The origins of the concept of aggression in gestalt-therapy: Freud, reich and others

Abstract

The concept of Aggression, is in the basis of the construction of Gestalt therapy, and being central to the first work of Fritz Perls, Ego, Hunger and Aggression, of 1942. The theme was developed by Fritz and Laura Perls, from a work of watching children of this. The objective of the paper was to recover the origins of the concept, which goes back to the first experiences with psychoanalysis, seeking to clarify the links between this and Gestalt therapy. The work was based on an analysis of primary sources - works by Fritz, Freud and Laura - and relevant secondary sources. It points to the need to re-establish a clear link between Gestalt therapy and its psychoanalytic source, and clarified, as well, the influences of other names, such as Reich, Goldstein, Horney and Nietzsche, in the construction of this concept.

Full text

246
Nº DOI: 10.18065/RAG.2018v24n2.13
THE ORIGINS OF THE CONCEPT OF AGGRESSION IN
GESTALT-THERAPY: FREUD, REICH AND OTHERS
Origens do Conceito de Agressão na Gestalt-Terapia: Freud, Reich e outras Fontes
Orígenes de lo concepto de la agresión en terapia Gestalt: Freud, Reich y Otros
Thauana SanToS de araújo
adriano FurTado holanda
Resumo: O conceito de Agressão, está na base da construção da Gestalt terapia, sendo central para o primeiro trabalho
de Fritz Perls, Ego, Fome e Agressão, de 1942. O tema foi desenvolvido por Fritz e Laura Perls, a partir de um trabalho
desta de observação de crianças. Objetivou-se resgatar as origens do conceito, que remonta às primeiras experiências
com a psicanálise, buscando esclarecer os elos entre esta e a Gestalt terapia. O trabalho se pautou por uma análise
de fontes primárias – obras de Fritz, de Freud e de Laura – e secundárias pertinentes. Evidenciou-se a necessidade de
se retomar um elo claro entre a Gestalt terapia e sua fonte psicanalítica, bem como clarificar as influências de outros
nomes, como Reich, Goldstein, Horney e Nietzsche, na construção desse conceito.
Palavras-chave: Gestalt-terapia; Agressão; Psicanálise.
Abstract: The concept of Aggression lies on the basis of the construction of Gestalt therapy, being central to the first
work of Fritz Perls, Ego, Hunger and Aggression, of 1942. The theme was developed by Fritz and Laura Perls, from a
work of watching children. The objective of the paper was to recover the origins of the concept, which goes back to
the first experiences with psychoanalysis, seeking to clarify the links between this and Gestalt therapy. The study was
based on an analysis of primary sources - works by Fritz, Freud and Laura - and relevant secondary sources. It points
to the need to re-establish a clear link between Gestalt therapy and its psychoanalytic source, and clarified, as well,
the influences of other names, such as Reich, Goldstein, Horney and Nietzsche, in the construction of this concept.
Keywords: Gestalt-therapy; Aggression; Psychoanalysis.
Resumen: El concepto de Agresión está en la base de la construcción de la Gestalt terapia, siendo central para el primer
trabajo de Fritz Perls, Ego, Hambre y Agresión, de 1942. El tema fue desarrollado por Fritz y Laura Perls, a partir de un
trabajo de ésta de observación de niños. Se objetivó rescatar los orígenes del concepto, que se remonta a las primeras
experiencias con el psicoanálisis, buscando esclarecer los eslabones entre ésta y la Gestalt terapia. El trabajo se basó en
un análisis de fuentes primarias - obras de Fritz, de Freud y de Laura - y secundarias pertinentes. Se evidenció la nece-
sidad de reanudar un vínculo claro entre la Gestalt terapia y su fuente psicoanalítica, así como aclarar las influencias
de otros nombres, como Reich, Goldstein, Horney y Nietzsche, en la construcción de ese concepto.
Palavras-clave: Gestalt-terapía; Agressión; Psicoanálisis.
Phenomenological Studies - Revista da Abordagem Gestáltica - XXIV(2): 246-257, mai-ago, 2018
Artigos - Estudos Teóricos ou Históricos
Introduction
A solid approach is built on several paths,
and its foundations must be set from epistemologi-
cal discussions, delimiting its objective value, and
seeking a critique of its foundations (Jolivet, 1975).
In this direction, one can consider that there has
been an increase in Brazilian production on foun-
dations issues, involving the gestaltic approach, as
observed in recent publications (Holanda, 2009;
Belmino, 2014; Helou, 2015). Currently, according
to Frazão (2013), there are more than 60 published
books, as well as numerous articles and book chap-
ters, in addition to the growing number of master’s
dissertations and doctoral theses.
It is common the association of GT with a
cluster of techniques, which helped to construct
the image of a poorly supported approach, whose
origins date back to the workshops conducted by
Fritz Perls. Laura Perls (1992/1994) already sugges-
ted that the insertion of GT into the academic circle
was not facilitated by this excessive emphasis on
experiential practice, coupled with an anti-intellec-
tualism discourse, which led to the weakening of
the approach. Prestrelo (2012) points to similarities
related to the emergence of GT in Brazil, because
here it was also established the idea of an approa-
ch based on techniques of expression of feelings,
which demanded from pioneers explanations about
what was not Gestalt.
In the wake of these events, concepts are for-
gotten and little visualized, such as that of aggres-
sion (Holanda, 2005; Staemmler, 2009). The lack of
interest in the theme, for Staemmler (2009), is due
to its unclear exposure in Perls’s works, as well as
because this notion refers to an intrapsychic consi-
deration, as opposed to a field perspective. We have
here, by object, the origin of this concept, which
founded the first work of Perls (1942/2002).
Theme Delimitation
Dental aggression was one of the themes that
founded the first work of Fritz Perls (1942/2002),
with significant contributions of his wife Laura,
collaborator both in the writing of the book and

247
in the elaboration of the concept, derived from a
work of observation of children in transition from
sucking to biting (Perls, 1992/1994).
The aim here is to rescue the origins of the con-
cept, which goes back to his first experiences with
psychoanalysis. The research is based on a general
overview of the origins of aggression theory in psy-
choanalysis, and other sources, considering the in-
fluences that both suffered during their professional
and personal life, both intellectual and academic as-
pects, as well as cultural and political. This theoreti-
cal-conceptual study is based on a literature review
of primary and secondary sources. The search resul-
ted in the use of the following works and articles as
primary sources: 1) From psychoanalysis, Three Es-
says on the Theory of Sexuality (Freud, 1905/1996);
Instincts and their vicissitudes (Freud, 1915/1996);
Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Freud, 1920/1996);
The Ego and the Id (Freud, 1923/1996); Civilization
and its Discontents (Freud, 1930 [1929]/1996); Con-
ference XXXII (Freud, 1933a/1996); An Outline of
Psychoanalysis (Freud, 1940a [1938]/1996), selected
from a criterion of temporality - because they precede
Ego, Hunger and Aggression (Perls, 1942/2002) - and
relevance, for dealing with the writings that cover
the studies of Freud, prior to 1942, of sexuality, dri-
ves, and aggression itself (Strachey, 1996b); 2) Texts
relating to Laura Perls (Perls, 1977; 1988; 1992/1994;
Bernard, 1986); 3) and Fritz Perls (1942/2002,
1951/1997, 1969/1979, 1973/2011, 1977). In addi-
tion, secondary sources were consulted and selected
in the journal Gestalt Review and in the databases
Scielo, PePSIC and BVS.
The Position of the Question
The importance of addressing the question of
origins lies mainly on Fritz’s appropriation of this
concept. At the time he launched his first work,
Perls (1942/2002) was a psychoanalyst and aimed,
with this production, to account for what he speci-
fies in the subtitle of the book (a revision of Freud’s
theory and method). Through the reading of this
work, it is noticed that the notion of aggression
was born of an attempt to sketch a theory of the
personality, which makes indispensable a return to
Freud, although Perls delves more deeply into the
oral phase and its resistances to mark the human
development. In the shift of focus from the psychic
to the organismic, Perls ends by outlining a theory
of holistic personality, a fundamental subject of the
Gestalt-therapy work of 1951 (Perls, 1977; Boris,
2002; Helou, 2015). A work on this theme, Oral Re-
sistance, was presented at the congress of psychoa-
nalysis (Czechoslovakia, 1936), which “was still
written in Freudian terms” (Perls 1969/1979, p. 50).
In the preface to the 1969 edition of Random
House, Fritz himself states that his first book repre-
sents the transition from orthodox psychoanalysis
to GT (Perls, 1942/2002). Joe Wysong (2002) reveals
that Perls’s personal notes for an unpublished part
of the introduction for the 1969 edition show that
the project aimed to expose his revisions of Freu-
dian theory and develop his English skills. There is
a consensus that Ego, Hunger and Aggression was
born from this lecture on “Oral Resistance”, and
that Laura Perls had a significant participation in its
production (Tellegen, 1984; Loffredo, 1994; Perls,
1992/1994; Frazão, 1997, 2002, 2013; Helou, 2015).
In the introduction for the edition of The Ges-
talt Journal, From and Miller (1997) also report that
the GT embryo was an article written by Perls arou-
nd 1930, in which he inferred that “resistances” -
the psychological way of saying no to himself same
or next - were of oral origin; and they point out that
the relevance of this consideration is not exactly re-
volutionary, since it represented a small change in a
classical psychoanalytic emphasis (psychoanalysis
traditionally granted the origin of resistances to the
anal region), although its developments were sub-
versive. Both state the relevance of “oral”, being the
mouth, the “place” of eating, chewing, tasting, as
well as language and love. In other words, “a more
obvious place of encounter between the individual
and the world” (From & Miller, 1997, p.21).
Fritz (Perls, 1969/1979) notes that the lectu-
re was strongly disapproved and that “the verdict
‘all resistances are anal’” (p 51) left him perplexed,
and: “(...) I did not realize at the time, how revo-
lutionary the lecture was, and how much it would
shake and even invalidate some basic foundations
of the Master’s theory” (p.51). Strictly speaking,
we should at least assume that Fritz constructed a
particular interpretation of Psychoanalysis. Isado-
re From (quoted by Frazão, 2013) states that Perls’s
disagreement with Freud would be that he insisted
that introjection was necessary until the age of six,
while for Perls, Freud paid little attention to the
psychological and emotional consequences of the
eruption of the teeth, which would allow the child
to stop introjecting without criticism much before
the age of six.
For Laura Perls (1988, 1992/1994), the lecture,
which later composed the section “Mental Metabo-
lism” of the work of 1942, comes from a research
she carried out during the birth of her daughter Re-
nate. She noted that weaning was either carried out
very early or very late, and that the initiation of in-
fant feeding neglected the importance of chewing,
maturing the idea that the beginning of chewing
would be linked to learning about the assimilation
process, antagonistic to the process of introjection
without assimilation that occurs more frequently
and constantly in this breastfeeding period. For
Laura, chewing requires time, patience and aware-
ness about what is being chewed, considering “fee-
ding” as a process of consciousness. In an interview
with Bernard (1986), she states that she and Fritz
started the book together; she was aware of every-
thing in the beginning and discussed everything,
and left two chapters written for the book: “The pu-
ppet complex” and “The meaning of insomnia” as a
review of Freudian analysis.
Laura Perls (1992/1994) admits that the pro-
cess of feeding and weaning is one of the first bases
of classical psychoanalytic thinking. She says that
Fritz was in the army during the years that worked
Phenomenological Studies - Revista da Abordagem Gestáltica - XXIV(2): 246-257, mai-ago, 2018
Artigos - Estudos Teóricos ou Históricos
The Origins of the Aggression Concept in Gestalt-therapy: Freud, Reich and Others

248
in Ego, Hunger and Aggression, and Smuts, with
holism, also influenced him greatly. Also, the de-
mand for peace is opposed to one of the most vital
instincts of the human being: aggressiveness; im-
mediately associated with the destruction, and is
therefore censored; and that adults usually respond
with disapproval to any sign of aggression from the
child and, despite education over the centuries em-
phasizing censorship to aggression, the results di-
sappoint.
By being deprived of questioning, the infant
is forced to swallow many things without biting,
chewing or digesting. For Laura, this relationship is
not a mere metaphor - which Staemmler (2009) will
question - because both the ability to perform these
processes with physical food and the ability to per-
form them with intellectual foods (such as the abili-
ty to think, criticize, understand) are manifestations
of the same aggressive instinct1. The experience of
psychoanalysts demonstrates that the inhibition of
one of these functions affects the others; and the
repression of individual aggressiveness may result
in increased universal aggression, as the communi-
ty will seek out other means. Finally, Laura argues
that the way one eats teaches one to learn and make
contact with the world. The baby, when feeding, re-
duces tension; and begins to make contact with the
other, from the birth of the teeth (Perls, 1992/1994).
Perls says in her autobiography that she did
not read Freud’s entire work, but does not specify
exactly what she read (Perls, 1969/1979). We find
only a brief mention of the psychoanalytic origin -
at least in part - of the hunger instinct: “I consider
the analysis of the hunger instinct as a stepchild
of psychoanalysis, without underestimating the
importance of analyzing the sexual instinct” (Perls
1942, 283). Perls will devote herself in this work to
developing the theory of the functions of individu-
al self-preservation instincts, represented by food
needs and self-defense; sexual priority, considered
as an instinct for preservation.
In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality,
Freud (1905/1996) explains that, in the oral phase,
1 On the concepts “instinct” and “drive”, a brief comment is
made. Gomes (2001a) states that Freud’s two theories of drives use
very different concepts. In the first, the key drives were sexual and
for self-preservation. In turn, in the second, the drives of life and
death. Freud never used the word instinct (instinkt) as an alterna-
tive or synonym of drive, since in the times in which he made use
of that word he had a different meaning from its two concepts of
trieb (drive). In contrast, Freud never opposed the translations of
trieb as synonymous of instinct. When Freud specifically uses the
word instinct, he is referring to the innate, hereditary, which is in-
dependent of individual experience, a notion that does not fit with
drive - since the object of the drive is contingent - although it refers
to the driving force, opposite to reason and reflection. Thus, in Por-
tuguese, an acceptable translation would be “impulse”. However,
there is the disadvantage of not referring to the somatic, which was
the Freudian idea and, when it is called “impulsive”, it indicates the
unreflective. Thus, the most recommendable translation is “drive”,
which took the place of “instinct”, much used in the French trans-
lations, although “instinct” is still more usual in English. Therefore,
the forces of self-preservation are, for Freud, drives throughout his
work (not instincts). Therefore, hunger and thirst are drives. In this
way, the aggressive drive, taken as a drive for dominance, can be
thought of as selfconservation. Laplanche and Pontalis (2001) de-
fine instinct as a behavior inherited from an animal species, slightly
variable from one individual to another, which extends over time
without many changes and which apparently serves some purpose.
the baby’s lips represent the corresponding ero-
genous zone, whose satisfaction, in principle, can
be associated with the need for food, and that the
sexual activity is initially supported by one of the
functions that serve the preservation of life, achie-
ving independence at a later time. Therefore, the
need to repeat sexual satisfaction is separated from
the need for food absorption, a separation that is
inevitably imposed when teeth arise and food is no
longer sucked but chewed. Thus, in the oral phase,
sexual activity and nutrition are not yet separated,
and the sexual aim lies in the incorporation of the ob-
ject, which will play an important psychic role in the
future, through identification (as Freud points out).
Freud makes almost no reference to the self-
-preservation instincts, with the exception of refe-
rences on libido attach to them in the early stages
of development (Strachey, 1996b, Laplanche and
Pontalis, 2001). In an article of 1910 on psychoge-
nic disorders of vision, Freud appears to suddenly
introduce the expression “ego instincts”, identi-
fying them with the self-contained instincts and the
repressive function, from which the conflict starts
to be considered as occurring between two sets of
instincts: those of the libido and those of the ego.
The decisive point of the Freudian classification
of instincts occurred in Beyond the Pleasure Prin-
ciple. It is in this dual march of the instincts that it
will arrive at the hypothesis of the death instinct.
Freud presents a discussion of the subject in chap-
ter IV of The Ego and the Id (1923b), retaking the
theme in chapter VI of Civilization and its Discon-
tents (1930a/1974), analyzing in the latter for the
first time, with special attention, the aggressive and
destructive instincts, bringing them as derived from
the death instinct. Finally, the subject is revised in
the second half of Conference XXXII (1933a) and
in a final summary, in the second chapter, of the
posthumous An Outline of Psychoanalysis (1940a
[1938]/1974) (Strachey, 1996b).
In Instincts and Their Vicissitudes, Freud
(1915/1996) says that the ego hates, does not to-
lerate and persecutes, “with intent to destroy, all
objects that constitute a source of unpleasant sen-
sation for him, without taking into account that
they represent a frustration of both sexual satisfac-
tion and the satisfaction of self-preservative needs”
(142-143). Thus, the cradle of the hate relationship
is not sexual, but the struggle of the ego to preser-
ve itself. Love and hate, for Freud, were born from
different sources: love originates from the ego’s sel-
f-erotic satisfaction for pleasure, in that sense we
“love” food that supplies the organ/oral zone’s need
for food, providing pleasure. Hate is the expression
of displeasure provoked by objects and, in this sen-
se, always maintains a relation with the instincts of
self-preservation. In this way, the instincts of sel-
f-preservation and the sexual instincts remain as
opposed to love and hate.
In Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud
(1920/1996) says that there is a strong tendency
in the mind towards the pleasure principle and
that, from the standpoint of self-preservation, this
is ineffective and replaced by the reality principle.
Phenomenological Studies - Revista da Abordagem Gestáltica - XXIV(2): 246-257, mai-ago, 2018
Artigos - Estudos Teóricos ou Históricos
Thauana Santos de Araújo; Adriano Furtado Holanda

249
The principle of pleasure does not cease for a long
time to insist on returning to command, functio-
ning as the method undertaken by the sexual ins-
tincts, often succeeding in overcoming the princi-
ple of reality.
Freud (1920/1996) conceptualizes instinct as
“an impulse, inherent to organic life, to restore an
earlier state of things, an impulse that the living en-
tity was forced to abandon under the pressure of
external disturbing forces, that is, it is a kind of or-
ganic elasticity, (...)” (emphasis added, p. 47), and
express the inherent inertia of organic life. As for
the sexual instincts, Freud points out that they are
conservatives at a higher level by resisting external
stimuli more effectively, as well as preserving their
own lives, what they call “instincts of life”. In this
context, they operate against other instincts, which
would work to achieve the ultimate goal of the or-
ganism and life more quickly; sexual instincts are
therefore opposed to the ego instincts. The instincts
of death and life would have something conserva-
tive: to restore the state of things. In the case of the
death instinct, a return to an inanimate life; the ins-
tinct of life, in turn, would aim at its continuity. Life
itself would thus be a conflict and a reconciliation
between such tendencies.
There would then be two kinds of antagonis-
tic processes acting, one in a constructive direc-
tion, of unification (instincts of life), and another
in a destructive direction (instincts of death). Freud
(1920/1996) finally defines the dualism between
instincts of life versus death; but warns that both
are associated from the beginning, so that there is
a lidibinal, therefore, life, character in the instinc-
ts of self-preservation. Starting from this dualism,
he mentions as another example of polarities the
opposition between love (affection) and hatred (ag-
gression). In summary, for Freud both are libidinal
in nature, but there would be other instincts belon-
ging to the ego that could be found in the destruc-
tive instincts, hence the opposition instincts of life
and instincts of death. Laplanche (1985) verifies
two intentions in the way the death drive is des-
cribed in Beyond the pleasure principle: to reaffirm
the fundamental economic principle - the tenden-
cy to zero; and give a metapsychological status to
the discoveries in the field of “aggressiveness” or
“destructiveness”. Before 1920, the aggression drive
does not appear and even the term aggressiveness is
also hardly seen.
Müller-Granzotto and Müller-Granzotto (2007)
point out that, unlike Freud, Perls does not identi-
fy these orientations as a drive of life and death,
calling them “organismic functions”, supported by
Goldstein, and through them the material elemen-
ts involved in the current experience, whether of
the present or of the past, will be oriented toward
unification or destruction. In that, these elements
are stabilized in the experience, for conservation.
In destruction, they are transcended as channels of
openness to the new: growth. Therefore, “Perls un-
derstands the drives described by Freud as an ambi-
guous flow of awareness: either toward the conser-
vation of experience, or towards its transformation”
(p 53). The drives would not be archaic contents
whose destination should be recovery or replace-
ment. They would represent the ambiguous way the
organism functions. That is, to assimilate the new
and keep up, updating, the old must be destroyed.
Perls, in an unpublished section of the preface to
the 1969 edition of Random House (Wulf, 1996),
alludes to the fact that a new approach to man in
his health and situation emerged, and no longer is
analyst. It makes it clear that she did not conceive
aggression as a mystical energy born of Thanatos,
but as a tool for survival, and that concepts such as
reflexes (stimulus-response) and instincts as stable
properties have become obsolete.
Helou (2015) puts the concept of mental me-
tabolism as a great innovation of Perls, although
this comes from the notion of psychic work. Perls
develops the hypothesis of organismic work throu-
gh the mental assimilation of internal and external
content (internal perceptions and sensations, and
of reality); and shares the idea that aggression is a
fundamental energy necessary for human survival,
calling it “biological force” (Perls, 1942/2002). With
the action of the ego through aggressive forces, new
material can be rejected or assimilated. In this way,
the Perlsian proposal - and, furthermore, Laura’s,
inspired by Smuts and Goldstein - points to the ad-
dition of a healthy aspect (of assimilation and rejec-
tion) of the work of identifying the ego to the Freu-
dian conception of introjection (“not healthy”, for
the Perls, since it would only involve swallowing/
ncorporating without selection) (Helou, 2015). Still
in the same preface, Fritz asserts that insufficiently
applied aggression in the stage of entry (hunger)
and de-structuring of external mental and physi-
cal foods impairs maturation, and that the idea of
assimilation weakens Freud’s model, especially
the instinctive relationship Super-Ego/Ego, and the
uneven view of life as the struggle of Eros-Thanatos
(Wulf, 1996). These processes of assimilation and
rejection will delineate the contours of the notion
of organismic self-regulation that will be built up in
the 1951 work.
For Staemmler (2009), Perls defines aggres-
sion as a positive life force related to assimilation,
and the associated terms (destruction, assimilation,
growth) illustrate the historical context in which
Fritz developed his theory: the attempt to overcome
Freud’s view of aggression, which related it to death
instinct. “The first break was in 1936 (...). I wanted
to impress with my flight and with a lecture that
transcended Freud” (Perls, 1969/1979, p. 49-50).
In The Ego and the Id, Freud (1923/1996) says
that the destructive impulses, being neutralized in
favor of life, are diverted to the external world with
the aid of the muscles, so that the form of expres-
sion of this instinct would be by the destruction di-
rected to the world and other beings. In this sense,
such instincts become in part harmless when they
merge with erotic components and, on the other
hand, are diverted to the outside as aggressive-
ness. Freud points out that the more an individual
controls his/her aggressiveness against the outside
world, the more aggressive he/she becomes an ideal
Phenomenological Studies - Revista da Abordagem Gestáltica - XXIV(2): 246-257, mai-ago, 2018
Artigos - Estudos Teóricos ou Históricos
The Origins of the Aggression Concept in Gestalt-therapy: Freud, Reich and Others

250
of the ego, turning aggression towards him/herself.
Fritz, corroborating, believed that the activity of in-
ternal aggression is necessary for a healthy metabo-
lism; that externalizing aggression is necessary to
maintain psychological health (Staemmler, 2009).
Staemmler adds that this conception is presumably
based on the psychoanalytic idea that energy was
to be discharged before it accumulated and caused
damage. In Perls, the solution to aggression poorly
channeled or evolved to a pathological level would
be its biological output by the use of the teeth.
In Civilization and its Discontents (Freud,
1930/1996), the main theme was precisely the in-
variable conflict between the instinctual needs and
the limitations of civilization. Only later Freud re-
cognized the original independence of aggression,
and he added that independent sources would
come from the self-preservation instincts. The im-
pulses of aggressiveness always belonged to the
self- preservation instinct, but as this was included
in the libido, there was no need to testify for the
independence of the aggressive instinct. Only after
the emergence of the “death instinct” that an ag-
gressive, indeed autonomous, instinct appeared in
Beyond the Pleasure Principle. Finally, there is a let-
ter in which Freud seems to allude to the fact that at
the beginning of life all libido is turned inward and
all aggressiveness towards the external world, and
that, throughout life, this vector would gradually
change, in reverse. Nevertheless, Freud himself
calls for careful consideration of this assumption
and that his observations of the instinct of aggres-
sion need further consideration (Strachey, 1996a).
It is noted, therefore, that the idea that the
source of hostility is the repression of instincts is
not Perlsian. Freud (1930/1996) argues that humans
carry considerable burdens of aggression, and that
this inclination is what hinders interpersonal rela-
tions and leads civilization to waste much energy.
The nature of man would therefore be aggressive.
It is also Freud’s assertion that struggle and compe-
tition are indispensable, and that civilization cares
little for individual satisfaction, trying to undermi-
ne, at the expense of individual well-being, human
aggressiveness. Aggressiveness is the basis of every
relationship of affection and love between indivi-
duals and is also a source of satisfaction. Inhibition
of instinctive satisfaction produces aggression.
In Conference XXXII, Freud (1933a/1996) com-
ments that the theory of libido (or theory of instinc-
ts) is a mythology. It states that the organism is under
the control of self-preservation and the preservation
of the species that, independent, do not share the
same origin and, not infrequently, conflict. When
they come to dominate the scene, the sadistic and
anal impulses, in connection with the emergence of
the teeth, the strengthening of the muscular appa-
ratus and the control of the sphincters, call into
question the oral incorporation and the desire to
maintain and to possess, elements of ambivalence
(uniting and possessing, but also destroying and lo-
sing), more evident in the sadistic-anal phase. “The
activity of nutrition provides the elective meanings
by which the object relation is expressed and orga-
nized; for example, the relationship of love with the
mother will be marked by the following meanings:
eating, being eaten” (Laplanche & Pontalis, 2001,
p. 245). From this perspective, the act of eating is
a destruction of the object in order to incorporate
it, and the sexual act would aim at a union (Freud,
1940a [1938]/1996).
Perls’s intuition about child development,
which values implicit deconstruction in tooth de-
velopment, is based on a self-regulated conception
(Lobb, 2015). The child’s ability to bite, supports
and accompanies the ability to deconstruct reality.
This spontaneous, positive and aggressive force has
the role of survival, but also of social interconnec-
tion and allows the individual to actively achieve
what in the environment can satisfy his/her needs.
Thus, from an innovative notion of ego - as a
function and not a psychic instance (Perls, 1977) -,
different from the American ego psychology, though
influenced by Karen Horney’s theory, Perls, suppor-
ted by Goldstein’s organismic self-regulation, will
explain the implications of the ego’s difficulties of
conducting itself in the medium (to what Perls will
call the actions of unification or destruction), whi-
ch are the basis of growth. Healthy ego is the one
who can exert the function of assimilating or rejec-
ting through actions of unification or destruction
(Helou, 2015).
For Laplanche and Pontalis (2001), psychoa-
nalysis has given increasing importance to aggres-
siveness, alluding to the fact that it operates at an
early age of human development and emphasizing
the complex mechanism of its fusion and defusion
with sexuality; warning that the notion of the dea-
th drive does not merely refer to an indiscriminate
conglomeration of aggressive manifestations, but
also entails a tendency towards an unrestricted re-
duction of tensions. After 1920, what is renewed,
therefore, is the extension of the field in which the
aggressiveness in action is recognized. This concep-
tion loses the connotation of hostility and becomes
synonymous with entrepreneurial spirit. However,
in terms of terminology, Freud finds a single term,
Aggression, to denote aggression and aggressiveness
(Laplanche & Pontalis, 2001). This conception and
the Freudian consideration of aggression as energy
necessary for survival are at the center of Perls’s
idea of positive aggression.
Perls and Psychoanalysis: “an open gestalt”
In 1925, Fritz Perls has his first contact with
psychoanalysis (Helou, 2015). His analysis with Ka-
ren Horney aroused this interest, whose training -
which took place amidst many comings and goings
- began at the renowned Institute of Psychoanalysis
in Berlin. Fritz and Laura Perls underwent psychoa-
nalytic training first in Berlin and then in Frankfurt
and Vienna (Wulf, 1996). Fritz started with Karen
Horney and then went on with Wilhelm Reich,
while Frieda Fromm-Reichmann was one of Laura’s
training analysts. Karen Horney participated in the
creation of the first institute of psychoanalysis, and
Phenomenological Studies - Revista da Abordagem Gestáltica - XXIV(2): 246-257, mai-ago, 2018
Artigos - Estudos Teóricos ou Históricos
Thauana Santos de Araújo; Adriano Furtado Holanda

251
her theoretical trajectory turned to culturalism - in
opposition to Freudian universalism - for self-reali-
zation, self-reconstruction and self autonomy stron-
gly influenced Fritz.
Horney (1936/2007) analyzes the cultural fac-
tors, relevant to the structure of the neuroses and
the personality. She considers Freud to have ne-
glected these factors (for Freud, culture would be
the result of a sublimation of sexual and aggressive
impulses), indicating that there are no historical
and anthropological data that endorse the thesis of
the growth of civilization as directly proportional to
the growth of the suppression of the instincts, and
that clinical experience shows that neurosis is not
simply the result of the suppression of one or other
instinctual impulse, but mainly of difficulties in
relation to the demands that are imposed on indi-
viduals. For Wulf (1996), this view oriented toward
environmental influences in the genesis of neurosis
is also of Reich, both having been responsible for
this same orientation in Fritz. These themes, and
also the relationship between culture and indivi-
dual as responsible for determining health and di-
sease, permeate the entire theoretical and practical
path of Perls.
In his autobiography, Perls (1969/1979) states
that he was attracted to the work of the neurolo-
gist Kurt Goldstein, the existential groups and the
rich cultural atmosphere of Frankfurt. Frankfurt
was Fritz’s period of contact with Smuts’ holism,
Gestalt psychology, and Kurt Lewin’s studies (Wulf,
1996; Helou, 2015). It is from a re-reading of Smuts
and Goldstein that Fritz will formulate his review
of psychoanalysis. It was also in Frankfurt at the
Goldstein Institute that Fritz and Laura met. This
shift to Frankfurt will also put Perls in touch with
the “Freudian Left”, and researchers at the Institute
for Social Research, who worked in collaboration
with the Frankfurt Institute of Psychoanalysis (also
based on phenomenology and Marxism, resulting
in contributions that revolutionized the academic
landscape of the twentieth century) and paved the
ground on which Perls launched his theoretical
postulations of 1942 (Helou, 2015).
Directed by Clara Happel - disciple of Horney
who lived in Frankfurt - Perls, in 1927, moved to
Vienna to finish the last phase of his psychoanaly-
tic training at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute.
According to Bocian (as quoted by Helou, 2015),
Perls was attending theoretical seminars on names
such as Otto Fenichel, Anna Freud and Wilhelm
Reich; Anna Freud’s Child Analysis seminar appa-
rently mobilized Fritz to write his first work, which
focused on the ego. Anna, a pioneer in the subject,
did not believe that an infant analysis focused on
the unconscious was possible because of the supe-
rego’s lack of maturity. Fritz and Laura postulated
that the analysis of children was through the use
of activities and tools to promote expression, hen-
ce the claim that Anna Freud inspired Perls in the
elaboration of the method in GT, an active, creati-
ve and experiential method. After passing through
other analysts - Hélène Deustch, Eugen Harnick
and Wilhelm Reich - and extend sometimes its psy-
choanalytic formation, Fritz concludes it in the Ne-
therlands. Already in Africa, Perls draws attention
to themes that have aroused his interest, such as
Smuts holism, and studies of the general semantics
of Alfred Korzybski (Loffredo, 1994). The admira-
tion for Smuts was one of the reasons that made
him move to this country. The Perls couple founded
the Institute of Psychoanalysis in Johannesburg.
After the trip to Europe to present his work in the
Congress of 1936, the break with psychoanalysis,
with which he had already been distancing him-
self, began. Consequently, Perls develops better the
ideas contained in the work on oral resistances and
links them with what he had learned from Smuts
and Goldstein, redirecting himself to a different di-
rection from Freudian as expressed in his autobio-
graphy (Perls 1969/1979).
At the origin of the GT, Wulf (1996) comments
that Otto Rank’s therapy deserves special mention,
since it was centered on the will and functions of
the ego as an autonomous organizing force within
the individual. Rank required the client to re-ex-
perience and repeat (rather than remember), whi-
ch implies an active role of the therapist. For Lo-
ffredo (1994), there is a lack of uniformity among
the authors who have proposed to rescue the set
of influences that gave rise to the GT, especially re-
garding post-Freudian influences. However, Reich’s
influence is unanimous, which can be seen throu-
ghout Perls’s writings because of the direct mention
he makes. In his autobiography, Perls (1969/1979)
makes clear that the work The analysis of character
was a fundamental contribution; and, for Tellegen
(1984), even the Perls’s concept of “retroflexion” re-
ferred to a retention of impulses through muscular
contraction. In the meantime, even before the Rei-
chian contributions, attention to body perception
must be credited to Laura’s experiences with mo-
dern dance, expressive movement and creativity,
and her attention to the methods of Alexander and
Feldenkrais (Loffredo, 1994; Frazão, 2013).
In the face of all this discussion, it would not
be an exaggeration to say that the GT is the “daugh-
ter” of psychoanalysis - even a rebellious daughter
- an expression, at least initially, of Perls’s strong re-
volt against Freud. Several psychoanalysts that con-
tested Freud have influenced Perls and Laura, many
with active techniques and physical interventions.
Fritz did not enjoy a traditional experience of psy-
choanalysis, so his criticisms must be placed in this
context. Aside from this, Perls intended to streng-
then and give an identity to his method, hence his
focus on differences and the strengthening of bou-
ndaries.
In the United States, Perls, who was already
far from Freudian psychoanalysis, became even
more distant when he started to participate in arts
and intellectual Marxists circles of the post-war
period, becoming involved again with the theater.
The development of Freudian psychoanalysis in the
United States occurred amid conflict that resulted
in neofreudism, a movement that questioned im-
portant concepts of Freud, such as sexuality, drive,
repression and transference, as well as opposed to
Phenomenological Studies - Revista da Abordagem Gestáltica - XXIV(2): 246-257, mai-ago, 2018
Artigos - Estudos Teóricos ou Históricos
The Origins of the Aggression Concept in Gestalt-therapy: Freud, Reich and Others

252
Freudian dogmatism and universalism. It was in
this wave of dissent that Fritz settled in New York.
Being a revisionist psychoanalyst meant to
turn more to the intersubjective, to object relations
(Helou, 2015). In his first work, e.g., Perls does not
evoke the psychoanalytic concepts of drive and un-
conscious, focusing on the work of mediation of the
ego through aggressive instinct in relation to the
environment, without mentioning the unconscious
scope of the ego proposed in the second Freudian
topic. However, revisions of the Freudian theory of
the Ego were not Perls’s prerogative in the 1940s.
On the other hand, Fritz set in motion a very pe-
culiar and proper study of the ego, different from
other post-Freudian currents and other psychoa-
nalytic movements. In general, for Loffredo (1994),
anchored in reasoning of Marcuse, the common
cause of divergence of the revisionists of Freud was
his attitude of disregarding the relation with the en-
vironment in the formulation of the neuroses and
in the construction of the personality.
In summary, Helou (2015) concludes that “the
instincts of self-conservation of hunger and defen-
se, studied by Perls, are based on Freudian drives
for self-conservation” (p.103). Perls (1942/2002),
who questions some pairs of opposites pointed out
by Freud, rejects the pair of opposites “life drive”
and “death drive” introduced in the second Freu-
dian topic. In view of this, Perls apparently starts
from this second topic, since the life drive would
be responsible for bringing together the self-preser-
vation and libidinal functions, and does not recog-
nize the death drives (Helou, 2015). The concept
of necessity was also borrowed from Freud, with
whom he referred to the drives of self-preservation,
as Perls, Hefferline and Goodman (1951/1997) re-
produce in Gestalt-therapy. In this way, Perls tries
to change the concept of drive by necessity, simpler
and organismic (Helou, 2015).
The influence of Reich on Perls is more evi-
dent than that of Freud, especially by the appeal to
the body as an expression of reality, which also per-
meates the entire work of Perls. For Perls and Reich,
the relieving of a muscular tension almost always
gives rise to anguish, anger or sexual excitement,
which are the three basic biological excitations. As
biological energy dominates the somatic as well as
the psychic, they consider that there is a functional
unit in which biological laws can be applied to the
psychic, but not vice versa. Thus, there is a cons-
tant oscillation of tension and relief; self-regulation
eliminates the struggle against instinct, as it is com-
patible with natural instincts. Reich will also reflect
on the conflict between society and individual and
the implications of this conflict.
This influence of Reich on Perls is something
that deserves greater prominence. Kyian (2001) brin-
gs together data of historical and theoretical cha-
racter, and influences that constituted the process
of existence of Perls and his approach; concluding
that there is an integrated “whole” between Fritz,
his history and his approach, leaving the question:
Who was Frederick Perls? To this, he argues that a
sure answer would be that he was a dissident psy-
choanalyst who constructed an approach that con-
trasted with psychoanalysis, from personal frustra-
tion and from divergences in the conception of man.
Or, he was the creator of an approach, recognized
from the 1960s on account of the changes in the
social historical context, which converged with his
premises. In this rescue, he mentions Perls’s admi-
ration for Reich, which would ultimately influence
his entire work, and can be observed by comments
in his autobiography (Perls, 1969/1979).
Ginger and Ginger (1995) comment that Rei-
ch attributed to the accumulation of genital sexual
tension the origin of aggressiveness and neuroses
and insisted on the “function of orgasm”, proposing
the analysis of the character, aiming to dissipate the
muscular or character armor, believing that the total
expression of the client should be fostered, and not
only his/her verbal discourse, what would be given
by the how, and not by the why, in the form, and not
only in the content of the message. The heritage of
Reichian thought is clear. Perls also stressed the im-
portance of how, and not why; his holistic view of
man was a total and integrated form of expression.
The corporeal aspect is also present in both approa-
ches, since it is through some bodily manifestations
that some internal contents can be exhibited. They
also used in their therapeutic work the instrument
of frustration.
Regarding the subject of aggression, in Charac-
ter Analysis, Reich (1933/1998) opposes the existen-
ce of a theory of the death drive or of any biological
commitment for displeasure. For him, the supposed
“death drive” could be explained by some specific
form of orgasm anguish. Moreover, it demonstrates
its agreement with Freud’s theory that destructive
feelings, which are usually caused by inhibitions
of drives, are initially directed against the external
world, turning against the person only later. In other
words, for Freud, psychic development would take
place on the basis of the conflict between the drive
and the external world. The conflict later posed by
Freud - between Eros and the death drive - reduced
the importance of the former. Neurosis, then, wou-
ld no longer result from the original conflict, and
hence suffering would no longer result from the ex-
ternal world, from oppressive society, but from an
internal biological will to suffer, to self-punch and
self-destruct. With this, Reich demonstrates his di-
sagreement that there is some primary tendency for
self-destruction, independent of the environment,
which came from “inside”, from an inner drive of
death.
For Reich (1933/1998), the basic rhythm of me-
tabolism in meeting the need for food and sexual
satisfaction occurs through the dynamics between
tension and relaxation. He states that only one de-
sire emerges from the individual’s biopsychic one-
ness: that of unloading internal tensions, whether
they come from hunger or sexuality, which would
not be possible without contact with the external
world. Hunger is something that can not be subli-
mated, unlike sexual energy. Any frustration of a
satisfaction drive can cause anguish, which is the
counterpoint of the libido or, in order to avoid an-
Phenomenological Studies - Revista da Abordagem Gestáltica - XXIV(2): 246-257, mai-ago, 2018
Artigos - Estudos Teóricos ou Históricos
Thauana Santos de Araújo; Adriano Furtado Holanda

253
guish, generate a destructive impulse. The inhibi-
tion of the aggressive impulse by a threat of punish-
ment from the external environment in addition to
increasing the anguish, impairs the discharge of the
libido, causing the release of the destructive im-
pulse to the world and to the ego, producing new
antagonisms: between the drive of destruction and
self-destruction. Every libidinal impulse that is not
directed towards the world ends up being nothing
but reactions to frustrations resulting from the fai-
lure to satisfy libidinal needs and to satisfy hunger,
frustrations generated by the social system, having
nothing to do with death drive. Thus, a person des-
troys him/herself not because he/she is driven bio-
logically by some obscure will, but because reality
has generated unsustainable internal tensions that
can only be relieved by self-annihilation. Indeed,
it is the moral prohibitions of society that produce
these “internal mechanisms” antagonistic to the se-
xual drive. Therefore, destructive impulses are not
determined biologically, but socially; the repression
of sexuality by authoritarian education transforms
aggression into a demand, in other words, the ac-
cumulated sexual energy becomes destructiveness,
and what seems self-destructive in fact are genui-
ne manifestations of destructive intentions of a
tyrannical society, not drives of self-annihilation.
The ambivalence of feelings, such as love and
hate, is also not a biological law, and therefore co-
mes from social development. Believing that it is
possible to extract the full range of affections from
the three basic affections pleasure, anguish, and
anger, Reich argues that sexual excitement and an-
guish can be understood as two contrary directions,
but hate would relate to these two affections in the
following way: when the armor of character is un-
done, aggressiveness emerges first. Subsequently,
when the aggressiveness is released, the anguish
will be released. This means that anguish can be-
come aggression and vice versa. Inhibition of ag-
gression, moreover, is linked to an increased tone,
to a stiffening of the musculature. Inhibited aggres-
sion leads to an affective blockage. Thus, all “chro-
nic muscular hypertonia represents an inhibition of
the flow of all forms of excitation (pleasure, anguish,
anger) or at least a significant reduction of the vege-
tative current” (Reich, 1933/1998, p. 319. Emphasis
added). It would be like saying that the inhibition
of vital functions (libido, anguish, aggression) is
achieved through the formation of a muscular ar-
mor around the biological nucleus. Thus, there is a
functional relationship between neurotic character
and muscular dystonia.
Costa (1984) states that the way in which a
person makes contact with him/herself and the
world is organized in the various character trai-
ts. The organism, for Reich, functions integrally,
is expressed in several levels and at one time. Both
the character and the subject as a whole were not
the object of Freudian analysis. This was limited to
the symptoms and the positive transfers, because
negative ones were considered to hinder the pro-
cess. Thus, the priority for Reich was to analyze
how customers avoided contacting themselves. In
working on bodily inhibition, the repression of re-
pressed instincts or impulses is also worked. All
of these points are validated and incorporated by
Perls into his theory. Although Reich’s clinical ob-
servations were against Freud’s early postulates re-
lating the formation of the neuroses to the repres-
sion of sexuality, for Reich they are especially the
social factors that turn sexual excitement into an-
guish, reflecting the conflict between sexual needs
and world. The conflict between internal needs,
and social prohibitions to gratify them, leads such
prohibitions to be internalized in the form of mo-
rals. Perls (1942/2002, 1951/1997, 1975/1977) also
debates social norms, the repression imposed on
instincts and morals of the organism. However in
Perls’s case, his theory focuses more specifically
on the repression of aggression, not on the repres-
sion of sexuality. Reich said that if the sponta-
neous movement of the organism is repressed, the
need for gratification will be increasing, and the
need for reinforcement of the barrier is increased,
which, in turn, increases the pressure for gratifi-
cation as well, turning more violent the need, for
himself and for the world.
Costa (1984) argues that Reich corroborates
Freud’s assumption that sexuality represents the
emotional pleasure movement of the organism,
which tends to be regulated by this principle, that
is, the organism regulates itself by the pleasure
principle. Thus, if a child is deprived of affection,
of contact, that is, in the face of the frustration of
its pleasure movement, it will experience anguish
from which anger arises, and a movement which
was both discharge and pleasure becomes destruc-
tive, even violent. To avoid the pain, the child will
then retain their painful feelings and sensations
and withdraw contact from the world. These con-
ceptions are clearly to be found in Perls’s theory,
as seen in the 1942 writing. Therefore, the no-
tion that destructiveness is an impulse originated
from the inhibitions of spontaneous and prepon-
derantly pleasurable vital movements is of Reich,
who likewise evolved such ideas from Freud, which
leads to the deduction that both are in the basis of
the postulates of Fritz, that is, the theory of aggres-
sion is predominantly a Perlsian elaboration of the
assumptions of Freud and Reich, chosen according
to the convenience and affinity of Perls.
Therefore, according to Reich - reproduced
and reworked by Perls, later - when not linked to
survival, the destructiveness derives from the inhi-
bition of sexual pleasure, as Freud also assumed
- in Perls, arises from the inhibition of aggression.
Destructiveness can also be organized in a sponta-
neous, libertarian, natural, true, loving, and cor-
dial fashion, which strongly resembles the notion
of positive aggressiveness suggested by Fritz Perls
in 1942 and 1951. Reich further reports on the im-
portance of sex and nutrition for the balance of the
other functions of the organism, because through
food, the organism is rebuild and by sex, it regulates
itself, and the life of the organism is maintained by
tension, load, discharge and relaxation. As for se-
xual economics, for Costa (1984), aggression is not
Phenomenological Studies - Revista da Abordagem Gestáltica - XXIV(2): 246-257, mai-ago, 2018
Artigos - Estudos Teóricos ou Históricos
The Origins of the Aggression Concept in Gestalt-therapy: Freud, Reich and Others

254
conceived as destruction, sadism or death instinct.
In itself, it is neither destructive nor sadistic. There
is, in this Reichian conception, a primary aggres-
sion that becomes secondary and destructive from
the dissatisfaction of basic needs, especially sexual
ones. Aggression by itself means activity, approach,
movement, discharge, so it must be discriminated
its most varied ways of expression: sexual, destruc-
tive, sadistic, locomotive, etc. In fact, aggression is
posed by Costa, who is endorsed in Reich, as ener-
gy of action, similar to what seen in Perls and his
conception of positive aggression, as a movement
of life. Perhaps this varied way of Freud and Rei-
ch to conceptualize aggression and refer to it, in so
many ways, explains the fact that Fritz denominates
aggression in several ways as well: energy, force, ac-
tion, function, instrument, and so on.
Aggression, in this sense, is the means by whi-
ch life is preserved and perpetuated, “it is life itself
in motion” (Costa, 1984, p. 74). Instinct gratifies itself
through it, it is the force of it in movement. When
instinct is not satisfied, this aggression as a force of
action accumulates and then becomes destructive. If
emotional discharge does not occur spontaneously,
it will occur in a reactive and probably inappropria-
te way. Biological dissatisfaction, both of nutrition
and sexual, can lead to aggression, therefore, to be-
come destructive. However, even when manifested
destructively, it is followed by a pleasure, because
every discharge of energy is accompanied by the sen-
sation of relieving tension. When aggression is the
movement itself, it is the activity itself, in search of
gratification. It is a strong, determined, active, firm,
sweet, tender and spontaneous movement when the
internal and external conditions are compatible with
its accomplishment.
In general, Costa comments that Reich asserts
that society precludes individuals from satisfying
their hunger and sexuality, and the supposed death
instinct is nothing more than an unconscious de-
sire for orgasmic relief from tension. Reich remai-
ned faithful to Freud’s initial ideas, especially on
the fact that neurosis was the fruit of the sexual
repressions imposed by society on internal needs.
In short, “the greater the armor, the less sexual and
aggressive motility for pleasure and fulfillment” (p.
81). Normally, the release of contained content will
occur in that order: anguish, hatred, anger, pleasu-
re, love. All these modes of theorizing, analyzing
and conceptualizing aggression are observed in
Perls’s theory of aggression, especially in the wri-
tings of 1942, 1951, and 1975.
Other possible influences in the roots of
Theory of Aggression
Helou (2015) also points out the influence of
Nietzsche’s philosophy on Perls who, timidly, makes
allusions to the philosopher in some of his writings.
According to Petzold (cited by Loffredo, 1994), Frie-
dlander, a philosopher who greatly influenced Perls
through his theory of Creative Indifference, also
wrote about Nietzsche, especially on the Dionysian
aspects of his thinking, which struck Fritz who, indi-
rectly, also visited the thought of Nietzsche. For the
commentator, the teaching and practice of GT are an
application of these Nietzschean aspects and of his
superman doctrine. On this occasion, Loffredo en-
courages further investigation into GT relations with
Nietzsche. Smith (2007) is dedicated to pointing out
the similarities between Perls’s theory of aggression
and Nietzsche’s thinking by rightly arguing and illus-
trating with many very similar examples and passa-
ges in their legacy in order to attribute the origin of
this theory to the philosopher. According to Smith,
Nietzsche was the first to discuss the disadvantages
of “swallowing whole” and “swallowing the words
of others”, and how this attitude ultimately contribu-
tes to the formation of a harmful confluence. Thus,
the central point of the metaphor of eating would be
Nietzsche’s, having been developed by Perls.
Goldstein (1951), who is also in the root of
the theory of aggression, teaches that an inherent
inter-relational behavior is the fact that the self-
-actualization of the individual in his social envi-
ronment will only occur if he usurps the freedom
of the other, if to claim something from the other,
imposing him/herself to that other to some extent.
The fact that the individual does not exist alone but
with others necessarily points to the incomplete
realization of the nature of each individual, and this
implies impact, antagonism, conflict and competi-
tion with others. Therefore, it is possible to affirm
that the activity of usurping the freedom of others
also belongs to the nature of man. Thus, self-reali-
zation can only be achieved by some renunciation
on the part of another, and each one must request
from others, such renunciation. Goldstein explains
that these two types of behavior - self-restraint and
usurpation - were referred to by McDougall under
the nicknames of “submission” and “aggression” as
two basic “directions” of human nature (Goldstein,
1951, Holanda & Moreira, 2017).
In his general critique of the theory of drives
and instincts, Goldstein clarifies that there is no
reason to suppose that such drives are inherent to
man, since both behaviors are not distinct and an-
tagonistic tendencies that operate in man. Man is
neither aggressive nor submissive by nature. He is
led to update himself and come to terms with his
environment. In doing so, he sometimes has to be
submissive and sometimes aggressive, depending
on the situation. At this point, Goldstein’s influen-
ce on Fritz, who advocated a theory of “non-ins-
tinct” (Perls, 1969/1979) is clear, - according to
Mayer (1986), Perls’s disagreement with the Freu-
dian approach begins with the theory of instincts
and the libido and the use of aggressive energy in
the service of the situation, that is, man is in cons-
tant interaction and updating with his environment
(Perls, 1942/2002, 1951/1997). Thus, Goldstein re-
gards stiffened aggression as a characteristic symp-
tom of neurosis.
If this conception of the relationship between
individuals is correct, if all relationships between
people are determined by the tendency of each to
be accomplished, then it is possible to arrive at the
Phenomenological Studies - Revista da Abordagem Gestáltica - XXIV(2): 246-257, mai-ago, 2018
Artigos - Estudos Teóricos ou Históricos
Thauana Santos de Araújo; Adriano Furtado Holanda

255
general conclusion that the individual is primary
(in the sense of principal, most important) in the
whole social organization. Often the “we”, the re-
lationship between the individual and others is
considered the main factor, and the behavior of the
individual is taken as understandable only in terms
of this “we”. Indeed, the widespread assumption
is that nature is not interested in the individual. It
seems a waste of individuals to have no other pur-
pose than the perpetuation of the species. Generic
as it is, this hypothesis is by no means based on
facts. In all of nature, we encounter individuals,
both in the realm of man and in that of animals and
plants. These reflections of Goldstein, along with
Freud’s conclusions about the consequences of the
suppression of the individual in civilization, may
also lie at the heart of the theory of aggression, whi-
ch also reflects an individual character.
Goldstein further asserts that there is nothing
negative about nature. If the individual is the most
important element of nature, the present time beco-
mes the center of importance, because the present
is always individual. What is called “species” is ne-
ver present; the species belongs to the past or to the
future. Nature in general seems to live in only one
dimension (the present), the dimension of the con-
crete, of the individual. Only the human being and
possibly some of the more developed animals go
beyond this dimension. Thus, it would not be rash
to suppose that Perls’s focus on the conservation of
the individual and aggression as positive is also the
fruit of these Goldsteinian reflections. For Tellegen
(1984), although Perls says that organism-environ-
ment interaction must be taken in a pluralistic way
(involving physical, biological, psychological and
sociocultural aspects of the field), it usually focuses
on what is biologically essential, and the fact that
it frequently uses digestive and physiological me-
taphors is a reflection of Goldstein’s great influence
on Perls’s thinking. Tellegen (1984) still indicates
GT contains Goldstein’s conceptions about the or-
ganism having a natural movement for growth and
self-actualization.
Final considerations
The theory of aggression, in GT, was an idea-
lization of the Perls couple, based on Laura’s works
and developments (somewhat erratic, given the
myriad of themes that associates), by Fritz. The ori-
gins of this thesis are intimately intertwined with
Freudian psychoanalysis (especially the second
topic), with the drives of self-conservation and the
dichotomy of life drives versus death drives. In ad-
dition, the complexity of the formulation of the Perls
still adds other related contributions, like those of
Horney, with her concept of ego; those of Reich and
his conceptions of resistance and the conflict of ins-
tincts with the environment (which differed from
Freud’s psychic conflict); those of Anna Freud, by
her understanding of active ego; and concepts deri-
ved from other sources, such as Goldstein, Smuts,
and Nietzsche.
A large number of researchers have denounced
the need to circumscribe the influence of psychoa-
nalysis on Perls’s thinking (Helou, 2015). According
to Freud, neurosis results from a conflict between
individual and society, but Fritz innovates by pla-
cing, in 1942, the oppression of aggressive energy
at the heart of that conflict, which would be displa-
ced from its biological function. With this, the focus
of therapy would be the resumption of biological
functions. With accumulated aggressive energy, the
only possible path of realization would be neuro-
sis, and the destructive power of aggression would
find its way out in violence. However, Perls himself
seems to leave the theory of aggression in the back-
ground in the following works and starts betting on
the proposition or development of other constructs,
favoring the field perspective.
Among so many questions, it is expected that
this theme can be retaken, both for its historical re-
levance and for the possible influence it may still
have on the scope of the approach.
References
Belmino, M.C. (2014). Fritz Perls e Paul Goodman. Duas Fa-
ces da Gestalt Terapia. Fortaleza: Editora Premius.
Bernard, J. M. (1986). Laura Perls: from ground to figure.
Life Lines.Journal of Counseling and Development, 64,
367-373.
Boris, G.D.J.B. (2002). Sobre Fritz Perls e “Ego, Fome e Agres-
são”. Em F. S. Perls (1942/2002). Ego, Fome e Agressão
(p. 19-28). São Paulo: Summus.
Costa, R. A. (1984). Sobre Reich, Sexualidade e Emoção. Rio
de Janeiro: Achiamé.
Frazão, L. M. (1997). Apresentação à edição brasileira. Em F.
S. Perls; R. Hefferline; P. Goodman (1951/1997). Ges-
talt-terapia (p. 7-10). São Paulo: Summus.
Frazão, L. M. (2002). Apresentação à edição brasileira. Em
F. S. Perls. Ego, Fome e Agressão (p. 9-10). São Paulo:
Summus.
Frazão, L. M. (2013). Um pouco da história...um pouco dos
bastidores. Em L. M. Frazão; K. O. Fukumitsu (Orgs).
Gestalt-terapia: fundamentos epistemológicos e in-
fluências filosóficas (p. 11-23). São Paulo: Summus.
Freud, S. (1996). Além do princípio de prazer. Em Além do
princípio de prazer (p. 11-75). Rio de Janeiro: Imago
(Original de 1920).
Freud, S. (1996). Conferência XXXII: ansiedade e vida ins-
tintual. Em Novas conferências introdutórias sobre psi-
canálise e outros trabalhos (p. 85-112). Rio de Janeiro:
Imago (Original de 1933a).
Freud, S. (1996). Esboço de psicanálise. Em Moisés e o mo-
noteísmo (p. 151-222). Rio de Janeiro: Imago (Original
de 1940a [1938]).
Phenomenological Studies - Revista da Abordagem Gestáltica - XXIV(2): 246-257, mai-ago, 2018
Artigos - Estudos Teóricos ou Históricos
The Origins of the Aggression Concept in Gestalt-therapy: Freud, Reich and Others

256
Freud, S. (1996). O ego e o id (p. 13-72). Rio de Janeiro: Ima-
go (Originalde 1923).
Freud, S. (1996). O futuro de uma ilusão, o mal-estar na civi-
lização e outros trabalhos. Rio de Janeiro: Imago (Ori-
ginal de 1930 [1929]).
Freud, S. (1996). A história do movimento psicanalítico, arti-
gos sobre a metapsicologia e outros trabalhos (p. 115-
144). Rio de Janeiro: Imago (Original de 1915).
Freud, S. (1996). Um caso de histeria, Três ensaios sobre a
teoria da sexualidade e outros trabalhos (p. 163-195).
Rio de Janeiro: Imago (Original de 1905).
From, I. & Miller, M. V. (1997). Introdução à edição do The
Gestalt Journal. Em F. S. Perls; R. Hefferline & P. Good-
man. Gestalt-terapia (p. 15-29). São Paulo: Summus.
Ginger, S. & Ginger, A. (1995). Gestalt: uma terapia do conta-
to. São Paulo: Summus.
Goldstein, K. (1951). Human Nature: in the light of psycho-
pathology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Gomes, G. (2001a). Os dois conceitos freudianos de Trieb.
Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa, Brasília, 17(3), 249-255.
Gomes, P. W. (2001b). Gestalt-terapia: herança em re-vista.
123f. Dissertação (Mestrado em Psicologia Clínica) –
UNICAP, Recife.
Helou, F. (2013). Frederick Perls, inquietações e travessias: da
Psicanálise à Gestalt-terapia. Mestrado em Psicologia.
Universidade de Brasília, Brasília.
Helou, F. (2015). Frederick Perls, vida e obra: em busca da
Gestalt-terapia. São Paulo: Summus.
Holanda, A. F. (2005). Elementos de epistemologia da Ges-
talt-terapia. Em A. F. Holanda; N. J. Faria (Orgs.). Ges-
talt-terapia e Contemporaneidade: contribuições para
uma construção epistemológica da teoria e da prática
gestáltica (p. 23-55). Campinas: Livro Pleno.
Holanda, A. F. (2009). Gestalt-terapia e abordagem gestáltica
no Brasil: análise de mestrados e doutorados (1982-
2008). Estudos e Pesquisas em Psicologia, 9 (1), 98-123.
Holanda, A. F. & Moreira, J. S. (2017). Fenomenologia, Orga-
nismo e Vida: uma introdução à obra de Kurt Golds-
tein. Aoristo - International Journal of Phenomenology,
Hermeneutics and Metaphysics, 2 (1), 231-254.
Horney, K. (2007). Cultura e neurose. Revista da Abordagem
Gestáltica, 13 (1), 147-159 (Original de 1936).
Jolivet, R. (1975). Vocabulário de Filosofia, Rio de Janeiro:
Agir.
Kyian, A. M. M. (2001). E a Gestalt emerge: vida e obra de
Frederick Perls. São Paulo: Altana.
Laplanche, J. & Pontalis, J.-B. (2001). Vocabulário da psica-
nálise. São Paulo: Martins Fontes.
Laplanche, J. (1985). Vida e morte em psicanálise. Porto Ale-
gre: Artes Médicas.
Lobb, M. S. (2015). Fundamentals and development of Ge-
stalt Therapy in the contemporary context. Gestalt Re-
view, 19 (2), 1-24.
Loffredo, A.M. (1994). A Cara e o Rosto. Ensaio sobre Gestalt
Terapia. São Paulo: Escuta.
Mayer, E. L. (1986). Frederick S. Perls e a Gestalt-terapia. Em
J. Fadiman e R. Frager, Teorias da Personalidade (p.
125-148). São Paulo: Harbra.
Müller-Granzotto, M. J. & Müller-Granzotto, R. L. (2007).
Perls leitor de Freud, Goldstein e Friedlander e os pri-
meiros ensaios em direção a uma psicoterapia gestálti-
ca. Estudos e Pesquisas em Psicologia, 7(1), 42-55.
Perls, F. S. (1977). Moral, Fronteira do Ego e Agressão. Em J.
O. Stevens (org.). Isto é Gestalt. (p. 49-61). São Paulo:
Summus.
Perls, F. S. (1979). Escarafunchando Fritz: dentro e fora da
lata de lixo. São Paulo: Summus (Original de 1969).
Perls, F. S. (2002). Ego, Fome e Agressão: uma revisão da teo-
ria e do método de Freud. São Paulo: Summus (Origi-
nal de 1942).
Perls, F. S. (2002). Prefácio à edição de 1969 da Random
House. Em F. S. Perls. Ego, Fome e Agressão (p. 35-36).
São Paulo: Summus.
Perls, F. S. (2011). A abordagem gestáltica e testemunha ocu-
lar da terapia. Rio de Janeiro: LTC (Original de 1973).
Perls, F. S.; Hefferline, R.; Goodman, P. (1997). Gestalt-tera-
pia. São Paulo: Summus. (Original de 1951).
Perls, L. (1977). Entendidos e mal entendidos em Gestalt-te-
rapia. Conferência de Laura Perls no Congresso da As-
sociação Europeia de Análise Transacional, Áustria.
Perls, L. (1988). A conversation with Laura Perls. Em J.
Wysong e E. Rosenfeld (Orgs.), An oral history of Ge-
stalt Therapy (p.3-25). Gouldsboro, Maine, USA: The
Gestalt Journal Press.
Perls, L. (1994). Viviendo en los límites. Valencia: Promolibro
(Original de 1992).
Prestrelo, E. T. (2012). A história da Gestalt-terapia no Bra-
sil: “peles-vermelhas” ou “caras-pálidas”? Em A.M.
Jacó-Vilela, A.C.Cerezzo e H.B.C. Rodrigues (Orgs.),
Clio-psyché: fazeres e dizeres psi na história do Brasil
(p. 88-96). Rio de Janeiro: Centro Edelstein de Pesqui-
sas Sociais.
Reich, W. (1998). Análise do Caráter. São Paulo: Martins
Fontes (Original de 1933).
Smith, E. W. L. (2007). Gestalt Therapy and the Concreti-
zation of Nietzsche’s Metaphor. Gestalt Review, 11(3),
207-216.
Staemmler, F-M. (2009). Aggression, Time, and Understand-
ing: contributions to the evolution of Gestalt Therapy.
New York: Routledge.
Phenomenological Studies - Revista da Abordagem Gestáltica - XXIV(2): 246-257, mai-ago, 2018
Artigos - Estudos Teóricos ou Históricos
Thauana Santos de Araújo; Adriano Furtado Holanda

257
Strachey, J. (1996a). Nota do editor inglês. Em S. Freud, O fu-
turo de uma ilusão, o mal-estar na civilização e outros
trabalhos (p. 67-71). Rio de Janeiro: Imago (Original
de 1930).
Strachey, J. (1996b). Nota do editor inglês. Em S. Freud, Os
instintos e suas vicissitudes (p. 117-122). Rio de Janei-
ro: Imago (Original de 1915).
Tellegen, T. A. (1984). Gestalt e grupos. São Paulo: Summus.
Wulf, R. (1996). The Historical Roots of Gestalt Therapy
Theory. Gestalt Dialogue: Newsletter for the Integrative
Gestalt Centre, November, s/p.
Wysong, J. (2002). Prefácio à edição do The Gestalt Journal –
1992. Em F. S. Perls, Ego, Fome e Agressão (p. 29-33).
São Paulo: Summus.
Thauana Santos de Araújo. Mestre em Psicologia
Clínica pela Universidade Federal do Paraná. Possui
graduação em Psicologia pela Universidade Tuiuti do
Paraná (2014) e graduação em Direito pela Pontifícia
Universidade Católica do Paraná (2010). Atualmen-
te, é profa. nas Faculdades FACEL e trabalha também
como psicóloga clínica (CRP-08/20667). É membro
do Laboratório de Fenomenologia e Subjetividade/
UFPR. Atua como gestalt-terapeuta. Email: thaua-
naaraujo@hotmail.com.
Adriano Furtado Holanda é Doutor em Psicologia,
Professor Adjunto do Departamento de Psicologia
e do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Psicologia da
Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR). Endereço
Institucional: Departamento de Psicologia, Universi-
dade Federal do Paraná. Praça Santos Andrade, 50 –
Sala 215 (Ala Alfredo Buffren). 80020.300. Curitiba/
PR. Email: aholanda@yahoo.com
First Revision: May 07, 2017
Second Revision: November 11, 2017
Accepted: December 27, 2017
Phenomenological Studies - Revista da Abordagem Gestáltica - XXIV(2): 246-257, mai-ago, 2018
Artigos - Estudos Teóricos ou Históricos
The Origins of the Aggression Concept in Gestalt-therapy: Freud, Reich and Others