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Anthropometric characteristics of top-class Olympic race walkers

April 2018
The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness 59(3)

DOI:10.23736/S0022-4707.18.08363-9

Authors:

Josu Gomez Ezeiza

Institute of sport and exercise medicine

Nicholas Tam

On AG

Jon Torres-Unda

University of the Basque Country

Cristina Granados

University of the Basque Country

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Background: Typical training programmes in elite race walkers involve high training volumes at low and moderate intensities, which have been reported to induce functional and structural adaptations at an anthropometric level. Since anthropometrical variables are closely related to movement efficiency and performance in endurance events, the aim of this study was to describe the anthropometric profile of world-class race walkers. Methods: Twenty-nine world-class race walkers (21 men & 8 women) participated in this study. Anthropometric characteristics, including height, body mass, eight skinfolds, five girths and four bone breadths were measured. Body composition, somatotype, somatotype dispersion mean, somatotype attitudinal mean and height to weight ratio, as well as skinfolds extremity to trunk ratio were also calculated. Results: Mean height, body mass and body mass index were 177.1 ± 7.1 cm, 66.4 ± 5.8 kg, and21.2±1.3kg·m2 formenand165.6±4.5cm,53.6±3.7kg,and19.6±1.6kg·m2for women, respectively. Women presented greater body fat content (6.7 ± 0.6 vs. 12.2 ± 0.8%; very large effect), less muscle mass (65.6 ± 4.6 vs. 61.6 ± 2.6 kg; large effect), and were more endomorphic (large effect) than men. Men specialists in 20-km showed greater muscle mass (66.7 ± 4.9 vs. 64.4 ± 4.3 kg; moderate effect), and slightly higher skinfolds, girths, body fat content and were more mesomorphic than 50-km specialists (moderate effect). Conclusions: The present study expands the limited knowledge on the anthropometric characteristics and somatotype elements of elite top-class race walkers. The characterisation of the morphology of elite race walkers provides coaches a reference values to control the training development of the race walker, as well as providing reference values to improve talent identification.

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Development of A Comprehensive Test for Talent Identification in Chinese Youth Racewalking Athletes

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Full-text available

Sep 2024

Background and Aim: Talent identification forms the foundation of competitive sports. Scientific selection of young people with strong athletic talent and potential to compete in sports training is key to developing high-level athletes and achieving excellent athletic results. Therefore, this study aims to develop a comprehensive test for talent identification in Chinese youth racewalking athletes. Materials and Methods: This is a research and experimental development (R&D) study. There are approximately 300 youth racewalkers in China, and this study is implemented in 115 athletes. The main steps and methods of the study are as follows: (1) Literature review and content analysis, search and sort out the factors related to excellent racewalking performance; (2) Invite 7 experts to fill in the semi-structured questionnaire and form a preliminary draft of the comprehensive test; (3) Invite 21 experts to conduct a Delphi evaluation of the comprehensive test content and revise the comprehensive test; (4) Implement the comprehensive test and analyze the data, select the key test through correlation analysis, and conduct a Test-retest analysis to confirm test reliability; (5) Complete the second round of Delphi evaluation and to construct the final comprehensive test and norms. Results: The final comprehensive test for talent identification in Chinese youth racewalking athletes includes five aspects: anthropometric, physiological, physical fitness, skill, and psychology. The comprehensive test for males included 11 items as follows: (1) Pelvic Width; (2) Thigh Length; (3) Calf Length; (4) VO2 max; (5) 400m Run; (6) 3000m Run; (7) 1000m Racewalking; (8) Sit and Reach; (9) Willpower; (10) Mental Resilience; and (11) Expectation of Winning. The comprehensive test for females included 8 items as follows: (1) Thigh Length; (2) Calf Length; (3) VO2 max; (4) 400m Run; (5) 1000m Racewalking; (6) Standing Long Jump; (7) Willpower; and (8) Motivation to Participate. Conclusion: The holistic evaluation of Chinese youth racewalking athletes encompasses a diverse range of factors, from physical dimensions to psychological attributes, reflecting a nuanced understanding of talent beyond mere physical prowess.

Impact of Reflective Roadways on Simulated Heat Strain at the Tokyo, Paris and Los Angeles Olympics

Article

Jul 2024

Cities are applying reflective coatings on streets in an attempt to mitigate urban heat. These coatings are also being used to try to reduce heat stress during outdoor sports. This study models the progression of heat strain in elite marathon and race walk athletes competing on traditional dark asphalt, reflective pavement, or shaded asphalt in past and future Olympic Games [Tokyo (Sapporo), Paris, Los Angeles]. Observed weather (Sapporo) or expected climate conditions for each city, along with modeled mean radiant temperature (TMRT) differences across the three surface types, were fed into the joint system (JOS-3) thermoregulation model. Resultant changes to heat strain parameters of core temperature (Tcr) and mean skin temperatures (

{\overline{T} }_{sk}

), as well as skin wettedness and cardiac output, were modeled. Reflective pavement slightly increased the average TMRT (1.2–2.2 °C), which caused higher overall radiant heat loads on athletes and thus slightly higher (yet insignificant) Tcr and

{\overline{T} }_{sk}

. These changes in simulated heat strain (worsening the situation) are the opposite of what is expected from a heat mitigation technology. Shading the athletes resulted in lower predicted Tcr (− 0.37 °C) and

{\overline{T} }_{sk}

(− 0.68 °C) across events compared to sun-exposed asphalt, also decreasing cardiac output. The minor increase in TMRT over reflective pavement transferred a negligible difference in simulated athlete heat strain over a 2–3 h intense competition. Overall, the large impact of solar radiation (even in the morning hours) should be decreased via design strategies that block the sun rather than strategies that increase radiant heat load.

MORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERISTIC THE THIGH IN STUDENTS OF BUKOVINA

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2024

S. Yu. Karatieieva

Ther comparison of anatomical parameters of the thigh circle with their subsequent modeling on 130 students of Bukovina (the primary study was exemination out during September- October 2021, and the reexemination of the same students in September- October 2022). All of the studied were divided into the main group, which was made by students who visited the football section – 46 (35.4 %) and students who visited the volleyball section – 44 (33.8 %), the control group is 40 (30.8 %) who were not in sports. All students conducted anthropometric research, according to the method of P. P. Shaparenko (thigh circumference in the upper third, in the middle third and in the lower third). According to the comparison of the thighs on the right and left in the studied boys and girls who visited the sections in football and volleyball in the upper and lower third of the thigh larger on the right, but only in the middle third larger on the left, students who were not in sports were not done Girls are larger on the left than the right. It was established that when comparing between the ﬁ rst and second measurements, the parameters of the thigh circumference at the second measurement was higher in students who visited football sections (±3.43 cm) than students who visited volleyball sections (±1.9 cm).So, the model for predicting the circumference of the thigh in the upper third on the right: Cpr=β1+β2+0.493W-0.135H, where Cpr – thigh circle in the upper third (on the right), W – body weight, H – height, β1=(49.735 for girls and 44,489 for boys), β2=(–1.391 for the football group; –1.277 for volleyball group), left: Cpl=β1+β2+0.465W, where Cpl is the thigh circle in the upper third (left). β1=(25.736 for young girls and 20.147 for young boys), β2=(–1.333 for the football group; –1.487 for volleyball group). Model for predicting a thigh circumference in the middle on the right: Cmr=β1+β2+0.460W-0.183H, where Cmr is the thigh in the middle on the right, β1=(52.567 for young girls and 48.930 for young boys), β2=(–2.235 for the football group; –0.296 for volleyball group); left: Cml=β1+β2+0.449W, where Cml is the thigh in the middle on the left, β1=(20.716 for young girls and 20.943 for young boys), β2=(–0.254 for the football group; –0.770 for volleyball group). Model for the prediction of the thigh in the lower third on the right: Cdr=β1+β2+0.418W, where Cdr – thigh circumference in the lower third on the right, β1=(25.560 for young girls and 20.165 for young boys), β2=(–0.039 for the football group; –0.502 for volleyball group); left: Cdl=β1+β2+0.387W, where Cdl is the thigh in the lower third on the left, β1=(24.638 for young girls and 18.523 for young boys), β2=(– 0.379 for the football group; –0.323 for volleyball group).

MODEL FOR PREDICTING CHANGES IN THIGH CIRCUMFERENCE CHANGES IN THE LOWER THIRD OVER TIME IN STUDENTS FROM BUKOVYNA HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS BASED ON SPORT TYPE

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2023

S. Yu. Karatieieva

The dynamic comparison of thigh circumference in the lower third was conducted in 132 students of Bukovyna (the initial study was carried out during September-October 2021, and a repeat study of these same students in September-October 2022). All students in the main group, aside from their program-specific physical activities, participated in the following sports over the year: 46 (50.00%) students played football, including 38 (41.30%) boys and 8 (8.70%) girls; 19 (20.65%) students played volleyball, including 10 (10.86%) boys and 9 (9.78%) girls; 14 (22.58%) students played handball, including 8 (8.69%) boys and 6 (6.52%) girls; 13 (14.13%) students played basketball, including 9 (9.78%) boys and 4 (4.34%) girls. Students in the control group had physical education classes according to their program requirements but did not engage in additional sports activities. All students underwent an anthropometric assessment, specifically the measurement of thigh circumference in the lower third following the method of P.P. Shaparenka. A paired t-test was employed to compare the students' measurements between the initial assessment and a follow-up one year later. The collected data were statistically analyzed using the licensed program RStudio. Comparing the changes in thigh circumference in the lower third between the main and control groups, it was found that students in the main group who participated in various sports had higher measurements than those in the control group, with an average difference of ±4.40 cm. Comparing the right and left thigh circumferences in the main group demonstrated that the right thigh had a larger circumference (right: 49.26±5.60 cm, left: 45.88±5.45 cm). The comparison of thigh circumference changes over the year showed a noticeable increase in thigh girth in the middle third in 2022 compared to 2021 (right: ±1.27 cm, left: ±2.84 cm). Hence, the predictive model for right thigh circumference (Cdr) in the lower third can be represented as follows: Cdr = β1 + β2 + 0.418w, where Cdr stands for right thigh circumference in the lower third, w denotes weight, β1 values are 25.560 for young girls and 20.165 for young boys, and β2 values are -4.497 for the control group, 0.039 for the football group, 0.039 for the handball group, and 0.502 for the volleyball group. Similarly, the predictive model for left thigh circumference in the lower third (Cdl) is expressed as: Cdl = β1 + β2 + 0.387w, where Cdl represents left thigh circumference in the lower third, w denotes weight, β1 values are 24.638 for young girls and 18.523 for young boys, and β2 values are -0.051 for the control group, 0.379 for the football group, -0.291 for the handball group, and 0.323 for the volleyball group. Gender, sport type, and weight serve as significant predictors for predicting thigh circumference in the lower third.

METHODS OF ANTHROPOMETRIC AND MORPHOMETRIC RESEARCH WITH THE PURPOSE OF MODELING THE BODY PARAMETERS OF ATHLETES DEPENDING FROM THE SPORT TYPE

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023

The study was conducted on 148 students of higher education institutions and football players of Bukovyna (the primary research done out during September- October 2021, and a repeat of the same respondents in September- October 2022). The main group consisted the 108 (73 %) students of the I-II years of the Faculty of Physical Culture and Human Health of the Yuri Fedkovich Chernivtsi National University and professional football players of the «University» team of Chernivtsi; the control group consisted the 40 (27 %) students of the I-II years of the college and dental faculties of the Bukovyna State Medical University. The age of the subjects was from 16 to 18 years. The students of the main group, in addition to the physical load included of the program of their specialty, additionally engaged in the following sports: football – 46 (50.00 %) students, of which 38 (41.30 %) were young men and 8 (8.70 %) young girls; volleyball – 19 (20.65 %), 10 (10.86 %) young boys and 9 (9.78 %) young girls; handball – 14 (22.58 %), 8 (8.69 %) young boys and 6 (6.52 %) young girls; basketball – 13 (14.13 %), 9 (9.78 %) of them are young boys and 4 (4.34 %) are young girls. Professional football players (young boys) systematically trained and participated in championships of Ukraine among higher educational institutions, under the leadership of the team coach.The anthropometric examination included determination of total (body length and weight) parameters and partial (length of upper and lower limbs, thigh length, circumference of the chest during inhalation, exhalation and at rest, circumference of the pelvis, circumference of the thigh proximally, in the middle and distally).The morphometric study included the ultrasound diagnostics of the quadriceps femoris muscle (musculus quadriceps femoris) using the Voluson TM E 10 device (Austria) on the basis of the Basismed medical center in Chernivtsi. The length, width and depth (proximal, middle, distal) of all four muscle heads (m. rectus femoris, m. vastus medialis, m. vastus lateralis, m. vastus intermedius) were determined. The Kraskel- Wallis test was used to compare anthropometric parameters in the main group depending on the sport type. To establish for which pairs of age groups there is a statistical diﬀ erence in the medians, the Conover- Iman test was used. A paired t-test (paired- samples t-test) was performed to compare the respondents’ indicators during the ﬁ rst measurement and the second one a year later. Statistical analysis of the obtained data was carried out using the licensed program RStudio.In order to select promising students for game (team) sports such as football, volleyball, handball and basketball, mathematical models were developed for predicting the parameters of athletes (length of upper limb, lower limb, hip length, hip circumference in the middle, hip circumference proximally, hip circumference distally).

Association between Somatotype and Depression in college going students of Kolkata, West Bengal, India Anup Adhikari

Presentation

Full-text available

Jul 2024

: Introducción: la estructuración, sistematización y mejoramiento del proceso de formación atlética son claves para el rendimiento deportivo. Se confrontaron características morfológicas y motoras enfutbolistas considerando edad bilógica y cronológica. Métodos: investigación descriptiva exploratoria en la que se evaluaron 32 futbolistas entre 10 y 12 años, residentes en Cali-Colombia; se aplicó el índice de desarrollo corporal de Siret relacionando peso, talla, diámetro biacromial, diámetro bi-ileocrestal, valor promedio de la circunferencia máxima del muslo derecho e izquierdo (mujeres) y circunferencia máxima de los antebrazos derechos e izquierdos (hombres).

Association between Somatotype and Depression in college going students of Kolkata, West Bengal, India Anup Adhikari

Article

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Jul 2024

Dynamic comparison the lower extremities length in students education in higher institutions

Article

Mar 2024
Wiad Lek

Aim: Dynamic comparison of the lower limbs length, depending on the type of sport, followed by the construction of a mathematical model for predicting sports abilities. Materials and Methods: The comparison of the lower limbs length in dynamics was carried out on 132 students of higher education institutions of Bukovyna. While the primary study was carried out during September-October 2021, next study of these same students was conducted in September-October 2022. The main group consists of 92 (69.7%) students, the control group - 40 (30.30%) students aged 16 to 18 years. All students underwent an anthropometric study (determination of the length of the lower limbs) according to the method of P.P. Shaparenka. The comparesment of anthropometric parameters in the main group depending on the type of sport used the Kruskel-Wallis test (non-parametric analysis of variance) in order to identify a reliable difference in the average indicators of the respondents depending on the type of sport (the median of the distribution was considered as a measure of central tendency). In order to establish which pairs of age groups had a statistical difference in the medians, the Conover-Iman test was used. A paired t-test (t-test of paired samples) was performed to compare the length of the respondents’ lower limbs during the first measurement and again one year later. Statistical analysis of the obtained data was performed using the licensed RStudio program. Results: The distribution of the length of the right lower limb of the respondents of the main group by measurement shows that the average value of the length of the right lower limb has changed: a significant difference in the length of the right lower limb was found between the first (M = 88.812, SD = 5.287) and the second (M = 89.377, SD = 5.347) measurements; t (68) = -5.223, p < 0.001. The distribution of the length of the left lower limb shows that the average value of the length of the left lower limb has changed also: a significant difference in the length of the left lower limb was found between the first (M = 88.667, SD = 5.266) and the second (M = 89.435, SD = 5.309) measurements; t (68) = -8.289, p < 0.001. Conclusions: In order to dynamically compare the length of the lower limbs for comprehensive control and selection of promising students in football, volleyball, handball and basketball, a mathematical model was derived for predicting the length of the lower limbs, in corresponding sports: right lower limb y = 0.506 x and left y = 0.507x, where y – is the length of the left lower limb, x – is the height. The coefficient of determination is 99.8%. A significant predictor for the length of both lower limbs is the height.

ANATOMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THIGH PARAMETERS THE STUDENTS OF BUKOVYNA

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2024

S. Yu. Karatieieva

It is known that the factor that determines success in sports is the morphological features of the structure of the human body. In order to establish the anatomical characteristics of the thigh parameters of students of Bukovyna who play football and handball, followed by modeling for sports selection, a study was conducted of students of higher educational institutions of Bukovyna (n=129), of which young boys - n=69 and young girls - n=60. The subjects were divided into a main group - 89 students who improved by playing football and handball and a control group - 40 students who did not do the sports. Students of the main group, in addition to the physical activity that was included in the program of their specialty during the year, additionally attended sports sections in football and handball during the year. Medium-intensity training took place under the control of a trainer, the frequency of training was 3.43 ± 1.26 days/week (90 minutes each). Students of the control group did not do the sports. The initial survey was conducted in 2021 year, and the same students were resurveyed in 2022 year. All subjects were subjected to an anthropometric study, according to the method of P.P. Shaparenka (thigh circumference in the upper third, in the middle third and in the lower third, body weight, height). So, it was found that when comparing the first and second measurement, the thigh circumference indicators at the second measurement (in dynamics after one year) were slightly higher in students who play football (young boys and young girls) in the upper, middle and lower thirds than in students who play handball (for students who play football ±3.43 cm, for students who play handball ±2.12 cm). The model for predicting the circumference of the thigh in the upper third on the right: Cpr=β1 + β2 + 0.493w – 0.135h, where Cpr is the circumference of the thigh in the upper third (right), w is body weight, h is height, β1= (49.735 for girls and 44.489 for young men), β2= (–1.391 for the soccer group; –2.321 for the handball group), on the left: Cpl=β1 + β2 + 0.465w, where Cpl is the circumference of the thigh in the upper third (left), w is body weight, β1= ( 25.736 for girls and 20.147 for boys), β2= (–1.333 for the football group; –0.515 for the handball group). The model for predicting the circumference of the thigh in the middle of the right: Cmr=β1 + β2 + 0.460w – 0.183h, where Cmr is the circumference of the thigh in the middle of the right, w is body weight, h is height; β1= (52.567 for young girls and 48.930 for young boys), β2= (–2.235 for the football group; –1.968 for the handball group); on the left: Cml=β1 + β2 + 0.449w, where Cml is the thigh circumference in the middle of the left, w is body weight; β1= (20.716 for young girls and 20.943 for young boys), β2= (– 0.254 for the football group; –1.405 for the handball group). The model for predicting the circumference of the thigh in the lower third of the right: Cdr=β1 + β2 + 0.418w, where Cdr is the circumference of the thigh in the lower third of the right, w is body weight, β1= (25.560 for young girls and 20.165 for young boys), β2= (– 0.039 for the football group; 0.061 for the handball group); on the left: Cdl=β1 + β2 + 0.387w, where Cdl is the thigh circumference in the lower third on the left, w is body weight; β1= (24.638 for young girls and 18.523 for young boys), β2= (– 0.379 for the football group; –0.261 for the handball group). So, it is established that for significant predictors for predicting thigh circumference on the right in the upper and middle third are gender, sport, height and body weight, in the lower third are gender, sport and body weight, on the left are gender, sport and body weight.

Anatomical Features of the Parameters of the thigh Circumference of Students of Bukovyna

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2023

S. Yu. Karatieieva

Introduction. According to the point of view of many scientists, the continuous growth of achievements in sports, high competition in the international sports arena require a constant search for effective methodical, organizational and management solutions in the long-term training of athletes. So, we can conclude that the main content of all stages of sports selection is the prediction of the athlete's sports talent. Taking into account that the anthropometric parameters of athletes have been studied and are being studied to this day as well, but there are almost no works devoted to the study of the anatomical features of the femoral area of athletes of team sports. Aim. To find out the anatomical features of the thigh circumference of football students of Bukovyna, followed by modeling for sports selection. Materials and methods. A study was conducted on 86 student-football players of Bukovyna (the initial study was conducted during September-October 2021, and a repeat study of these same students in September-October 2022). The main group consisted of 46 (53.5%) football players and the control group - 40 (46.5%) students aged 16 to 18 years. All students were subjected to an anthropometric study, according to the method of P.P. Shaparenka (thigh circumference in the upper third, in the middle third and in the lower third, body weight, height). Welch's test was used to distribute the established parameters in both groups by gender. A paired t-test (paired-samples t-test) was performed to compare the respondents' indicators during the first measurement and the second one a year later. Statistical analysis of the obtained data was carried out using the licensed program RStudio. Results. The comparisment of the thigh circumference parameters of football students of the main group between boys and girls in the initial study, found a difference between the indicators, since in all measurements the indicators of the boys are higher than those of the girls (±3.02 cm), especially when the circumference of the thigh in the lower third on the right is ±5.04 cm. The comparisment of the thigh circumference of the main group on the right and on the left, has established that in boys and girls the circumference in the upper third on the right is bigger by ±4.02 cm than on the left; the circumference thighs in the middle third on the left in girls and boys are bigger by ±10.01 cm; the circumference in the lower third in boys is bigger on the right by ±7.05 cm, in girls by ±5.04 cm. the comparison of thigh circumference in dynamics after a year, in football students reveals an obvious difference with the increase in thigh parameters: in the upper third of the right in boys and girls by ±1.5 cm, in the left in boys and girls by ±4.02 cm; in the middle third by ±4.5 cm in both genders on the right and by ±4.02 cm on the left; in the lower third by ±1.5 cm on the right in boys and by ±3.02 cm in girls, on the left by ±4.02 cm in both genders. By comparing the circumference between the right and left thighs in the main group, there is a difference, because in the upper the right third of girls and boys is ±1.5 cm more than the left; in the middle third from the left, boys have more by ±9.03 cm, girls by ±8.5 cm; in the lower third on the right, boys have more by ±4.5 cm, girls have more by ±4.02 cm. Conclusions: Model for predicting thigh circumference in the upper third (right): Cpr=β1 + β2 + 0.493w – 0.135h, left: Cpl=β1 + β2 + 0.465w; in the middle (right): Cmr=β1 + β2 + 0.460w – 0.183h, on the left: Cml=β1 + β2 + 0.449w; in the lower third (right): Cdr=β1 + β2 + 0.418w, on the left: Cdl=β1 + β2 + 0.387w.

Race walking gait and its influence on race walking economy in world-class race walkers

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2018

Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the relationships between biomechanical parameters of the gait cycle and race walking economy in world-class Olympic race walkers. Methods: Twenty-One world-class race walkers possessing the Olympic qualifying standard participated in this study. Participants completed an incremental race walking test starting at 10 km·h⁻¹, where race walking economy (ml·kg⁻¹·km⁻¹) and spatiotemporal gait variables were analysed at different speeds. Results: 20-km race walking performance was related to race walking economy, being the fastest race walkers those displaying reduced oxygen cost at a given speed (R = 0.760, p < 0.001). Longer ground contact times, shorter flight times, longer midstance sub-phase and shorter propulsive sub-phase during stance were related to a better race walking economy (moderate effect, p < 0.05). Conclusion: According to the results of this study, the fastest race walkers were more economi cal than the lesser performers. Similarly, shorter flight times are associated with a more efficient race walking economy. Coaches and race walkers should avoid modifying their race walking style by increasing flight times, as it may not only impair economy, but also lead to disqualification.

Bone health in elite Kenyan runners

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2017
J SPORT SCI

Impact loading in athletes participating in various sports has been positively associated with increased bone mineral density (BMD), but this has not been investigated in elite Kenyan runners. Body composition and site-specific BMD measures quantified with dual x-ray absorptiometry were measured in 15 elite male Kenyan runners and 23 apparently healthy South African males of different ethnicities. Training load and biomechanical variables associated with impact loading, such as joint stiffness, were determined in the elite Kenyan runners. Greater proximal femur (PF) BMD (g · cm(-2)) was higher (P = 0.001, ES = 1.24) in the elite Kenyan runners compared with the controls. Six of the 15 (40%) Kenyan runners exhibited lumbar spine (LS) Z-Scores below -2.0 SD, whereas this was not found in the apparently healthy controls. PFBMD was associated with training load (r = 0.560, P = 0.003) and ankle (r = 0.710, P = 0.004) and knee (r = 0.546, P = 0.043) joint stiffness. Elite Kenyan runners exhibit greater PFBMD than healthy controls, which is associated with higher training load and higher joint stiffness. Our results reaffirm the benefits of impact loading on BMD at a weight-bearing site, while a high prevalence of low LSBMD in the elite Kenyan runners is hypothesised to be the result of a mismatch between energy intake and high training load. Future research investigating energy availability in Kenyan runners and the possible association with musculoskeletal injury should be investigated.

Total Energy Expenditure, Energy Intake, and Body Composition in Endurance Athletes Across the Training Season: A Systematic Review

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2017

Background Endurance athletes perform periodized training in order to prepare for main competitions and maximize performance. However, the coupling between alterations of total energy expenditure (TEE), energy intake, and body composition during different seasonal training phases is unclear. So far, no systematic review has assessed fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and/or body composition in endurance athletes across the training season.The purpose of this study was to (1) systematically analyze TEE, energy intake, and body composition in highly trained athletes of various endurance disciplines and of both sexes and (2) analyze fluctuations in these parameters across the training season. Methods An electronic database search was conducted on the SPORTDiscus and MEDLINE (January 1990–31 January 2015) databases using a combination of relevant keywords.Two independent reviewers identified potentially relevant studies. Where a consensus was not reached, a third reviewer was consulted. Original research articles that examined TEE, energy intake, and/or body composition in 18–40-year-old endurance athletes and reported the seasonal training phases of data assessment were included in the review. Articles were excluded if body composition was assessed by skinfold measurements, TEE was assessed by questionnaires, or data could not be split between the sexes.Two reviewers assessed the quality of studies independently. Data on subject characteristics, TEE, energy intake, and/or body composition were extracted from the included studies. Subjects were categorized according to their sex and endurance discipline and each study allocated a weight within categories based on the number of subjects assessed. Extracted data were used to calculate weighted means and standard deviations for parameters of TEE, energy intake, and/or body composition. ResultsFrom 3589 citations, 321 articles were identified as potentially relevant, with 82 meeting all of the inclusion criteria. TEE of endurance athletes was significantly higher during the competition phase than during the preparation phase (p < 0.001) and significantly higher than energy intake in both phases (p < 0.001). During the competition phase, both body mass and fat-free mass were significantly higher compared to other seasonal training phases (p < 0.05). Conclusions Limitations of the present study included insufficient data being available for all seasonal training phases and thus low explanatory power of single parameters. Additionally, the classification of the different seasonal training phases has to be discussed.Male and female endurance athletes show important training seasonal fluctuations in TEE, energy intake, and body composition. Therefore, dietary intake recommendations should take into consideration other factors including the actual training load, TEE, and body composition goals of the athlete.

Predictor variables for half marathon race time in recreational female runners

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Jan 2011
CLINICS

Introduction: The relationship between skin-fold thickness and running performance has been investigated from 100 m to the marathon distance, except the half marathon distance. Objective: To investigate whether anthropometry characteristics or training practices were related to race time in 42 recreational female half marathoners to determine the predictor variables of half-marathon race time and to inform future novice female half marathoners. Methods: Observational field study at the 'Half Marathon Basel' in Switzerland. Results: In the bivariate analysis, body mass (r = 0.60), body mass index (r = 0.48), body fat (r = 0.56), skin-fold at pectoral (r = 0.61), mid-axilla (r = 0.69), triceps (r = 0.49), subscapular (r = 0.61), abdominal (r = 0.59), suprailiac (r = 0.55) medial calf (r = 0.53) site, and speed of the training sessions (r = -0.68) correlated to race time. Mid-axilla skin-fold (p = 0.04) and speed of the training sessions (p = 0.0001) remained significant after multi-variate analysis. Race time in a half marathon might be predicted by the following equation (r² = 0.71): Race time (min) = 166.7 + 1.7x (mid-axilla skin-fold, mm) - 6.4x (speed in training, km/h). Running speed during training was related to skinfold thickness at mid-axilla (r = -0.31), subscapular (r = -0.38), abdominal (r = -0.44), suprailiacal (r = -0.41), the sum of eight skin-folds (r = -0.36) and percent body fat (r = -0.31). Conclusion: Anthropometric and training variables were related to half-marathon race time in recreational female runners. Skin-fold thicknesses at various upper body locations were related to training intensity. High running speed in training appears to be important for fast half-marathon race times and may reduce upper body skin-fold thicknesses in recreational female half marathoners.

Different competition approaches in a world-class 50-km racewalker during an Olympic year: a case report

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2015

Aim: The aim of this case study was to compare the competition approaches for the Race Walking World Cup and the Olympic Games of a world-class 50-km racewalker. Method: Total training volumes, intensity distribution, performance tests, high altitude stages and the evolution of his haematological values during the season were analysed. The last 12 weeks before the Race Walking World Cup (Approach 1) and the Olympic Games (Approach 2) were used for data analysis. Results: Approach 1 was characterised by lower training volumes (791.7 ± 192.8 min vs. 959.0 ± 120.0 min. ES=1.0, large effect) and a higher incidence of high intensity training (ES<0.8, large effect), than Approach 2. Approach 1 resulted in lower blood lactate values at set speeds, better haematological values and a better performance in the Race Walking World Cup than in the Olympic Games (3h47'30'' vs. 3h51'30"). Conclusion: According to the results of this analysis, it seems that a training strategy characterised by a higher incidence of high intensity training and lower volume of work may lead to superior training adaptations and performance in 50-km racewalking. This may help elite racewalkers and their coaches to achieve an optimum performance in their major goal competitions.

Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences

Book

Jan 1988

J. Cohen

Case-Study: Body Composition Periodization in an Olympic-Level Female Middle-Distance Runner Over a 9-Year Career

Article

Nov 2017

Trent Stellingwerff

This case-study features an Olympic-level female middle-distance runner implementing a science-based approach to body composition periodization. Data is emerging to suggest that it is not sustainable from a health and/or performance perspective to be at peak body composition year-round, so body composition needs to be strategically periodized. Anthropometric (n=44), hematological, other health measures and 1500m race performances (n=83) were periodically assessed throughout a 9-year career. General preparation phase (September to April) featured the athlete at ~2 to 4% over ideal competition phase body weight (BW) and body fat (%) with optimal energy availability being prioritized. The competition body composition optimization phase (May to August) included creating an individualized time-frame and caloric deficit with various feedback metrics (BW, performance, hunger) to guide the process. There were significant seasonal fluctuations in anthropometric outcomes between phases (47.3±0.8 vs. 48.3±0.9kg BW; 53.6±7.8 vs. 61.6±9.7mm ISAK sum of 8 skinfolds (So8); P<0.01), and a significant correlation of decreasing So8 during the peak competition period over her career (r=-0.838; p=0.018). The range of body composition during the competition period was: 46.0-48.0kg BW, and a So8 range of 42.0 to 55.9mm. There were also significant positive correlations between slower 1500m race times and increasing So8 (r=0.437; p<0.01), estimated fat mass (r=0.445; p<0.01) and BW (r=0.511; p<0.0001). The athlete only had 2 career injuries. This case-study demonstrates a body composition periodization approach that allowed for targeted peak yearly performances, which improved throughout her career, while maximizing training adaptation and long-term athlete health via optimal energy availability.

Mechanical and neural function of triceps surae in elite racewalking

Article

Jun 2016

Racewalking is a unique event combining mechanical elements of walking with speeds associated with running. It is currently unclear how racewalking technique impacts upon lower limb muscle-tendon function, despite the relevance of this to muscle economy and overall performance. The present study examined triceps surae neuromechanics in 11 internationally competitive racewalkers (age 25±11 years) walking and running on a treadmill at speeds between 4.5 - 13.8 km/h whilst triceps surae fascicle lengths, electromyography and kinematic data were recorded. Cumulative muscle activity required to traverse a unit distance (CMAPD) was calculated for each muscle. Medial gastrocnemius (MG) and soleus fascicle lengths/velocities were determined using an automated tracking algorithm, and muscle-tendon unit lengths were determined. Running was associated with net shortening of muscle fascicles during stance, combined with substantial lengthening of the muscle-tendon unit, implying energy storage in the Achilles tendon. When the same participants racewalked at the same speed, the fascicles shortened (soleus) or lengthened (MG), coinciding with rapid shortening followed by a relatively small increase in muscle-tendon length during stance. Consequently, compared with running at the same speed, racewalking decreased the energy-saving role of the Achilles tendon. Moreover, CMAPD was generally highest in racewalking, implying that in individual muscles, the energy cost of racewalking was higher than running. Together these results suggest that racewalking is neurally and mechanically costly relative to running at a given speed. As racewalking events are typically between 10 and 50 km, neuromechanical inefficiencies that occur with each stride likely result in substantial energetic penalties.

The arm circumference as a public health index of protein-calorie malnutrition of early childhood

Article

Jan 1969
J TROP PEDIATRICS

Somatotyping: Development and Applications

Book

Jan 1990

Somatotyping is a method of description and assessment of the body on three shape and composition scales: endomorphy (relative fatness), mesomorphy (relative musculoskeletal robustness), and ectomorphy (relative linearity). This book (the first major account of the field for thirty years) presents a comprehensive history of somatotyping, beginning with W. J. Sheldon's introduction of the method in 1940. The controversies regarding the validity of Sheldon's method are described, as are the various attempts to modify the technique, particularly the Heath-Carter method, which has come into widespread use. The book reviews present knowledge of somatotypes around the world, how they change with growth, ageing and exercise, and the contributions of genetics and environment to the rating. Also reviewed are the relationships between somatotypes and sport, physical performance, health and behaviour. Students and research workers in human biology, physical and biological anthropology and physical education will all find valuable information in this book.

Anthropometric characteristics of top-class Olympic race walkers

Abstract

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