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Effect of Green Coffee Consumption on Resting Energy
Expenditure, Blood Pressure and Body Temperature in
Healthy Women: a Pilot Study
Journal:
Journal of the American College of Nutrition
Manuscript ID
UACN-2018-0096.R1
Manuscript Type:
Original Research
Date Submitted by the Author:
02-Apr-2018
Complete List of Authors:
ACAR-TEK, Nilüfer; Gazi Universitesi, Nutrition and Dietetics
AĞAGÜNDÜZ, Duygu; Gazi Universitesi, Nutrition and Dietetics
Ayhan, Busra; Gazi Universitesi Saglik Bilimleri Fakultesi,
Keywords:
green coffee, caffeine, chrologenic acids, Resting Energy Expenditure,
blood pressure, body temperature
Abstract:
Aim: This study was conducted to determine the effects of green coffee
consumption on Resting Energy Expenditures (REE), blood pressure and
body temperature of individuals.
Method: The study was conducted on 24 women. The REE values of the
individuals were measured with the Cosmed FitMate-Pro. After the first REE
measurements, individuals were given 1 cup of green coffee which was
prepared to contain 6 mg caffeine per kg of lean body mass. After coffee
consumption, REE measurements were made at 30th, 60th, 120th and
180th minutes again. Blood pressure (mmHg) and body temperature
values (0C) were measured simultaneously with REE measurement.
Results: There was a positive correlation between the caffeine amounts
given with green coffee and 30th minute (p<0.05), 60th minute (p: 0.06)
and 120th minute (p<0.05) REE (kcal/day) values. There was also a
positive correlation between the total chlorogenic acid taken with green
coffee and 30th minute (p<0.05), 60th minute (p: 0.06) and 120th minute
(p<0.05) REE (kcal/day) values. The intracellular and extracellular fluid
amounts (I) before and after consumption of green coffee by individuals
were 18.7±1.57 vs 18.6±1.44 (p<0.05) and 11.4±1.01 vs 11.2±0.97
(p<0.05) respectively. The body temperature (0C) changes observed in the
individuals whose usual dietary caffeine intake was 50th percentile≤ after
green coffee consumption were statistically significant (p<0.05). Similarly,
the diastolic blood pressure changes observed in the individuals whose
usual dietary caffeine intake was 50th percentile≤ after green coffee
URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/JACN Email: journal@americancollegeofnutrition.org
Journal of the American College of Nutrition
For Peer Review Only
consumption was almost statistically significant (p:0.06).
Conclusion: The results of this study showed that 6mg caffeine/kg (lean
body mass) intake of women changed body temperature and blood
pressure values and liquid balance depending on the usual dietary coffee
intake. Additionally, chlorogenic acid is also correlated with REE values
besides green coffee caffeine.
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Effect of Green Coffee Consumption on Resting Energy Expenditure,
Blood Pressure
and Body Temperature in Healthy Women: a Pilot Study
Nilufer Acar Tek, Assoc. Prof.
*
*
Gazi University, Faculty of Health Sciences
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics
Besevler/ANKARA/TURKEY
E-mail: acarnil@hotmail.com
Duygu Agagunduz, MSc
*
*
Gazi University, Faculty of Health Sciences
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics
Besevler/ANKARA/TURKEY
E-mail: duygu_turkozu@ymail.com
Busra Ayhan, MSc
*
*
Gazi University, Faculty of Health Sciences
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics
Besevler/ANKARA/TURKEY
E-mail: busraayhan989@gmail.com
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Corresponding Author: Busra Ayhan
a
a
Gazi University, Faculty of Health Sciences
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics
Besevler/ANKARA/TURKEY
Phone Number: +905442977962
E-mail: busraayhan989@gmail.com
The poster presentation of this article was made at International Congress on Food
Technology in 2017.
There is no personal financial interest in the work or with a commercial sponsor.
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Abstract
Aim: This study was conducted to determine the effects of green coffee consumption on
Resting Energy Expenditures (REE), blood pressure and body temperature of individuals.
Method: The study was conducted on 24 women. The REE values of the individuals were
measured with the Cosmed FitMate-Pro. After the first REE measurements, individuals were
given 1 cup of green coffee which was prepared to contain 6 mg caffeine per kg of lean body
mass. After coffee consumption, REE measurements were made at 30
th
, 60
th
, 120
th
and 180
th
minutes again. Blood pressure (mmHg) and body temperature values (
0
C) were measured
simultaneously with REE measurement.
Results: There was a positive correlation between the caffeine amounts given with green
coffee and 30
th
minute (p<0.05), 60
th
minute (p=0.06) and 120
th
minute (p<0.05) REE
(kcal/day) values. There was also a positive correlation between the total chlorogenic acid
taken with green coffee and 30
th
minute (p<0.05), 60
th
minute (p=0.06) and 120
th
minute
(p<0.05) REE (kcal/day) values. The intracellular and extracellular fluid amounts (I) before
and after consumption of green coffee by individuals were 18.7±1.57 vs 18.6±1.44 (p<0.05)
and 11.4±1.01 vs 11.2±0.97 (p<0.05) respectively. The body temperature (
0
C) changes
observed in the individuals whose usual dietary caffeine intake was 50
th
percentile≤ after
green coffee consumption were statistically significant (p<0.05). Similarly, the diastolic blood
pressure changes observed in the individuals whose usual dietary caffeine intake was 50
th
percentile≤ after green coffee consumption was almost statistically significant (p=0.06).
Conclusion: The results of this study showed that 6mg caffeine/kg (lean body mass) intake of
women changed body temperature and blood pressure values and liquid balance depending on
the usual dietary coffee intake. Additionally, chlorogenic acid is also correlated with REE
values besides green coffee caffeine.
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Keywords: green coffee, caffeine, chrologenic acids, Resting Energy Expenditure, blood
pressure, body temperature
Key Teaching Points
- There are several findings, chlorogenic acid may have antihypertensive effect.
- There are the significant correlation between green coffee chlorogenic acid amount and
REE.
- There are intracellular and extracellular liquid amounts decrease following green coffee
consumption (215-280 mg caffeine) and these changes are observed in the individuals whose
usual dietary caffeine intake are both relatively low and high.
- The body temperature values of the individuals whose usual dietary caffeine intake was 50th
percentile and above/relatively high, increased after green coffee consumption.
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INTRODUCTION
Coffee is widely consumed around the world. A large number of in vitro,
epidemiological, animal and human clinic studies showed that regular consumption of coffee
defined as functional food recently decreased the risk of mortality and cardiovascular diseases
and Type 2 diabetes, mellitus, liver diseases and various neurodegenerative diseases such as
Alzheimer and Parkinson’s and several cancer types. The potential health effects of coffee is
reported to be originated from its bioactive compounds [1].
The purine alkoloid of coffee, caffeine (1, 3, 7 trimethylxanthine) compound has
lipolytic and thermogenic effects. Therefore, it is primarily a coffee component that has an
important role in preventing obesity, metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular diseases by
increasing thermogenesis and lipid oxidation [2-4]. The thermal effect of caffeine continues
for 30-150 minutes following caffeine intake [5]. The half-life of caffeine is 5 hours in total
and its thermogenic effect decreases at 3
rd
hour and returns nearly baseline level before
caffeine is consumed [6]. In 2005, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reported that 400
mg caffeine intake from all sources and 200 mg from single dose is safe for adults [7].
Green coffee, which has become popular in recent years, has almost the same caffeine
content (60-72 mg/100 g) as instant coffee. However, it is reported that unprocessed green
coffee contains 70% more polyphenol (free and conjugated hydrocinnamic acid) than roasted
coffee in average [8]. The amount of chlorogenic acid, especially one of conjugated
hydrocinnamic acids, was found to be higher than in green coffee depending on roasting
condition and temperature [2]. There are several important evidences that chlorogenic acid in
green coffee has antioxidant activity, and thus has some important health benefits [9]. It is
reported that chlorogenic acid which has antioxidant effect in in-vitro environment may show
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antiobesity activity by decreasing intestinal glucose absorption, preventing postpandial
glucose concentration increase and decreasing lipid accumulation [10]. A study demonstrated
that consumption of 3-4 cups of green coffee containing high chlorogenic acid decreases the
risk of Type 2 diabetes by 30%
[11].
Chlorogenic acid inhibits glucose-6-phosphate
translocase 1 and decreases sodium-induced glucose transport from intestines [12]. There is
also some evidence in the literature that gluconeogenesis is suppressed in the liver by the
inhibition of glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) activity [13] and has positive effects on both
glucose and lipid metabolizm through AMPK activation [14]. In addition its antihypertensive
effects and impacts on brain metabolism have also been examined in the literature [9, 14].
However, studies on the effect of green coffee chlorogenic acid on other metabolic
parameters, such as thermogenesis, are quite rare[15, 16]. The studies available in the
literature are mostly limited to animal studies and they focus on the energy metabolism and
other metabolic effects of the extract form of chlorogenic acid. [15, 16]. In this context, this
study aims to examine the effect of consumption of green coffee on Resting Energy
Expenditure, body temperature, blood pressure and liquid balance.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subjects
The study was conducted on 24 female subjects aged 20-30 years, whose body mass
index (BMI) was between 18.5-24.9 kg/m
2
. The research was carried out at Gazi University,
Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics.
Exclusion Criteria
Participants were selected from those who are non-smokers, not consuming alcohol,
and not engaged in a high level of physical activity. People who have any metabolic disease
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or regularly use medication for any reason were also excluded from the study. The
participants were required to consume less than 150 ml of coffee per day normally.
Ethical considerations
This study was approved by Gazi University Ethics Committee (Project no:
77082166-
604.01.02-17940). Clear explanations were provided for the individuals with regard to the
purpose of the study, after which written informed consent was obtained from all participants
in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association).
Determination of Sociodemographic Characteristics and Caffeine Intake Levels of
Participants
A questionnaire including 10 questions was given to the participants in order to
determine the sociodemographic characteristics, disease histories, coffee consumption habits
and daily caffeine intake levels (mg) of the participants. In addition, face-to-face interview
method was used to determine the frequencies of caffeine source food consumption of the
participants.
Analysis of Caffeine and Some Phenolic Compounds
Chlorogenic acid fractions, caffeic acid and caffeine amounts in the green coffee used
in the protocol of this study were analyzed through ultra performance LC (UPLC) coupled
with UV detection and High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Accordingly,
Table 1 shows the bioactive components in the green coffee compound used in the study.
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Table 1. Cholorogenic Acid Fractions and Caffeine Amounts in Green Coffee Sample (w/w% of Dry
Weight)
w/w % of Dry Weight
Total Chlorogenic Acids
9.4435
3-Caffeoylquinic Acid 1.3085
4
-
Caffeoylquinic Acıd
1.6475
5-Caffeoylquinic Acid 3.9135
4
-
Ferruoylquinic
Acid
0.2595
5-Ferruoylquinic Acid 1,257
3,4
-
Dicaffeoylquinic Acid
0,409
3,5-Dicaffeoylquınıc Acid 0,249
4,5
-
Dicaffeoylquınıc Acid
0.4
Caffeic Acid 0.03
Caffeine
3,906
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Resting Energy Expenditure Measurement (REE)
Resting Energy Expenditure Measurements of the individuals were performed in the
morning on an empty stomach by means of the Cosmed FitMate Pro indirect calorimeter. The
individuals were asked to rest for 15 minutes in steady state before Resting Energy
Expenditure (REE) measurement and their REE values were determined through the Cosmed
FitMate Pro indirect calorimeter at the end of resting period. REE measurements were made
when the individuals were in lying position. The individuals were asked to follow their
regular diet and not to do heavy exercises one day before REE measurement. Right after the
completion of REE measurement, the individuals were given 1 cup of green coffee (6mg
caffeine/kg lean body mass - approximately 215-280mg caffeine) ensuring that they did not
exceed daily recommended caffeine intake amount and REE measurements were performed
again at 30
th
, 60
th
, 120
th
and 180
th
minutes after coffee intake. In order to stabilize the thermic
effect during the repetition of REE measurements, the individuals ceased food intake and
remained in steady state.
Usual Dietary Caffeine Intake (Food Frequency Questionnaire –FFQ)
Usual daily consumption of foods and drinks with high caffeine content was assessed
with a 36 item semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire by using a photographic atlas
of food portion sizes [17]. Dietary caffeine intakes were assessed by United States
Department of Agriculture – USDA on international nutrient composition database and food
label informations [18].
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Anthropometric Measurements and Body Composition Analysis
In the morning of the study, body composition analyses were made by means of
InBody720 Body Composition Analyzer [body weight (kg) body fat mass (kg), body fat
percentage (%), skeletal muscle mass, protein (kg), mineral (kg), total body liquid (l),
intracellular liquid (l), extracellular liquid] on empty stomach. Body composition analyses of
the individuals were made twice, before REE measurement and at the end of 3-hour waiting
period following the coffee intake.
The height of the individuals were measured in frankfort position by means of
stadiometer. Weight and height values of the individuals were used to calculate body mass
index (BMI) that was calculated as weight (kg) divided by height squared (m
2
), and BMI was
calculated and classified according to World Health Organization classification [19]. Waist
circumferences of the individuals were measured with 150 cm of nonelastic tape measure
having 0.1 cm sensitivity on the middle point between the bottom rib and cristae iliaca while
they were standing upright and looking ahead.
In addition, abdominal and visceral fat levels of individuals were also measured by
Viscan™ Abdominal Fat Analysis.
Measurement of other Metabolic Parameters
Heart rates and systolic and diastolic blood pressures (mm/Hg) of the individuals were
measured during REE measurements. Additionally, an infrared thermometer (Galena®) was
used to measure the body temperatures of the individuals.
Evaluation of Diuretic Effect
The changes in total body liquid (l), intracellular liquid (l), extracellular liquid (1)
were evaluated after body composition analyses (InBody720 Body Composition Analyzer)
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conducted before and after coffee intake. In addition, the diuretic effect of coffee was
determined by applying a questionnaire form to record the personal statements of the
individuals.
Statistical Analysis
All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (The Statistical Package for Social
Sciences) Version 22.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Percentage, mean ± standard
deviation (SD) values were taken for the evaluation of the data. In addition, a Kolmogorov–
Smirnov test was used to determine whether the data had a normal distribution. 50
th
percentile
values of caffeine intake of individuals through diet were found out and baseline
characteristics were compared through Mann-Whitney U test according to percentile values.
Following green coffee consumption, “Friedman” Test” was applied to statistically evaluate
the changes in the REE, oxygen consumption (VO
2
), systolic and diastolic blood pressures,
pulses and body temperature measurements at the beginning and 30
th
, 60
th
, 120
th
and 180
th
minutes. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test was applied to compare the intracellular and
extracellular fluid amounts at the beginning and 180
th
minute. In addition, the changes in
metabolic parameters of the individuals according to dietary caffeine intake below and over
50th percentile value were evaluated. “Spearman Correlation” test was applied to determine
the correlation between the REE values before and after green coffee intake and total
chlorogenic acid, caffeine, caffeine consumed with green coffee and total caffeine amounts. p
<0.05 was determined as the level of significance for all of the analyses.
RESULTS
Baseline general characteristics of the female individuals were evaluated in Table 2.
According to the table, average body weight of the individuals was 58.9±6.06 kg, average
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height of them 163.0±4.11 cm and body mass indexes 22.1±2.35 kg/m
2
. 83,3% of the
individuals were in normal weight, 12,5% slightly overweight and 4,2% thin. Average body
fat percentage of the individuals was 29.3%±6.64, visceral fat coefficient 5.7±1.71 and
average abdominal fat percentage 32.1%±6.09. Lean body masses of the individuals were
41.3±3.47 in average. Baseline intracellular and extracellular liquid amounts were 18.7±1.54
and 11.4±1.01 liters respectively. Systolic and diastolic blood pressures were 98.5±10.00 and
63.3±10.21 mmHg respectively. Average body temperature of the individuals was 36.5±0.30
(
0
C). Baseline Resting Energy Expenditures and VO
2
values were found to be 1299.4±164.5
kcal and 188.3±23.91 ml/min respectively. The caffeine amount taken from dietary caffeine
sources was 197.7±105.90 and 50
th
percentile value of usual dietary caffeine intakes was
found to be 183.74 mg (Table 2).
The evaluation of the baseline characteristics of dietary caffeine intake amount
according to 50
th
percentile values showed that there was not a statistically significant
difference between ages, body weights (kg), height (cm), body mass indexes (kg/m
2
), body fat
percentage (%), visceral fat coefficient, abdominal fat percentage (%), lean body mass (kg),
intracellular fluid (1), extracellular fluid (1), systolic blood pressure (mmHg), diastolic blood
pressure (mmHg), body temperature (
0
C), waist circumference (cm), Resting Energy
Expenditure (kcal/g) and VO
2
(ml/min) values. However, the difference between dietary
caffeine intakes according to 50
th
percentile values (112.1±51.16 vs. 283.3±69.53 mg) was
statistically significant (Table 2).
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Table 2. Evaluation of the Baseline General Characteristics and Some Metabolic Parameters of Females
Total
Usual Dietary Caffeine Intake
< 50
th
percentile
Usual Dietary Caffeine Intake
≥ 50
th
percentile
Min –Max
̅
±
SS Min –Max
̅
±
SS Min –Max
̅
±
SS
Age (years)
22
-
28
24.8±1.82
23
-
28
25.0±2.27
a
22
-
27
24.9±1.50
a
Weight (kg) 46.2-69.7
58.9
±
6.06 53.8-69.7
59.3±4.90
a
45.2-69.1
58.4±7.24
a
Height (cm) 157.0-170.0
163.0
±
4.11 158.0-170.0
163.0±4.14
a
157.0-170.0
162.9±4.27
a
Body Mass Index (BMI) 18.0-27.3
22.1
±
2.35 19.6-25.9
22.3±2.04
a
18.0-27.3
22.0±2.70
a
Body Fat Percentage (%) 17.3-39.8
29.3
±
6.64 17.3-39.8
29.6±7.01
a
17.5-39.5
a
29.0±6.55
Visceral Fat
Coefficient
3
-
9
5.7
±
1.71
3.5
-
9.0
5.8±1.78
a
3
-
8.5
a
5.5±1.71
a
Abdominal Fat Percentage (%)
18.6
-
40.2
32.1
±
6.09
21.2
-
39.6
32.4±6.75
a
18.6
-
40.5
31.8±5.63
a
Lean body mass
(kg)
36.1
-
48.9
41.3
±
3.47
36.1
-
47.0
41.5±3.73
a
36.9
-
48.9
a
41.1±3.34
Intracellular Fluid (1)
16.4-22.2 18.7
±
1.54 16.4-21.4 18.8±1.70
a
17.1-22.2
18.7±1.44
a
Extracellular Fluid (1)
10.0
-
13.4
11.4
±
1.01
10.0
-
13.0
11.5±1.14
a
10.2
-
13.4
11.4±0.91
a
Systolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) 81-127 98.5
±
10.00 81-114.0
98.0±9.50
a
83-127
99.0±10.88
a
Diastolic Blood Pressure (mmHg) 47-100 63.3
±
10.21 47-75
63.0±7.93
a
54-100
69.5±11.50
a
Body Temperature (
0
C)
35.7
-
37.0
36.5
±
0.30
35.7
-
37.7
36.6±0.33
a
36.1
-
36.8
36.5±0.26
a
Waist Circumference (cm) 73.0-102.0 88.0
±
7.00 78.0-102.0
90.5±6.97
a
73.0-92.0
85.5±6.31
a
Resting Energy Expenditure
(kcal/g)
1021.0
-
1626.0
1299.4
±
164.5
1039.0
-
1580.0
1316.7±162.45
a
1021.0
-
1626.0
1282.1±171.95
a
VO
2
(ml/min)
147.0
-
230.0
188.3
±
23.91
149.0
-
227.0
189.1±23.31
a
147.0
-
230.0
187.5±25.50
a
Usual Dietary Caffeine Intake (mg)* 0.95-381.88 197.7±105.90
0.95-182.76
112.1±51.16
a
184.7-381.88
283.3±69.53
b
a-b
The values shown with different letters in the same line were statistically different (p<0.05). Visceral fat coefficient: indication/rating of visceral fat level
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The evaluation of the Resting Energy Expenditures of the individuals at the 30
th
, 60
th
,
120
th
and 180
th
minutes following green coffee consumption demonstrated that baseline
Resting Energy Expenditure (1299.4±164.53 kcal/day) became 1382.5±186.82 kcal at 30
th
minute, 1352.0±196.69 kcal/day at 60
th
minute, 1326.7±280.58 kcal/day at 120
th
minute and
1328.3±201.99 kcal/day at 180
th
minute (Figure 1.A). Although it was observed that the
Resting Energy Expenditures of the individuals after green coffee consumption increased
remarkably at the 30
th
minute and returned baseline level as of 120
th
minute, the difference
between the Resting Energy Expenditures of the individuals at the beginning (baseline), 30
th
minute, 60
th
minute, 120
th
minute and 180
th
minute was not statistically significant (p>0.05)
(Figure 1.A). Similarly, baseline VO2 value (188.3±23.91 ml/min) became 197.2±27.35 at
30
th
minute, 193.5±27.78 at 60
th
minute, 193.1±40.85 at 120
th
minute and 189.5±29.40
ml/min at 180
th
minute after green coffee consumption (Figure 1.B). However, the changes in
VO2 values over time were not statistically significant (p> 0.05) (Figure 1.B). Systolic blood
pressures (mmHg) of the individuals following green coffee consumption were evaluated in
Figure 1.C. Similarly, baseline blood pressure value (98.5±10.00 ml/min) became 101.5±9.66
at 30
th
minute, 98.5±11.72 at 60
th
minute, 99.2±10.45 at 120
th
minute and 99.2±9.87 ml/min at
180
th
minute after green coffee consumption. However, the change in blood pressures of the
individuals following green coffee consumption was not statistically significant (p> 0.05).
Similarly, the evaluation of the diastolic blood pressures of the individuals over time showed
(Figure 1.D) that baseline blood pressure (66.3±10.21 mmHg) became 68.4±8.87 mmHg at
30
th
minute, 69.0±9.38 mmHg at 60
th
minute, 66.5±9.65 mmHg at 120
th
minute and 65.7±9.55
mmHg at 180
th
minute (p>0.05). The body temperatures (
0
C) of the individuals at 30
th
, 60
th
,
120
th
and 180
th
minutes following green coffee consumption were 6.5±0.30, 36.7±0.19,
36.6±0.19, 36.7±0.16 and 36.7±0.13 respectively (Figure 1.E). Changes in body temperatures
following green coffee consumption were not statistically significant (p> 0.05) (Figure 1.E).
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The intracellular and extracellular fluid amounts (I) before and after consumption of
green coffee by individuals were 18.7±1.57 vs 18.6±1.44 and 11.4±1.01 vs 11.2±0.97
respectively (Figure 1.F). The difference between the intracellular (p<0.05) and extracellular
(p<0.05) fluid amounts of the individuals after green coffee consumption was statistically
significant compared to baseline level. In addition, baseline average body weight (58.9±6.06
kg) became 58.5±6.06 kg at the end of the study and individuals went to the toilet 1.6±0.98
(0-4) times in average following the consumption of green coffee (data not shown in the
graphs).
FIGURE 1 WAS HERE
Fig. 1. Resting Energy Expenditures (Figure 1.A), VO2 (Figure 1.B), systolic (Figure 1.C) and
diastolic (Figure 1.D), blood pressures, body temperatures (Figure 1.E) and cellular fluid values
(Figure 1.F) of individuals before green coffee consumption (baseline) and at 30
th
, 60
th
, 120
th
and
180
th
minute
Changes in the REE and other metabolic parameters over time after consumption of
green coffee according to individuals' dietary caffeine intake were evaluated in Figure 2.
According to the evaluations, the time-dependent changes in REE (kcal/day), VO
2
(ml/min)
and systolic blood pressure (mmHg) values following green coffee consumption were not
statistically significant in the individuals whose dietary caffeine intake was both <50
th
percentile and not.
The diastolic blood pressure changes observed in the individuals whose usual dietary
caffeine intake was 50
th
percentile and above following green coffee consumption (baseline:
69.5±11.5 mmHg, 30
th
minute: 72.3±9.47 mmHg, 60
th
minute: 72.4± 10.54 mmHg, 120
th
minute: 67.8±11.33 mmHg and 180
th
minute: 66.1±11.39 mmHg) were almost statistically
significant (p= 0.06). The body temperature (
0
C) changes observed in the individuals whose
usual dietary caffeine intake was 50
th
percentile and above, following green coffee
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consumption (baseline: 36.5±0.26, 30
th
minute: 36.7±0.23
0
C, 60
th
minute: 36.6±0.22
0
C,
120
th
minute: 36.7±0.16
0
C, 180
th
minute: 36.7±0.13
0
) were statistically significant (p<0.05)
(Figure 2). The evaluation of the changes in body liquid values showed that the changes in
extracellular liquid amounts of the individuals whose usual dietary caffeine intake was <50
th
percentile and above, following green coffee consumption (11.5±1.14 vs 11.4±0.91, p<0.05;
11.4±1.02 vs. 11.1±0.96 l respectively, p<0.05) were statistically significant. Additionally, the
intracellular liquid changes in the individuals whose dietary caffeine intake was 50
th
percentile and above, following green coffee consumption (baseline: 18.7±1.44 l, 180
th
minute: 18.5±1.51 l) was statistically significant (Figure 2).
FIGURE 2 WAS HERE
Fig. 2. Evaluation of the changes in REE (kcal/day) and other metabolic parameters of the individuals
whose dietary caffeine intake was less than 50
th
percentile (left column), 50
th
percentile and above
(right column), following green coffee consumption
The evaluation of the correlations between usual dietary caffeine intake amounts
(mg/day), caffeine amounts taken with green coffee (mg) and total caffeine intake (dietary
caffeine + green coffee caffeine) and REE (kcal/day) of the individuals demonstrated that
there was a positive correlation between caffeine amounts taken with green coffee and 30
th
minute (r= 0.439, p= 0.032) and 120
th
minute (r= 0.414, p=0.04) REE (kcal/day) (p<0.05). In
addition, the correlation between the caffeine amount taken with green coffee (mg) and
baseline (r=0.389, p=0.06) and 60
th
minute (r=0.378, p=0.06) REE values was almost
statistically significant (Figure 3). However, there was not a statistically significant
correlation between dietary caffeine intake and total caffeine amount and REE (kcal/day)
values before and after green coffee consumption (p>0.05).
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The evaluation of the correlations between the chlorogenic acid amounts taken with green
coffee and REE (kcal/day) values showed that there was a positive correlation between the
chlorogenic acid amounts taken with green coffee and baseline (r=0.389, p=0.06), 30
th
minute
(r=0.412, p=0.045), and 120
th
minute (r=0.444, p=0.030) REE (kcal/day) values. In addition,
the correlation between the caffeine amount taken with green coffee (mg) and 60
th
minute
(r=0.383, p=0,065) REE values was almost statistically significant (Figure 4). The correlation
between total chlorogenic acid intake and body temperature, systolic and diastolic blood
pressure values was not statistically significant (p>0.05).
DISCUSSION
Coffee is one of the most consumed beverages due to its aroma and draws the
attention of many researchers due to its health effects [20]. Green coffee bean has a complex
matrix of nitrogenous elements such as carbohydrate (~60% in dry substance), lipid (8-18% in
dry substance) protein, peptide and free amino acid (9-16% in dry substance) caffeine and
trigonellin theobromine, theophylline. It also contains 6-10% polyphenol in the dry matter and
the main components are CGAs among which the caffeoylquinic acids (CQAs), especially 5-
CQA, dominate along with lower amounts of feruloylquinic acids and dicaffeoylquinic acids
[2]. However, roasting coffee beans (180-250
o
C) decreases the content of the components
such as carbohydrate, protein, CGA and free amino acid. Caffeine values remain more stable
than chlorogenic acid in roasting application. The authentic aroma of the coffee comes from
caffeine and trigonelline alkoloid, chlorogenic acid, kahweol and cafestol and melanoidin
which is a Maillard reaction product. These components also have health effects besides their
aromatic features [2, 21]. Several studies in the literature have proved that moderate coffee
consumption have positive effects on cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, some cancer types,
neurological diseases, sports performance, and hydration level [21]. This study examines the
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effect of green coffee consumption, which has become very popular recently, on energy
metabolism and metabolic parameters.
Although it is not statistically significant, one of the most important findings on this
study is the increase in REE values following green coffee consumption which is clearly
observed at 30
th
and 60
th
minutes. Additionally, caffeine amount taken with green coffee and
REE values of the individuals were correlated rather than dietary caffeine and total caffeine
(dietary+green coffee) intake. Caffeine simulated lipid oxidation and shows thermogenic
effect by causing the activation of central nerveous system through the inhibition of
phosphodiesterase enzyme [22, 23]. It is accepted that caffeine increases REE through cyclic
AMP (cAMP) activation and β2 and β3 adrenergic receptors generally [24].
Methylxanthine and methyluric acid derivatives are rapidly absorbed, metabolized and
excreted through caffeine after the consumption of green coffee or roasted coffee [25]. The
thermal effect of caffeine continues for 30-150 minutes following caffeine intake [5]. The
half-life of caffeine is 5 hours in total and its thermogenic effect decreases at 3
rd
hour and
returns nearly initial level before caffeine is consumed [6]. A study showed that consumption
of 300 mg (250-400 mg) of caffeine in average every day increases energy expenditure by 79
kcal [26]. Another study found out that energy expenditure may increase 3.4-7.6% within 24
hours by consuming <500 mg/day caffeine [27]. Following the consumption of 200-350 mg
caffeine, Resting Energy Expenditure of healthy male individuals increased by 7-11% at 30
th
minute and 9-16% at 3
rd
hour [5, 28]. In the light of the studies in the literature, acute
thermogenic effect of green coffee caffeine is supported in this study. However, it is
considered that this study lights the way for other studies in terms of the demonstration of the
thermogenic effect caused by green coffee consumption (30
th
minute (83 kcal, %6.4), 60
th
minute (53 kcal, %3.9), 120
th
minute (26 kcal, %2.0), 180
th
minute (28.6 kcal, %2.2).
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Caffeine not only affects energy expenditure but also changes several metabolic
parameters such as body temperature and blood pressure [28, 29]. In this study, the body
temperature values (
0
C) of the individuals whose usual dietary caffeine intake was 50
th
percentile and above/relatively high, increased after green coffee consumption. In a
randomized single-blind study, 20 healthy and young volunteer female individuals consumed
150ml caffeine-free coffee or coffee with 200mg caffeine. Skin temperatures of the
individuals were measured on their chest, arm, hip and abdomen and their in-vivo
temperatures in their rectum on empty stomach and 3 hours after coffee consumption. At the
end of the study, skin temperature increased at 90
th
minute following the consumption of
caffeine coffee compared to control group [28].
In this experimental study, the systolic (30
th
minute: 3 mmHg) and diastolic (30
th
minute: 2 mmHg, 60
th
minute 3 mmHg) blood pressures of the adult women, who are
normotensive, non-smoker and not consuming alcohol, experienced an acute increase at 30
th
and 60
th
minutes following green coffee consumption (p>0.05) and the increase in diastolic
blood pressure values was found to be significant in the individuals whose usual dietary
coffee intake was 50th percentile and above/relatively high (30th minute: 2.8 mmHg, 60th
minute 2.9 mm Hg). Coffee and caffeine consumption has effect on blood pressure [30]. In a
systematic compilation and meta-analysis study, it was found out that consumption of 200-
300mg caffeine increased systolic blood pressure by 8.1 mm Hg (95% CI: 5.7, 10.6 mm Hg)
and diastolic blood pressure by 5.7 mm Hg (95% CI: 4.1, 7.4 mm Hg), and similar to the
results of our study, this effect occurred within/after 1 hour following caffeine intake and
ended 3 hours after the consumption. [31]. It is reported that blockage of adenosine receptors
and phosphodiesterase inhibition by caffeine which is the main component of coffee is a
potential mechanism related with cardiovascular diseases [30]. In addition, caffeine and
coffee also have the mechanisms related to CYP1A2 gene and the enzymes affecting blood
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pressure by means of the inhibition of adenosine receptors but these effects are different in
smokers and non-smokers [32]. Some experimental studies in the literature showed that coffee
and caffeine intake may increase blood pressure acutely, cause a raise in norepinephrine
concentration and arterial stiffness and result in distorted endothelium dependent vasodilation
and ischemic preconditioning. [33]. However, there are some studies which could not find out
hypertensive effect of caffeine [29]. The reason of the different results in the literature is
considered to be the differences in caffeine/coffee doses, forms (coffee or caffeine extract),
coffee type (roasting status), ethnicity and gender. Additionally, hypertensive or hypertensive
prone conditions and acute-chronic (habitual) consumption conditions of the individuals are
also important in the hypertensive effect of coffee and caffeine [30, 34]
Another important finding of this study is intracellular and extracellular liquid
amounts decrease following green coffee consumption (6 mg caffeine/kg lean body mass,
~215-280 mg caffeine) and these changes are observed in the individuals whose usual dietary
caffeine intake are both relatively low and high. The effect of coffee and caffeine on liquid
balance is a controversial subject. By acting as an adenosine receptor antogonist, caffeine may
reduce fractional sodium reabsorption from both distal nephron and proximal tubule. It
reported that his diuretic effect is especially taken in high doses (≥500 mg) [35]. However,
similar to our study, there are some studies proving that consumption of 2-3 cup of coffees
~minimum 250-300mg caffeine causes diuretic effect [36]. Contrary to these studies, the
results of another study showed that consumption of (5mg/kg/bw/d) caffeine by 20-39 years
old non-smoker male individuals did not change total body liquid distribution independently
of body composition, physical activity and daily liquid intake [37]. It is also reported that the
individuals who consume caffeine regularly may develop tolerance against caffeine [36]. In a
similar study, 50 male individuals (habitually consuming 3-6 cups per day) were given 4×200
mL of coffee containing 4 mg/kg caffeine and water and as a result of the study it was found
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out that there was not a significant difference between hematological and urinary markers and
when consumed in moderation by caffeine habituated males, caffeine provides similar
hydrating qualities to water [38]. However, our study supported the fact that green coffee
caffeine may cause acute changes in liquid balance even in small doses.
One of the most important findings of this study is the significant correlation between
green coffee chlorogenic acid amount and REE. Chlorogenic acid is a major hydrocinnamic
acid derivative in green coffee bean. Some human and animal studies proved that chlorogenic
acid and green coffee extract (45-65%) increased energy metabolism and expenditure and
glucose tolerance and reduced blood lipid level [16]. There are limited number of studies on
the effect of chlorogenic acid on energy metabolism and these studies mostly conducted on
animal models by using green coffee extract [39]. Analogs of chlorogenic acid and
hydrocinnamic acid inhibit the cAMP phosphodiesterase of cinnamic acid and ferulic acid and
upregule adesnosine monophosphate activated protein kinase by taking active role in energy
metabolism, and thus change energy metabolism [16, 40]. There are some studies suggesting
that chlorogenic acid supplementation causes body weight loss (−2.47 kg; 95%CI: −4.23,
−0.72). However, a meta-analysis study reported that the methodology of the studies finding
this effect was of poor quality and had various biases [41]. Besides, EFSA reported that a
cause and effect relationship has not been established between the consumption of
chlorogenic acids from coffee and contribution to the maintenance or achievement of a
normal body weight [42].
According to the results of this study, there was not a correlation between the
chlorogenic acid amount taken with green coffee and other metabolic parameters. However,
there are several findings that chlorogenic acid may have antihypertensive effect [43]. In
another study, consumption of green coffee rich in chlorogenic acid by healthy individuals for
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two weeks caused remarkable decrease in systolic blood pressure values and arterial elasticity
by effecting 1-HSD1 Enzyme [9].
CONCLUSION
As far as is known, this is the first study evaluating REE and other acute metabolic
effects of coffee consumption as a caffeine and chlorogenic acid source.
This pilot study has a number of limitations. First of all, we showed some metabolic
differences after green coffee ingestion in only healthy women. So, the results could not be
generalized to the men or unhealthy women. Another limitation of this study is that we
hypothesized only effects of one type coffee (green coffee) ingestion on some metabolic
parameters. We didn’t evaluate effects of placebo or another types of coffee in present study.
However, we compared the metabolic changes with baseline/before ingestion when evaluating
the effects of green coffee after ingestion. We didn’t hypothesize to comparison in metabolic
effects of green coffee and another types of coffee. The results may be changed for another
type of coffees. So, the results could not be generalized to the effects of all coffee types. It is
also necessary to conduct further studies to determine potential short and long term health
effects that the acute findings of this study may cause. Nevertheless, it is considered that this
pilot study will light the way for other studies. It is believed that taking into consideration
these situations would be useful in future studies.
Competing Interests
There is no conflicts of interest among the authors.
Author Contributions
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Nilufer Acar Tek conceived of the study and participated in its design and
coordination and interpretation and drafting of the article. Duygu Agagunduz and Busra
Ayhan conceived of the study and participated in its design and coordination, data collection,
analysis, and interpretation and drafting of the article.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We thank all of the participants and parents who devoted their time to participating in
this study. They are warmly acknowledged for their helpful and whole-hearted cooperation.
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not affected by ingesting a moderate dose of caffeine in healthy young adult males.
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1299.4
1382.5
1352
1326.7 1328.3
1220
1240
1260
1280
1300
1320
1340
1360
1380
1400
1420
B A S E L I N E 3 0 . M I N 6 0 . M I N 1 2 0 . M I N 1 8 0 . M I N
RESTING ENERGY EXPENDITURE (REE)
A
p>0.05
188.3
197.2
193.5 193.1
189.5
180
182
184
186
188
190
192
194
196
198
200
B A S E L I N E 3 0 . M I N 6 0 . M I N 1 2 0 . M I N 1 8 0 . M I N
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION (VO2)
B
99
102
99 99
100
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
B A S E L I N E 3 0 . M I N 6 0 . M I N 1 2 0 . M I N 1 8 0 . M I N
SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (mmHg)
C
66
68
69
67
65
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
B A S E L I N E 3 0 . M I N 6 0 . M I N 1 2 0 . M I N 1 8 0 . M I N
DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (mmHg)
D
36.5
36.7
36.6
36.7 36.7
36.3
36.4
36.4
36.5
36.5
36.6
36.6
36.7
36.7
36.8
36.8
B A S E L I N E 3 0 . M I N 6 0 . M I N 1 2 0 . M I N 1 8 0 . M I N
BODY TEMPERATURE (0C)
E
Fig. 1. Resting Energy Expenditures (Figure 1.A), VO
2
(Figure 1.B), systolic (Figure 1.C)
and diastolic (Figure 1.D), blood pressures, body temperatures (Figure 1.E) and cellular fluid
11.4 11.2
18.6 18.4
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
B A S E L I N E 1 8 0 . M I N
CELLULER FLUıD (L)
Ekstrasellüler Sıvı İntrasellüler Sıvı
F
p
>0.05
p>0.05
p<0.05
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values (Figure 1.F) of individuals before green coffee consumption (baseline) and at 30
th
,
60
th
, 120
th
and 180
th
minute
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1316.7
1385.3 1370.5
1416.6
1382.2
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
B A S E L ı N E 3 0 . M ı N 6 0 . M ı N 1 2 0 . M ı N 1 8 0 . M ı N
RESTING ENERGY EXPENDITURE (REE)
1282.1
1379.6
1333.5
1236.7
1274.4
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
B A S E L ı N E 3 0 . M ı N 6 0 . M ı N 1 2 0 . M ı N 1 8 0 . M ı N
RESTING ENERGY EXPENDITURE (REE)
98 99
96
98
101
90
92
94
96
98
100
102
104
B A S E L ı N E 3 0 . M ı N 6 0 . M ı N 1 2 0 . M ı N 1 8 0 . M I N
SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (mmHg)
99
104
101
100
98
90
92
94
96
98
100
102
104
B A S E L ı N E 3 0 . M ı N 6 0 . M ı N 1 2 0 . M ı N 1 8 0 . M I N
SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (mmHg)
63
65
66
65 65
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
B A S E L ı N E 3 0 . M ı N 6 0 . M ı N 1 2 0 . M ı N 1 8 0 . M I N
DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (mmHg)
69
73 72
68
66
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
B A S E L ı N E 3 0 . M ı N 6 0 . M ı N 1 2 0 . M ı N 1 8 0 . M I N
DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (mmHg)
p
=0.06
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36.6
36.7
36.6
36.7 36.7
36.1
36.2
36.3
36.4
36.5
36.6
36.7
36.8
B A S E L ı N E 3 0 . M ı N 6 0 . M ı N 1 2 0 . M ı N 1 8 0 . M I N
BODY TEMPERATURE (0C)
36.5
36.7
36.6
36.7 36.7
36.3
36.4
36.4
36.5
36.5
36.6
36.6
36.7
36.7
36.8
36.8
B A S E L ı N E 3 0 . M ı N 6 0 . M ı N 1 2 0 . M ı N 1 8 0 . M I N
BODY TEMPERATURE (0C)
18.8 18.7
11.5 11.4
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
B AS E LI N E 1 80 . D A Kİ K A
CELLULER FLUID (L)
İntrasellüler Sıvı Ekstrasellüler Sıvı
18.7 18.5
11.4 11.1
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
B AS E LI N E 1 80 . D A Kİ K A
CELLULER FLUID (L)
İntrasellüler Sıvı Ekstrasellüler Sıvı
Fig. 2. Evaluation of the changes in REE (kcal/day) and other metabolic parameters of the
individuals whose dietary caffeine intake was less than 50
th
percentile (left column), 50
th
percentile and above (right column), following green coffee consumption
Usual Dietary Caffeine Intake
<50th Percentile (left column)
Usual Dietary Caffeine Intake ≥ 50th Percentile
(right column)
p
<
0.05
p
<
0.05
p
<
0.05
p
<
0.05
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