., 2018;Parmar et al., 2012Parmar et al., , 2014Tappis et al., 2012;Um et al., 2018;Wako et al., 2015), three were prevalence studies (Al-Modallal et al., 2015;Hammoury & Khawaja, 2007;Kim et al., 2017), and two were cohort studies (Rees et al., 2018;Stewart et al., 2012). The length of follow-up in the cohort studies was 4 months and 15 months. ...
... Two reported on domestic violence (Hammoury et al., 2009;Tappis et al., 2012). Two reported on physical IPV only (Khawaja et al., 2008b;Nam et al, 2017). One reported on physical and sexual IPV only (Stewart et al., 2012). ...
... Two studies had other IPV outcomes (Hynes et al., 2004;Kim et al., 2017). According to GRADE criteria, the certainty of evidence was low in four studies and very low in 19 studies (Hammoury et al., 2009;Nam et al., 2017;Rees et al., 2018;Stewart et al., 2012). ...
Background
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a pressing public health concern with well-documented evidence of adverse health consequences including mortality, physical, psychological and sexual harm. The specific experience of the asylum seeking and refugee populations includes exposure to pre-migration, migration and post-migration risk factors for adverse events. This migration history, along with factors such as differences in cultural values and norms may make these populations especially vulnerable to IPV. The aim and objective of this review was to identify risk factors for IPV in the asylum seeking and refugee populations by synthesising and critiquing the literature on this topic.
Methods
We identified 7,219 records by searching the PubMed, Web of Science, SCOPUS, Global Health, Embase, PsycINFO, Westlaw and SSRN electronic databases. We searched grey literature databases, agency websites and repositories. We critically appraised and extracted data using the JBI SUMARI tool. We ranked evidence quality using the GRADE approach. Meta-analysis was not possible due to heterogeneity. We took a framework analysis approach to narrative synthesis i.e. familiarisation, identifying a thematic framework, indexing, charting, mapping and interpretation. We considered any risk factor as the exposure and IPV as the outcome. We separated asylum seekers and refugees for subgroup analysis. We registered the review with PROSPERO and adhered to the PRISMA reporting criteria.
Results
This review is ongoing. Searching resulted in 7,220 records. There were 4,693 records after we removed duplicates. We screened 4,693 titles and abstracts, selecting 52 studies for full-text assessment against explicit eligibility criteria. We excluded 28 studies with reasons for exclusion. We included 24 studies in the analysis. Twenty studies had a cross-sectional design, three were prevalence studies and one a cohort study. Political violence, conflict victimization, attitudes to IPV, previous experience of IPV and education emerged as categories of risk factors that may be associated with IPV. 96% of studies had a cross-sectional design, therefore temporality and direction of associations were difficult to determine.
Discussion
There is a large gap in research and policy-relevant evidence in this area. This review is important because it may be the first systematic review on this particular topic. The challenges for this study include inconsistent terminology, absent definitions, validity and reliability of measures of risk factors and IPV, self-report of IPV. This review may have implications for policy on safeguarding residents in reception centres and camps, screening for and reporting of IPV in clinical practice and future research.
... The total of 953 identified studies decreased to 949 after the exclusion of repeated studies. After the abstracts of these 949 studies were reviewed, 94 were retrieved; of these, 36 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review (Ahmad-Stout et al., 2018;Odwe et al., 2018;Gennari et al., 2017;Nam et al., 2017;Wachter et al., 2017;Holtmann, 2016;Kalunta-Crumpton, 2016;Um et al., 2016;Usta et al., 2016;Kim and Sung, 2015;Parcesepe et al., 2015;Sipsma et al., 2015;Wako et al., 2015;Akhter and Kusakabe, 2014;Wirtz et al., 2014;Kyriakakis, 2014;Moya et al., 2014;Akinsulure-Smith et al., 2013;Fisher, 2013;Kalunta-Crumpton, 2013;Reina et al., 2013;Wirtz et al., 2013;Feseha et al., 2012;Fuchsel et al., 2012;Keygnaert et al., N. Daoud 2012;Zakar et al., 2012;Zannettino, 2012;Anitha, 2011;Earner, 2010;Horn, 2010;Jin and Keat, 2009;Ahmad et al., 2009;Erez et al., 2009;Bui and Morash, 2008;Morash et al., 2007;Thapa-Oli et al., 2008) -see Figure 1. ...
... Rwanda, Colombia and South Korea reported an array IPV types, such as physical, emotional, sexual and financial (Feseha et al., 2012;Wirtz et al., 2014;Parcesepe et al., 2015;Sipsma et al., 2015;Wako et al., 2015;Um et al., 2016;Wachter et al., 2017;Nam et al., 2017). The findings of Parcesepe et al. (2015) in the Abware and Kebribeyah camps in Ethiopia showed that 75% of violence experienced by women occurred inside the home, while only 5% occurred outside the home. ...
... The findings of Parcesepe et al. (2015) in the Abware and Kebribeyah camps in Ethiopia showed that 75% of violence experienced by women occurred inside the home, while only 5% occurred outside the home. North Korean female refugees experienced a higher level of abuse by their intimate partners than South Korean female citizens (Nam et al., 2017). ...
This article provides a systematic review of the empirical evidence
related to intimate partner violence (IPV) in migrant communities. The main
goal of the article is to understand the exposure to and impact of IPV among
migrant women, the drivers of IPV and the barriers to disclosure and
help-seeking. The search resulted in 36 studies that meet the inclusion and
quality assessment criteria. The findings show that migrant women are exposed
to various levels of IPV in refugee and immigrant contexts. Following the
ecological model, the drivers of IPV are categorised at the individual level
(e.g., alcohol and substance abuse), the relationship/household level (e.g.,
reversal of gender roles), and the community/society level (e.g., social
acceptability of IPV). The literature review also highlights gaps in the
literature, such as the relationship between IPV and other types of violence
suffered by women. The article has recommendations, one of which is to
conduct future large-scale studies that consider the intersectional, and
post-structural feminist perspectives.
... The total of 953 identified studies decreased to 949 after the exclusion of repeated studies. After the abstracts of these 949 studies were reviewed, 94 were retrieved; of these, 36 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review (Ahmad-Stout et al., 2018;Odwe et al., 2018;Gennari et al., 2017;Nam et al., 2017;Wachter et al., 2017;Holtmann, 2016;Kalunta-Crumpton, 2016;Um et al., 2016;Usta et al., 2016;Kim and Sung, 2015;Parcesepe et al., 2015;Sipsma et al., 2015;Wako et al., 2015;Akhter and Kusakabe, 2014;Wirtz et al., 2014;Kyriakakis, 2014;Moya et al., 2014;Akinsulure-Smith et al., 2013;Fisher, 2013;Kalunta-Crumpton, 2013;Reina et al., 2013;Wirtz et al., 2013;Feseha et al., 2012;Fuchsel et al., 2012;Keygnaert et al., 2012;Zakar et al., 2012;Zannettino, 2012;Anitha, 2011;Earner, 2010;Horn, 2010;Jin and Keat, 2009;Ahmad et al., 2009;Erez et al., 2009;Bui and Morash, 2008;Morash et al., 2007;Thapa-Oli et al., 2008) -see Figure 1. ...
... All articles confirmed that migrant women are exposed to IPV in varying proportions. Refugee and displaced women in South Sudan, Kenya, Iraq, Ethiopia, Myanmar, Rwanda, Colombia and South Korea reported an array IPV types, such as physical, emotional, sexual and financial (Feseha et al., 2012;Wirtz et al., 2014;Parcesepe et al., 2015;Sipsma et al., 2015;Wako et al., 2015;Um et al., 2016;Wachter et al., 2017;Nam et al., 2017). The findings of Parcesepe et al. (2015) in the Abware and Kebribeyah camps in Ethiopia showed that 75% of violence experienced by women occurred inside the home, while only 5% occurred outside the home. ...
... The findings of Parcesepe et al. (2015) in the Abware and Kebribeyah camps in Ethiopia showed that 75% of violence experienced by women occurred inside the home, while only 5% occurred outside the home. North Korean female refugees experienced a higher level of abuse by their intimate partners than South Korean female citizens (Nam et al., 2017). ...
... NKDs in South Korea are reported to be at a higher risk (57.1%) of intimate partner violence (IPV) than SKNs (9.9%) [48]. A tolerant attitude and stress were significantly related to IPV against women in NKDs. ...
... To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. [20,22,37] • Repatriation experiences [38] • Long staying periods after entrance [21,22,44] • Perceived discrimination [10] • Low income [13,46,47] • Family relationships (family violence, family cohesion) [17,48,49] • Physical illnesses [19,51] • Alexithymia [31] • Emotion regulation strategy [40] • Thoughts of personal failure [41] • Resilience [42] Curr Behav Neurosci Rep Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved. ...
Purpose of Review
This study aimed to review the mental health status of North Korean defectors (NKDs) and related factors. Interventions to promote their mental health and issues to be dealt with are also reviewed.
Recent Findings
NKDs are often exposed to multiple severely traumatic events, both in North Korea and surrounding their defection. Furthermore, they face sociocultural barriers in adapting to a new society. Past exposure to traumatic events, longer defection periods, forced repatriation, psychological factors, and acculturative stress such as perceived discrimination, low income, family violence, and health complaints contribute to negative effects on mental health and obstruct their adaptation to life in the Republic of Korea.
Summary
It is necessary to develop evidence-based programs to promote NKDs’ mental health and help them to adapt to their new society. An NKD cohort study would be helpful to reveal their long-term mental health prognoses and interactions with pre- and post-migration factors.
... However, the prevalence rates of violence against children in South Korea are serious concerns, including maltreatment (17.0% in 2016), exposure to domestic violence (9.9% to 34.4% between 2010 and 2016), verbal bullying (35.6%), ostracism (23.2%), and dating violence (from 16.2% in 2016 to 19.9% in 2017) (Han & Choi, 2021;Korean Women's Development Institute, 2013; Jeoung Min Lee and Shani Saxon have contributed equally and are co-third authors. Lee et al., 2021aLee et al., , 2021bMinistry of Education, 2019;Nam et al., 2020;Statistics Korea, 2018). Similar to adolescents in other countries, adolescents in South Korea are likely to experience more than one form of violent victimization in various settings, which is detrimental to their health and psychosocial well-being. ...
This study aimed to investigate the association between polyvictimization and offline and online sexual harassment and whether the association might be mediated by internalizing problems, low school satisfaction, and dropping out of school. The analytic sample was derived from the Children and Youth Rights Survey in South Korea. It consisted of 6,353 adolescents’ responses to the sexual harassment question and a set of other questions in the middle and high school questionnaires. The findings showed a direct association between polyvictimization and offline and online sexual harassment. Thus, adolescents who were polyvictimized were more likely to be victims of both forms of sexual harassment. Furthermore, polyvictimization was linked with dropping out of school, which was associated with offline sexual harassment. The findings from the study have significant implications for future research and practice.
... Prior studies suggest a high prevalence of IPV among North Korean refugee women, regardless of the nationality of their current partner (e.g., South or North Korean, Chinese; Cho & Jeon, 2005;Um et al., 2018). When compared with South Korean women (Nam et al., 2020), North Korean refugee women reported 2.5 times the rate of physical violence, nearly twice the rate of emotional violence, almost three times the rate of sexual violence, and over four times the rate of economic control (Korean Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, 2010). Um et al. (2018) found emotional violence (60.0%) to be the most prevalent form of IPV victimization, followed by physical violence (38.9%). ...
Korean refugee women are at risk of multiple violent victimizations throughout the migration phases. However, migration's association with mental health outcomes has received little scholarly attention. This study examined North Korean refugee women's exposure to polyvictimization-exposure to both gender-based violence (GBV) and intimate partner violence (IPV)-and explored whether polyvictimization is associated with an increased risk of psychological symptoms. Data from a snowball sample of 212 North Korean refugee women were analyzed. Polyvictimization was operationalized as No victimization (0), Only GBV (1), Only IPV (2), and Both GBV and IPV (3). The associations between polyvictimization and depression, suicidal ideation, suicide attempt, and alcohol use disorder were analyzed with multivariate analyses. Results demonstrated that 46.2% experienced GBV in either North Korea or intermediary countries, and 30.9% were victims of IPV from their current intimate partner in South Korea. Approximately 25% were victims of both GBV and IPV. Multivariate analyses revealed that GBV was the most critical factor for mental health outcomes. North Korean refugee women with only GBV or GBV and IPV had significantly higher depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation severity than those without violence victimization. Risk of suicide attempt was also significantly higher among those with only GBV (OR = 16.52, p = .015) or both GBV and IPV (OR = 9.96, p = .048) than those without any violence victimization. Implications for future research and interventions among North Korean refugee women are also discussed.
... These programs draw from a multitude of therapy models such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), mindfulness, motivational interviewing, and expressive writing. Treatment modalities based on the CBT approach focuses on changing cognitive distortions in addressing the potential issues (Butler et al., 2006), motivational approaches focus on building intrinsic motivation to change behaviors (Rollnick and Miller, 1995), stress management approaches focus on improving coping skills to deal with stressors (Nam et al., 2020) and mindfulness-based approaches focus on improved awareness to reduce depressive and anxiety symptoms (Evans et al., 2008;Piet and Hougaard, 2011). ...
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is an important problem that has significant detrimental effects on the wellbeing of female victims. The chronic physical and psychological effects of intimate partner violence (IPV) are complex, long-lasting, chronic, and require treatments focusing on improving mental health issues, safety, and support. Various psycho-social intervention programs are being implemented to improve survivor wellbeing. However, little is known about the effectiveness of different treatments on IPV survivors' wellbeing. For this purpose, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the effectiveness of interventions on improving outcomes that describe the wellbeing of adult female survivors of IPV. We searched PubMed, PsycINFO, and Cochrane Library. We explored the effectiveness of available interventions on multiple outcomes that are critical for the wellbeing of adult female victims of IPV. To provide a broad and comprehensive view of survivors' wellbeing, we considered outcomes including mental health, physical health, diminishing further violence, social support, safety, self-efficacy, and quality of life. We reviewed 2,770 citations. Among these 25 randomized-controlled-study with a total of 4,683 participants met inclusion criteria. Findings of meta-analyses on interventions indicated promising results in improving anxiety [standardized mean difference (SMD) −7.15, 95% confidence interval (CI) −8.39 to −5.92], depression (SMD −0.26, CI −0.56 to −0.05), safety (SMD = 0.43, CI 0.4 to −0.83), violence prevention (SMD = −0.92, CI −1.66 to −0.17), health (SMD = 0.39, CI 0.12 to 0.66), self-esteem (SMD = 1.33, CI −0.73 to 3.39), social support (SMD =0.40, CI 0.20 to 0.61), and stress management (SMD = −8.94, CI −10.48 to −7.40) at the post-test. We found that empowerment plays a vital role, especially when treating depression and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) , which are difficult to improve across interventions. We found mixed findings on self-efficacy and quality of life. The effects of IPV are long-lasting and require treatments targeting co-morbid issues including improving safety and mental health issues.
... The same authors also found evidence that exposure to violence in the origin countries increased the level of domestic violence. Nam et al. (2017) argue that the cultural background of North and South Koreans is very similar but that the political system, in which they grew up is very different. Therefore, North Korean refugee men in South Korea who were exposed to political violence tend to be more violent against their wives than South Korean men. ...
In recent literature, there are no academic studies on divorce and domestic violence among Syrian refugees in Germany. To contribute to filling this gap, the current study addresses the question: What are the main causes of divorce and domestic violence among Syrian refugees in Germany, and how are these two phenomena interrelated? The present study is based on 14 qualitative interviews with divorced Syrian refugee men and women in Germany, all of them are Muslim with different economic backgrounds from urban and rural areas in Syria and got divorced shortly after their arrival to Germany. The data were analyzed and coded following Mayring’s guidelines for content analysis. The findings suggest that domestic violence results from conflicts of interest in marriage and divorce between Syrian refugee men and women. The present study uses the economic theory of marriage and divorce by Cary Becker to show how Syrian refugee women’s “gains” of divorce in Germany exceed the “gains” of remaining married and how that leads them to divorce their husbands. In contrast, divorce is a heavy loss for Syrian refugee men. In addition, it shows how this conflict of interest results in domestic violence, by which the men resist their wives’ eagerness to divorce and interpret the marital relationship according to Sharia law and Arabic traditions in order to keep their old patriarchal authority. However, this interpretation is inapplicable and criminalized by the German family legislation, and unwanted by their wives. The findings, through the example of Syrian refugees in Germany, imply that the causes of divorce and domestic violence among refugees in some regards are unique in comparison with natives and migrants. That means that we need more studies on this topic in different socio-cultural contexts.
... North Korea is characterised by a pervasive patriarchal family environment [35], leading to an oppressive domestic environment typified by violent husbands and fathers [36]. The North Korean regime uses patriarchal and neo-Confucian values as a means to secure its own legitimacy and success [37]. North Korean refugee women are thus vulnerable to PTSD because of victimization by the state and in private life inside North Korea. ...
While there is abundant literature on the positive correlation between refugee post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and social isolation, few studies have examined the moderating effects of formal and informal interpersonal support. This study on 154 refugee women from North Korea examines the moderating effects of formal and informal interpersonal support on the relationship between PTSD and social isolation. Data from the 2012 survey of the Ministry of Gender Equality and Family in South Korea Study on Support for Independent Living Tailored to North Korean RefugeeWomen Exposed to Violence were included in the present study. The study results confirmed the positive correlation between PTSD and social isolation and verified the protective effects of formal support. These findings will contribute to policy changes and early proactive interventions to reduce the social isolation of North Korean refugee women in South Korea.
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is the most widespread form of violence against women and the most common perpetrators are male partners. Immigration can involve stressors and barriers that are linked to male IPV perpetration. The objective of this systematic review was to identify the factors associated with IPV perpetration among migrant men. Four electronic databases, MEDLINE Complete, Embase, PsycInfo, and SocINDEX with full text, were searched up to August 2021. Studies were selected that examined factors associated with IPV perpetration among first-generation migrants who identified as men/males and were aged 18 years or older. In all, 18 articles met the eligibility criteria for the review, representing a total of 12,321 male participants, including 4,389 migrant men. A wide range of factors associated with IPV perpetration were found at the individual, relationship, community, and societal levels. Unique risk factors for migrant men’s IPV perpetration were exposure to political violence, deportation experiences, and minimal legal sanctions for perpetration in some countries of origin. Societal factors explored among Latino immigrants were traditional gender roles such as machismo and norms of violence. All identified factors should be considered in the cultural contexts of the relevant samples and should not be generalized to all migrant men. The findings of modifiable and culture-specific factors have important implications for strategies aimed at reducing IPV perpetration. Future research should explore factors associated with IPV perpetration within specific cultures rather than across broad cultural groupings.
This study investigates the relationship between South Asian immigrantwomen’s patriarchal beliefs and their perceptions of spousal abuse. Twenty-minute telephone surveys were conducted with 47 women. The survey collected information about demographic characteristics, patriarchal beliefs, ethnic identity, and abuse status. Participants were read a vignette that depicted an abusive situation and were asked whether they felt that the woman in the vignette was a victim of spousal abuse. As hypothesized, higher agreement with patriarchal social norms predicted a decreased likelihood of identifying the woman in the vignette as a victim of spousal abuse. This finding is discussed in terms of its application to violence against women educational programs in the South Asian immigrant community.
In this article, the authors assess the still limited literature on domestic violence among immigrant women in major receiving countries so as to begin delineating a framework to explain how immigrant-specific factors exacerbate the already vulnerable position—as dictated by class, gender, and race—of immigrant women in domestic violence situations. First, a review of this scholarship shows that the incidence of domestic violence is not higher than it is in the native population but rather that the experiences of immigrant women in domestic violence situations are often exacerbated by their specific position as immigrants, such as limited host-language skills, isolation from and contact with family and community, lack of access to dignified jobs, uncertain legal statuses, and experiences with authorities in their origin countries. The authors then examine the various responses at the national and local community levels to this issue in receiving countries.
This article describes a revised Conflict Tactics Scales (the CTS2) to measure psychological and physical attacks on a partner in a marital, cohabiting, or dating relationship; and also use of negotiation. The CTS2 has (a) additional items to enhance content validity and reliability; (b) revised wording to increase clarity and specificity; (c) better differentiation between minor and severe levels of each scale; (d) new scales to measure sexual coercion and physical injury; and (e) a new format to simplify administration and reduce response sets. Reliability ranges from .79 to .95. There is preliminary evidence of construct validity.
It has been identified that immigrant and refugee women are particularly at risk in cases of domestic violence. This article reveals the qualitative research findings from a study into the significance of traumatic history, social and economic context, cultural differences and changed gender identities on the perceptions and experiences of domestic violence in refugee families. The study was undertaken with a sample of refugee men and women from Iraq, Ethiopia, Sudan, Serbia, Bosnia and Croatia. Compounding contextual factors concerning structurally based inequalities, culturally emerged challenges, social dissonance, psychological stress and patriarchal foundations are revealed. Informed by an intersectional framework that recognizes gender oppression as modified by intersections with other forms of inequality, the article argues the case for community-managed projects involving multi-level empowerment-based interventions to prevent domestic violence.
Examined the stressful experiences of youth in Southeast Asian refugee families resettled in Canada. While many studies have focused on the mental health of adult refugees few have examined the situation of their children. The authors suggest that these refugee children face an array of stressors upon settlement in their new country; school, family, social. The authors interviewed 16 individuals and 3 focus groups to determine the salient stressors of refugees. School adjustment (marginalization and cultural conflict), parent–child relationships (communication difficulties and parental expectations), and internal conflicts (acculturation, values, and ethnic identity) were all identified as significant stressors. Implications for research and clinical environments is suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research on human aggression has progressed to a point at which a unifying framework is needed. Major domain-limited theories of aggression include cognitive neoassociation, social learning, social interaction, script, and excitation transfer theories. Using the general aggression model (GAM), this review posits cognition, affect, and arousal to mediate the effects of situational and personological variables on aggression. The review also organizes recent theories of the development and persistence of aggressive personality. Personality is conceptualized as a set of stable knowledge structures that individuals use to interpret events in their social world and to guide their behavior. In addition to organizing what is already known about human aggression, this review, using the GAM framework, also serves the heuristic function of suggesting what research is needed to fill in theoretical gaps and can be used to create and test interventions for reducing aggression.
The factor structure of the Velicer Attitudes Toward Violence Scale [VATVS; Velicer, Huckel and Hansen, 1989] was examined in three studies. Study 1 (n=460 undergraduates) found a poor fit for a hierarchical five-factor model earlier advanced by Velicer et al. [1989], but a good fit for an oblique four-factor model. In Study 2, this alternative model was cross-validated in a confirmatory factor analysis of an additional 195 undergraduate students. In Study 3, the competing models were compared in terms of ability to predict self-reported aggression, with 823 undergraduate students. The new four-factor model proved superior. Other findings included evidence of factorial invariance on the VATVS, and more favorable attitudes toward violence among men than women. The VATVS appears to measure the same four attitudinal constructs for men and women: violence in war, penal code violence, corporal punishment of children, and intimate violence. Aggr. Behav. 32:122–136, 2006. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
The present review involves the evaluation of 97 potential risk markers of husband to wife violence. Using 52 case-comparison studies as the source of data, markers were divided into four categories: consistent risk, inconsistent risk, consistent nonrisk, and risk markers with insufficient data. Based on this classification, it appears that a number of widely held hypotheses about husband to wife violence have little empirical support. Only witnessing violence in the wife's family of origin was consistently associated with being victimized by violence. Furthermore, it seems that characteristics associated with either the husband-offender or the couple have greater utility for assessing the risk of husband to wife violence than characteristics of the wife-victim. Findings are discussed in terms of the methodological and theoretical implications of current research on this form of adult domestic violence.
It is not clear whether traditional cultural ideology influences wife assaults in Hispanic-American families, or if culture is confounded with the stresses of poverty, unemployment, and immigration status. Our 1992 study of 1,970 families, including a national oversample of Hispanic families, examines the incidence of marital violence in the three major Hispanic-American subgroups and in Anglo-American families, and considers how sociocultural status and attitudes towards violence affect wife assaults differentially. The findings show that Hispanic Americans, as a whole, do not differ significantly from Anglo Americans in their odds of wife assaults when norms regarding violence approval, age, and economic stressors are held constant. At the same time, considerable heterogeneity was apparent among ethnic subgroups on a number of measures. We also found that being born in the United States increases the risk of wife assaults by Mexican- and Puerto Rican- American husbands. However, the presence of norms sanctioning wife assaults within any group, regardless of socioeconomic status, is a risk factor for wife abuse.
This paper presents a comparative analysis of the effects of acculturation and acculturative stress on the self-esteem of Hispanic/Latino adolescents. The study is comparative in that it focuses on variations among both immigrant and native-born Hispanics. The data were derived from a longitudinal study of adolescents (n = 6,760) being conducted in Miami, Florida. The sample for this paper (n = 4,296) consisted of all the adolescents of Hispanic heritage. A complex patterning of acculturative strains was found for US.-and foreign-born adolescents. Acculturation strains and family pride have more powerful effects on self-esteem as acculturation increases among the foreign born, but the opposite is true for the U.S. born. The proportion of variance explained by the acculturation strains and family pride is greater for the U.S.-born adolescents (range = 21% to 29%) than for those who are foreign born (range = 15% to 19%). The findings indicate that much of the research on this subject has failed to reflect the differential processes of psychosocial adjustment faced by immigrant and nonimmigrant adolescents. There are differences in the types of strains reported, as well as in the effects of the strains on self-esteem. Low acculturation adolescents who are U.S. born have an especially problematic profile of strain, whereas bicultural adolescents born in the United States appear to have the best profile. The results suggest a need to advance from simple linear explanations to multifactorial stress models that will increase our understanding of the acculturative process.
The concept of intergenerational transmission of intimate partner violence (IPV) has been an important topic of research. Experts have contended that this brutal path in which violence is transmitted to subsequent generations may be avoidable. This study examined whether public perceptions of the legal regulation of IPV and the certainty of sanction deter the prevalence of IPV. Data from 3,800 households were obtained from a nationwide survey conducted in South Korea. Due to a skewed distribution of the prevalence of IPV, this study applied a zero-inflated Poisson (ZIP) model, which has been shown to address issues of skewed count variables. In addition, use of a ZIP model allowed us to examine factors associated with the occurrence and frequency of IPV. Results showed that child abuse experience and perceptions of the law were associated with the occurrence of IPV. Individuals who experienced child abuse were more likely to perpetrate IPV, whereas those aware of the law were less likely to perpetrate IPV. Witnessing IPV between parents was associated with an increased frequency of IPV. Results suggest that by increasing awareness of laws against domestic violence, IPV may be reduced or prevented.
© The Author(s) 2015.
Current myths about Asian Americans as quiet, nonproblematic, and self-managing ignore the problems faced by Korean immigrant battered women. Wife abuse is no stranger to Korean culture. This book provides insights on how Korean immigrant families' cultural conflict during their adjustment period often brings out wife abuse in their homes. The author cites attitudes toward traditionalism as a significant contributing factor, noting that couples who adhere to rigid sex-roles are more violent than couples who are less rigid. The author also illustrates differences between battered and nonbattered groups with regard to stress-evoking factors and reviews patterns in crisis management and problem-solving methods reported by battered Korean women. This is a volume that will be of interest to sociologists, anthropologists, and feminists.
An analysis of sex-role attitudes by sex of respondent highlights the complexity of the sex-roles concept. The examination of the roles of both sexes in terms of four theoretical components revealed the following results. Males and females tend to show the least divergence over (1) macrolevel social change issues and (2) the familial roles of both sexes. They differ most over (3) extrafamilial roles of females and (4) the stereotypes of both sexes. Both men and women tend to be most traditional in the area of familial roles and most modern in relation to macrosocial change issues. A conceptualization of a general sex-role attitude continuum is suggested which emphasizes the degree of sex-differentiation and sex-typing rather than the frequently used equality-inequality framework. Results of the data analysis (N = 480 college-level juniors and seniors) are interpreted in line with the differentiation/typing conceptualization. Suggestions for the future focus on the need for refinement in conceptualization and operationalization/measurement of the sex roles and sex-role attitudes of both sexes.
PyoThe White House's radical new strategy for handling weapons of mass destruction will reduce international cooperation on nonproliferation, not increase it.
The family, like all other social units, is a power system, resting to some degree on force or its threat. This paper examines the deterrent value of the actual use of force and the implied deterrent of its threat, as well as the outside supports of the use of force in the family which come from the state, the community, friends, and so on. The role of force in socialization is discussed (with some cross-cultural illustration from the case of Japan), and a series of propositions are presented. A final section explores force which emerges into violence as assault, murder and child abuse, from an exchange perspective.
Purpose: This study investigated the degree of acculturation stress among North Korean Defectors and the coping method that they used to deal with it. Methods: Ninety-nine participants of this study were North Korean Defectors in Seoul and Daejeon. The tools of survey for this study were acculturation stress and stress-coping. Results: The score for acculturation stress among North Korean Defectors was which was a moderate level of stress. The score of problem-solving coping was and emotional coping got . On acculturation stress, there were higher scores among people who were old-aged, married, low educational levels, dissatisfied with job, low monthly income, and living alone. On problem-solving coping, there were higher score among people who have jobs. Regarding emotional coping, there were higher score in people who have jobs, dissatisfaction with job, and living alone. The higher the problem-solving coping skill, the less the acculturation stress. Conclusion: Reducing of acculturation stress and increasing adaptation mechanism of North Korean Defectors are very important due to the results of this study. Therefore, adaptation programs like psycho-social counseling should be created for North Korean Defectors.
As the number of North Koreans defectors entering South Korea with their family members increases, it becomes more important to explore the family characteristics that facilitate their adjustment. The data used in the present study was collected from a survey of 195 North Korean defectors. The aim of this study was to investigates how the structural and relational aspects of family influence the socio-cultural adjustment of North Korean defectors. The structural characteristics of family life included whether or not the defectors exited with their family members, whether they were living with family members, and whether they were living with family members under the age of 18. The relational characteristics included family cohesion and adaptability. The study results showed that living with young family members was negatively associated with the social activity restriction problems commonly perceived by North Korean defectors. Family cohesion was also negatively associated with the social activity restriction problems and positively associated with the social isolation problems. The results of this study also showed that family adaptability was not significantly associated with any socio-cultural adjustment problems.
The purpose of this article is to report rates of intimate partner violence, acculturation, and alcohol consumption patterns among U.S. Hispanic couples. A probability sample of Hispanic couples in the U.S. household population (N = 527) was interviewed in 1995. Interviews averaging 1 hour in length were conducted in respondents' homes by trained interviewers. The response rate was 85%. The rates of male-to-female and female-to-male partner violence (MFPV and FMPV, respectively) were highest in the medium acculturation group, followed by the high acculturation group and the low acculturation group. Multiple logistic regression analyses indicate that couples with at least one medium acculturated couple member were 3 times more likely to experience MFPV than couples with two low acculturated partners. Intimate partner violence among medium acculturated individuals may be the result of the difficulties of negotiating between cultures without the support of a strong social network.
This is a study of acculturation and acculturation stress among Cuban and Nicaraguan adolescent males and their parents. The sample consisted of 674 Cuban-American and 211 Nicaraguan-American 6th and 7th grade adolescents and one of their parents. Hypotheses predicting group differences in acculturation stress were tested. Analyses were bivariate and multivariate, using parent and adolescent data. Findings indicated important differences in acculturation stress for different cohorts of immigrants within the two ethnic groups as well as differences between the subsamples. Important differences were also found between adolescent and parental acculturation stress, with more recent immigrants among the adolescents experiencing more language conflicts, while parents reported more long-term language conflicts. Adolescent and parental acculturation-related stressors and acculturation levels were strongly associated with lower levels of family cohesion, increased parent/child acculturation conflicts, adolescent self-esteem and adolescent perceived teacher derogation. The differences and similarities found between the Cuban and Nicaraguan groups, parents and adolescents, are discussed with a focus on the importance of the family as a coping source for the stresses associated with immigrant adaptation.
Existing research has demonstrated that Hispanic Americans as a group exhibit some of the highest rates of violent behavior toward theirspouses. Evidence exists, however; that suggests that these rates vary by Hispanic group identification (e.g., Puerto Rican, Mexican, Mexican American, Cuban). One explanation for these ethnic differences suggests that they may be a result of the process of acculturation. It is also possible that variations in rates of wife assault attibuted to differences in acculturation level may be caused by differences in measures of this concept. This study used the 1992 National Alcohol and Family Violence Survey, a national sample of 1,970 persons, to examine the role of acculturation in both minor and severe wife assault as well as the impact of using different indicators of acculturation. Generational status was the only measure of acculturation that consistently predicted wife assaults; however; ethnic-group differences remained after controlling for differences in acculturation level.
Intimate partner violence against immigrant women is at epidemic proportions, but research has only recently begun to address the concern. A review of the legal, medical, and social science research literature reveals little data, but that which exist demonstrate that immigrant women's cultures, contexts, and legal status (a) increase vulnerability for abuse, (b) are used by batterers to control and abuse immigrant women, and (c) create barriers to women seeking and receiving help. Data also reveal that immigrant culture and context offer resiliency factors through which programs and policy can be used to better serve these populations.
This study examines domestic violence in Vietnamese American families, focusing on changes in socioeconomic structure and culture, to identify factors associated with wife abuse. Husbands' patriarchal beliefs and dominant positions in the family and conflicts about changing norms and values between husbands and wives were found to be related to wife abuse. The study suggests that class, culture, gender, and immigration status could simultaneously affect women's experience of violence by husbands. For Vietnamese Americans, women's economic contributions could not reduce husbands' dominant positions and violence, but economic hardship could prevent women from leaving an abusive relationship. Traditional family values, beliefs in traditional female roles, and perceptions about racial discrimination could also prevent Vietnamese American women from relying on the formal system to cope with abuse.
Data on a nationally representative sample of 2,143 American couples show that rates of domestic violence are related to attitudes about violence and to social structural variables such as income, employment status, sex, and segregated family-decision norms. Whether a person's behavior is consistent with his or her beliefs about violence (e.g., slapping a spouse when one believes this is permissible under certain circumstances, or not slapping a spouse when one believes this is never permissible) depends on being in certain roles and life circumstances which allow or promote such consistent behavior. Consistency can also occur by being in life circumstances which make it unnecessary to engage in the behavior believed to be wrong. With respect both to physical punishment of one's children and to spousal violence, the findings show that a spouse's violence has much greater impact on the respondent's violence than the respondent's own attitudes about violence.
This paper presents a comparative analysis of the effects of acculturation and acculturative stress on the self-esteem of Hispanic/Latino adolescents. The study is comparative in that it focuses on variations among both immigrant and native-born Hispanics. The data were derived from a longitudinal study of adolescents (n = 6,760) being conducted in Miami, Florida. The sample for this paper (n = 4,296) consisted of all the adolescents of Hispanic heritage. A complex patterning of acculturative strains was found for US.-and foreign-born adolescents. Acculturation strains and family pride have more powerful effects on self-esteem as acculturation increases among the foreign born, but the opposite is true for the U.S. born. The proportion of variance explained by the acculturation strains and family pride is greater for the U.S.-born adolescents (range = 21% to 29%) than for those who are foreign born (range = 15% to 19%). The findings indicate that much of the research on this subject has failed to reflect the differential processes of psychosocial adjustment faced by immigrant and nonimmigrant adolescents. There are differences in the types of strains reported, as well as in the effects of the strains on self-esteem. Low acculturation adolescents who are U.S. born have an especially problematic profile of strain, whereas bicultural adolescents born in the United States appear to have the best profile. The results suggest a need to advance from simple linear explanations to multifactorial stress models that will increase our understanding of the acculturative process.
This study assesses the relative influence of various SES measures on the probability of intimate partner violence (IPV) among a national sample of White, Black, and Hispanic married and cohabiting couples. Participants were interviewed in conjunction with the 1995 National Alcohol Survey. Sociodemographic, psychosocial, and alcohol consumption data were obtained from both members of the couple. IPV was measured through the Conflict Tactics Scale, Form R. Bivariate tests were employed to investigate the association between SES and IPV. Deviance statistics, based on contrasting transformed likelihood measures obtained through multivariate logistic regression models, were computed to assess the relative influence of SES on the probability of IPV. Results indicate that annual household income had the greatest relative influence on the probability of partner violence. Future research is needed to explore the pathways by which SES contributes to the risk of partner violence.
This paper investigates the nature of the relationship between social stress and family violence. Specifically, a model of the stress process is presented, the applicability of the concept of stress to the occurrence of family violence is discussed, important research issues relating to the nature of the relationship between these two variables are raised, and predictions are offered regarding the likely impact of social stress upon the incidence of violence in the American family in the future.
Racial/ethnic differences in the prevalence and correlates of self-reported spousal violence in a community sample of Anglo, Black, and Mexican American adults are examined. Females, the formerly married, and Black females in particular (up to 60% of formerly married) were most likely to report both being beaten by and beating a spouse. Multivariate analyses controlling for demographic variables, financial stress, social desirability, sex role traditionalism and drinking quantity (and spouse's drinking among the currently married) did not eliminate the greater likelihood of reports of both beating and being beaten among married Black females. There was little consistent evidence to suggest greater violence propensity among Mexican American than Anglo respondents. The findings raise questions about simplistic socioeconomic status or financial stress explanations of observed racial/ethnic differences in spousal violence. Further, curvilinear effects of alcohol quantity and spouse drinking upon reported violence question simple disinhibition arguments and suggest the need for data regarding couple dynamics.
Based on survey and ethnographic research conducted in New York, this paper shows how the discrepancy between Korean immigrant women's increased economic role and persistence of their husbands' traditional patriarchal ideology causes marital conflicts and tensions. While only a small proportion of married women participate in the labor force in South Korea, the vast majority of Korean immigrant wives work outside the home, most working long hours. Parallel to the increase in Korean women's economic role, their husbands' provider role and social status have significantly weakened with immigration. Despite Korean women's increase in their economic role, most Korean husbands have not modified a rigid form of patriarchal ideology brought from Korea because they are socially segregated from the mainstream society. A big clash between Korean women's active economic role and their husbands' traditional patriarchal attitudes causes serious marital conflicts in many Korean immigrant families. In addition, Korean partners' (particularly husbands') frustrations over their downward social mobility, the long hours spent together in the family store, and their midlife crisis are additional causes of marital conflicts. Other contemporary immigrant groups, mostly from non-European, Third World countries, seem to encounter lower, but similar marital conflicts caused by sudden changes in women's gender role.
A social learning theory model of minor and severe marital violence offending and victimization among males and females was tested. Results support social learning as an important perspective in marital violence. However, males and females are impacted differently by their experiences with violence in childhood and adolescence. Prior experiences with violence have a more dramatic impact in the lives of females than males, both during adolescence and adulthood.
This study explored the relationship between attitudes toward sex roles and attitudes endorsing the legitimacy of physical force by men in the marital relationship. Approximately 40% of this sample of 300 college undergraduates were black, allowing black-white comparisons on these variables as well. The results support a sociocultural analysis of spouse abuse. A moderately strong positive relationship was found between traditional sex role preferences and attitudes supporting the use of physical force. In addition, men were found to hold more traditional sex role attitudes than women and were more likely to endorse the use of physical force in the marital relationship. Whites were found to be more traditional in their sex role attitudes than blacks, but no racial differences were found with regard to attitudes endorsing physical force. Further analysis revealed that traditional sex role attitudes were the most powerful predictor of attitudes supporting marital violence, while race and sex played a relatively unimportant role. Implications for spouse-abuse prevention program are discussed.
The current review critically evaluates the research conducted on the relationship between life stressors and husband-to-wife violence. Empirical work suggests that there may be multiple pathways accounting for the relationship between life stressors and husband-to-wife violence. Contrary to previous reviews of the literature, we found that the existing evidence supports a direct association between life stressors and husband-to-wife violence. In addition, a number of variables mediate and moderate the relationship between life stressors and violence including marital satisfaction, depression, attitudes accepting of husband-to-wife violence, violence in the family of origin, and alcohol abuse/dependence. In order to assist investigators interested in conducting research in this area, we conclude this review by identifying remaining problems in the research and recommending possible solutions.
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious epidemic among Asian immigrant communities. Yet little is known about the scope, nature, and related contextual, cultural, and social factors of IPV among this population. In particular, the lack of research has been evident in examining health and mental health outcomes of IPV and service utilization, revealing notable gaps in health disparities which result in a failure to provide relevant services and law enforcement protection for battered Asian immigrant women. This article examines critically the growing body of literature on IPV among Asian immigrant populations in several areas: (a) the context of IPV: cultural, social, and individual/familial, (b) prevalence of IPV, (c) physical health and increased risk for sexually transmitted disease and HIV/AIDS, (d) mental health consequences and substance use, (e) social support and help-seeking behaviors, and (f) barriers to service utilization. Future directions for practice, policy, and research are discussed.
“The massive threats to human welfare are generally brought about by deliberate acts…, It is the principled resort to aggression that is of greatest social concern but most ignored in psychological theorizing and research.”
As part of a survey of Los Angeles households, 1,243 Mexican Americans and 1,149 non-Hispanic whites were surveyed about their experiences of spousal violence. Questions to assess violence included both perpetration (whether they had been physically violent toward a partner) and victimization (whether they had been the victim of sexual assault by a partner). Over one-fifth (21.2%) of the respondents indicated that they had, at one or more times in their lives, hit or thrown things at their current or former spouse or partner. Spousal violence rates for Mexican Americans born in Mexico and non-Hispanic whites born in the United States were nearly equivalent (20.0% and 21.6%, respectively); rates were highest for Mexican Americans born in the United States (30.9%). While overall rates of sexual assault were lower for Mexican Americans, one-third of the most recent incidents reported by Mexico-born Mexican-American women involved the husband and approximated rape.
IN PREVIOUS studies [l] it has been established that a cluster of social events requiring change in ongoing life adjustment is significantly associated with the time of illness onset. Similarly, the relationship of what has been called ‘life stress,’ ‘emotional stress,’ ‘object loss,’ etc. and illness onset has been demonstrated by other investigations [2-131. It has been adduced from these studies that this clustering of social or life events achieves etiologic significance as a necessary but not sufficient cause of illness and accounts in part for the time of onset of disease. Methodologically, the interview or questionnaire technique used in these studies has yielded only the number and types of events making up the cluster. Some estimate of the magnitude of these events is now required to bring greater precision to this area of research and to provide a quantitative basis for new epidemiological studies of diseases. This report defines a method which achieves this requisite. METHOD