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Basic and Applied Research: The Language of Science Policy in the Twentieth Century
Abstract
The distinction between basic and applied research was central to twentieth-century science and policymaking, and if this framework has been contested in recent years, it nonetheless remains ubiquitous in both scientific and public discourse. Employing a transnational, diachronic perspective informed by historical semantics, this volume traces the conceptual history of the basic–applied distinction from the nineteenth century to today, taking stock of European developments alongside comparative case studies from the United States and China. It shows how an older dichotomy of pure and applied science was reconceived in response to rapid scientific progress and then further transformed by the geopolitical circumstances of the postwar era.
... We assume that concepts travel not only in the intellectual and academic space but, quite literally, in geographical and political spaces and socio-cultural environments. More generally, concepts matter not only in academia but also in the real world of higher education development and science policy (Schauz & Kaldewey, 2018). The concept of the university has travelled many roads, some of them connecting Europe and Africa as well as other regions of the globalised world. ...
... The research responded to an applied type of research that sought to materialize actions to provide practical solutions [27]. In addition, it responds to an explanatory level, which analyzes the relationship of the variables of the phenomenon, explaining reasons, events or situations in which the object of research is immersed [28]. ...
En el contexto actual la producción como factor esencial busca ser desarrollada en muchas empresas a través de modelos que contribuyan a la disminución de tiempos en rotación mercaderías, número de productos defectuosos y mayor productividad, La presente investigación se ejecutó con el propósito de implementar la metodología PDCA para el mejoramiento de la gestión de los procesos en una empresa de productos naturales. La investigación tuvo un enfoque mixto(cualitativo y cuantitativo), de tipo aplicado, con alcance explicativo y diseño cuasi experimental. Se tomó como objeto de estudio los procesos misionales y procesos de apoyo de una empresa procesadora de productos naturales. Las técnicas de recolección empleadas fueron la observación directa y la revisión documental con instrumentos como la guía de observación y el registro de información documental. En base al diagnóstico inicial, la implementación y el análisis comparativo se obtuvo un aumento de productividad de 0.632 a 1.644 bolsas/sol; el índice de centralización a la estrategia disminuyó de 4 a 0.8, así como el índice para el control de procesos aumentó de 75.35 % a 80.37 %. De igual forma, se observó una mejor gestión, la cual generó una disminución de tiempos de rotación promedio de 16 a 10 días, un menor número de productos defectuosos y un mejor desempeño laboral. Se concluyó que la metodología PDCA, permitió la mejora de la gestión de los procesos, contribuyendo además en las relaciones y el clima laboral.
... Most of the work since 2014 focused on European legislatures (77%). The category includes work on Denmark (Ganzevles et al., 2014;Klüver et al., 2015;van Est & Vienna, 2015), the European Union (as a case study) (Ganzevles et al., 2014;Riiheläinen & Böhm, 2017), Finland (Committee for the Future, 2021; Ganzevles et al., 2014), France (Ganzevles et al., 2014;Kenny et al., 2017), Germany (Cross et al., 2021;Ganzevles et al., 2014;Strunk, 2015), Latvia (Kalniņš, 2019), Estonia (Kalniņš, 2019), Greece (Ganzevles et al., 2014), Sweden (Nentwich, 2016), The Netherlands (Ganzevles et al., 2014;van Est, 2019;van Est & Vienna, 2015), The United Kingdom (Kenny et al., 2017), and Switzerland (Ganzevles et al., 2014;Kenny et al., 2017) advisory bodies. 1 Secondly, and followed by a much lower number of publications on advisory bodies, is the American continent (8%) which includes publications from the United States (Dolin, 2014;Kaldewey & Schauz, 2018; United States Congressional Research Service Library of Congress, 2021) and Chile (Nájera, 2015), Oceania (3%) with New Zealand (Boston et al., 2020;Jeffares et al., 2019), and Africa with Botswana (2%) (Cockcroft et al., 2014). We also found publications targeting more than one geographical region simultaneously (11%) (Akerlof et al., 2020;Groux et al., 2018; United States Congressional Research Service Library of Congress, 2021; Wilsdon et al., 2014). ...
Science advice has received renewed attention for evidence-informed legislation. However, no work has evaluated current trends in the field. We did a systematic review for publications between 2014 and 2020 to develop a typology using the legislative scientific advice body as a unit of analysis. The typology includes 12 categories that provide insights into the contextual background, mandate, structure, and advice process of legislative advisory bodies. We noticed that most of the work focused on advisory units is in western and high-income countries. The bodies show a wide degree of advice practices and politicisation. There are open opportunities for research, such as doing further comparative analyzes. Lastly, we found that foresight and horizon scanning methodologies were increasingly implemented in legislatures for participatory advice and to set long-term priorities. The findings can shed light on advancing legislative scientific advice for researchers and practitioners alike.
... Правительство Великобритании на протяжении двух десятилетий предпринимает ряд усилий по стимулированию передачи знаний и технологий в секторе высшего образования (Kaldewey & Schauz, 2018) [12]. ...
Research relevance: During the last few decades universities have changed strategies expanding their main mission. They also shift their strategies towards generating third stream income and providing economic effect at regional and national levels as well as impacting society. Within the framework of this research authors showed how the UK government impacted universities to change their mission synchronising it with the needs of economy in order to translate the successful experience for building entrepreneurial ecosystem. To the best of our knowledge similar research have not been done before.
Research subject: the UK policy on developing entrepreneurial ecosystem via supporting research commercialisation.
Research object: role of the UK government in building entrepreneurial ecosystem around universities via supporting research commercialisation.
Research aim: systematisation and analysis of all the initiatives undertaken by UK government to encourage the development of entrepreneurship at the UK universities what might become a basis to develop recommendations for building entrepreneurial ecosystem in countries where it still underdeveloped.
Research methodology: description, analysis and synthesis, in-depth interviews, thematic analysis.
Research results: authors have systematised the initiatives undertaken by UK government to encourage the development of entrepreneurship at British universities on the stages of the emergence of entrepreneurial ecosystem. This research has analysed all the initial initiatives taken to encourage developing entrepreneurial universities. This allowed authors to develop recommendations to develop entrepreneurial ecosystem in countries where it still underdeveloped.
Research results application: research results can be utilised for the elaboration of government policy in education as well as for developing strategic documents for improving the mechanisms for research commercialisation. This research could help countries at the nascent stage of ecosystem development to leverage effectively the UK experience.
... Likewise, the utilitas of the Enlightenment played a key role in the rhetoric of scientific academies across Europe, and influenced French post-revolutionary teaching reforms. In nineteenth-century Britain, "applied science" was a hybrid category, which, in Bud's terms, overcame "the epistemological hierarchy introduced by Immanuel Kant, which declared the lesser certainty and truth value of a posteriori knowledge" (Bud, 2012, p. 545;Kaldewey and Schauz, 2018). Early twentieth-century American engineers aimed to gain public prestige as masters of "applied science", but they often appeared in public as experts in "pure", abstract physics, and mathematics, for the sake of their own professional prestige (Kline, 1995). ...
The paper discusses several appropriations of the categories of “pure” and “applied” science (mainly in chemistry) in early Francoism. At the height of a crusade that criminalized “pure” science as inherently attached to the culture of the Second Spanish Republic, the category of “pure” assumed spiritual, religious and anti-materialist values in the early education policies of the new regime, in the context of the newly founded national research centre, the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC). At the same time, relevant Francoist scientists stressed the high moral status of a new utilitarian, “applied” science, to efficiently serve the material needs of the country. As a result, the categories of “pure” and “applied” science, and their rhetorical use in public addresses and propaganda, became useful tools for building a strong alliance between science and power that cemented the dictatorship.
... Many analysts have shown that both perspectives are academic and rhetoric ideals rather than practical realities (Proctor 1991;Edgerton 2004;Godin 2006;Douglas 2014). For example, research categories like 'basic' and 'applied', or 'mode-1' and 'mode-2', do not really describe different methodologies but rather mirror political issues with respect to the practical organization of research (Godin 1998;Shinn 2002;Hessels and van Lente 2008;Kaldewey and Schauz 2018). ...
Over the past two decades, several methods have been developed to evaluate the societal impact of research. Compared to the practical development of the field, the conceptual development is relatively weak. This review article contributes to the latter by elucidating the theoretical aspects of the dominant methods for evaluating societal impact of research, in particular, their presuppositions about the relationship between scientific and societal value of research. We analyse 10 approaches to the assessment of the societal impact of research from a constructivist perspective. The methods represent different understandings of knowledge exchange, which can be understood in terms of linear, cyclical, and co-production models. In addition, the evaluation methods use a variety of concepts for the societal value of research, which suggest different relationships with scientific value. While some methods rely on a clear and explicit distinction between the two types of value, other methods, in particular Evaluative Inquiry, ASIRPA, Contribution Mapping, Public Value Mapping, and SIAMPI, consider the mechanisms for producing societal value integral to the research process. We conclude that evaluation methods must balance between demarcating societal value as a separate performance indicator for practical purposes and doing justice to the (constructivist) science studies’ findings about the integration of scientific and societal value of research. Our analytic comparison of assessment methods can assist research evaluators in the conscious and responsible selection of an approach that fits with the object under evaluation. As evaluation actively shapes knowledge production, it is important not to use oversimplified concepts of societal value.
Ruth Myrtle Patrick (1907–2013) was a pioneering ecologist and taxonomist whose extraordinary career at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia spanned over six decades. In 1947, an opportunity arose for Patrick to lead a new kind of river survey for the Pennsylvania Sanitary Water Board to study the effects of pollution on aquatic organisms. Patrick leveraged her already extensive scientific network, which included ecologist G. Evelyn Hutchinson, to overcome resistance within the Academy, establish a new Department of Limnology, and carry out the survey, which was a resounding success and brought much needed money to the Academy. As demand for her expertise grew among industrial companies, such as the chemical company DuPont, Patrick became more active in the world of applied science. She repurposed data and instruments from her river surveys to run new experiments, test ecological theories, and conduct long-term ecological studies. Through these studies, she advanced an argument that biologist Thomas Lovejoy dubbed the “Patrick principle,” the idea that the ecological health of a body of water could be measured by the relative abundance and diversity of species living there. Patrick was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1970, became a board member of DuPont in 1975, and received two of the most prestigious awards in ecology: the Eminent Ecologist Award from the Ecological Society of America in 1972 and the Tyler Ecology Award in 1975. This article analyzes Patrick’s unusual success in bridging the worlds of science and industry and her unusual ability to cross, and redefine, the perceived boundary between basic and applied fields in biology. It argues that Patrick’s position at the Academy, an institution of natural history that was both willing and able to accept money from industrial corporations, is key to understanding her success in, and influence on, the field of river ecology.
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