Content uploaded by Nafees Mohammad
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Nafees Mohammad on Apr 25, 2018
Content may be subject to copyright.
1
Environmental Degradation due to War in Afghanistan: A Review
By
Mohammad Nafees1 Zahiduyllah2 and Khan Ghulam3
1. Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Peshawar
2. Assistant Professor, Alama Iqbal Open University Islamabad
3. Islamic Relief Agency (ISRA) for Afghanistan, Islamabad
Abstract
In this study, all those aspects have been studied, which have affected the environment of
Afghanistan, and could be based for to step forward to achieve sustainability in resource use.
Since 1964, Afghanistan is under continuous conflict. The history of contemporary war can be
traced back to 1979, when Afghanistan was occupied by former USSR. The attack on World
Trade towers brought more miseries in terms of US attacks. Due to continuous engagements in
war, care about environmental protection and resource conservation was less. This has got bad
impacts on water and forest resources. The present forest cover has been decrease up to 2%
against the international standard of 25%. Before 1970, eight hydropower plants were functional
and were irrigating 118500 hectares of land. With the passage of time there was decrease and
Afghanistan could not continue the same progress. Now Afghanistan has planned 12 dams on
Kabul River system. Due to huge water extraction, this may bring another ecological disturbance
in Afghanistan as well as in the neighboring countries. It is therefore concluded that the
environmental system of Afghanistan has been damaged to a big extent and need a big repair
system.
Introduction
There are different forms of human induced environmental degradation related to various
components of the land units; atmosphere, forest and other vegetation, soil and hydrology. One
of these human activities is war an undesirable word even to listen. The history of war is as old
as that of human beings. Throughout the history it always brought destruction and miseries. The
most dominant example is of Japan. During World War-II it became victim of nuclear attack.
The impacts are still there. The main problems associated with war are migration, economic
downfall, destruction of historical and cultural heritage, natural resource degradation, drought
2
etc. All these are firmly attached with environment. It is necessary to observe and have a proper
account of all the resources and activities. In this way, based on suitable available information,
proper decision can be made to repair loss and enhance resource base where needed
Location and Geography
Afghanistan is a landlocked country in Southwest
Asia. It is bound by Pakistan to the east and south,
Iran to the west, Turkmanistan to the northwest,
Uzbekistan and Tajakistan to the north and China to
the northeast. The country is divided from southeast
to northwest by the Hindu-Kush and Pamir
Mountain Ranges and is divided into three
geographical regions (Fig. 1).
1. The central highlands which account
for 64% of the land area and are part
of the Himalayan Ranges. The
Hindu-Kush ridge rises above 6,400
meters (21,000 feet).
2. The fertile northern plain (16%) with elevations of upto 600 meters (2,000 feet).
3. The southwestern plateau, which accounts for 25% of the land area and is an arid
region, vegetated mostly by scrub with an average elevation of about 900 meters
(3,000 feet).
1
The principal rivers are the Kabul and Amu-Darya, which rises in the Hindu-Kush and
flows northwestward.
Major Cities
2
include; Kabul 710,000, Kandahar 230,000, Herat 179,000, Mazar-e Sharif
132,000 (1993). Major land Use consists on forested 3%, pastures 46%, agricultural-
cultivated 12%, other 39% (1993).
3
1
Britannica 1998, Vol I page 25.
2
Population is based on estimation
3
United Nation Institute for Peace, 1998, p-1
Fig. 1 Map of Afghanistan showing
major water systems
3
Climate:
Afghanistan has a continental dry climate with large differences between day and night
temperatures as well as quick seasonal transitions. Summer temperatures in the plains can
reach 46 degrees Celsius (115 degrees Fahrenheit) while in the higher plateaus winter
temperatures can fall to -26 degrees Celsius (-15 degrees Fahrenheit). The "Winds of 120
Days" which occur between June to September can have velocities of up to 180 km/h
(108 mph) and the rainy season is from October to April, although rainfall is very
irregular. Average temperature ranges in Kabul are from -8 to 2 degrees Celsius (18 to 36
degrees Fahrenheit) in January to 16 to 33 degrees Celsius (61 to 91 degrees Fahrenheit)
in July.
4
People:
The principal ethnic majority are the Pushtuns also known as Pukhtuns, Pukhtna and/or
Pathan who account for around 62.73% of the population and are divided into two sub-
tribes (1.) the Durranis and (2.) the Ghilzais. The principal ethnic minorities are the
Tajikis who account for almost 12% of the population. Other smaller ethnic minorities
include the Hazara who account for 9.0%, Aimaks 2.68%, Uzbekis 6.1%, Turkmens
02.69%, and other including Nuristanis and Qisilbashes etc. 04.42% .
5
Demographic statistics:
Density; 26 persons per sq. km (67 persons per sq. mile) (1991). Urban-Rural; 18.1%
urban, 81.9% rural (1987). Sex Distribution; 51.3% male, 48.7% female (1988). Life
Expectancy at Birth; 47.0 years male, 46.0 years female (1990). Age Breakdown; 46%
under 15, 24% 15 to 29, 15% 30 to 44, 9% 45 to 59, 4% 60 to 74, 2% 75 and over (1988).
Birth Rate; 44.0 per 1,000 (1990). Death Rate; 18.0 per 1,000 (1990). Increase Rate; 26.0
per 1,000 (1990). Infant Mortality Rate; 154.0 per 1,000 live births (1990).
6
Education:
4
ibid
5
Wak Foundation for Afghanistan, 1998. pp-1-3
6
Nour Ali, 1999. Web page No. 16
4
Aged 25 or over and having attained: no formal schooling 88.5%, some primary 6.8%,
complete primary 0.3%, some secondary 1.2%, higher 3.2% (1980). Literacy; literate
population aged 15 or over 23.7% (1985).
7
Objectives of the study:
1. The aim and objective of the study was to find out the environmental impacts of war in
Afghanistan.
2. To find out ways and means to reduce burden on natural resources and suggest various
measures for natural resource repair/enhancement and to stop further environmental
degradation.
History of Conflicts
The history of Afghanistan is marked by external and internal conflicts. It was virtually a
united and relatively peaceful country until 1973. The roots of conflicts could possibly be
traced back to 1963. In 1953, Mohammed Daoud Khan became Prime Minister, following
which he established close military, economic and political ties with the USSR. In 1964,
provisions were made for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy after Prime
Minister Daoud resigned. In 1973 while King Zahir Shah was receiving medical
treatment in Italy a military coup led by Daoud overthrew the government, established a
republic and abolished the monarchy. On April 27, 1978, pro-Soviet leftists took power in
a bloody coup known as the "Great Saur Revolution" which resulted in the death of
President Daoud and an economic and military treaty with the USSR.
8
In December 1979,
the USSR began a massive military airlift into Kabul and the three-month-old regime of
Hafizullah Amin ended with a Soviet backed coup on December 27, 1979. President.
Amin was replaced by Babrak Karmal, a greater pro-Soviet faction leader. For the next 9
years, the Soviet troops fanned out over Afghanistan fighting the Muslim "Holy
Warriors" or Mujaheddin in a long, protracted guerrilla war. In November 1987, Dr.
Sayid Mohammad Najibullah was elected President. On April 14, 1988, a UN-mediated
7
ibid. Web page 18
8
R.H. Magnust nd E. Napy, 1998 pp-40-47
5
agreement was signed which provided for the withdrawal of Soviet troops from
Afghanistan, the creation of a neutral Afghan state and the repatriation of millions of
Afghan refugees. The USSR and US pledged to serve as guarantors of the agreement,
however, Afghan rebels rejected the pact and vowed to continue fighting while the
Soviets remained in Afghanistan. On February 15, 1989, the Soviets completed their
troop withdrawal as fighting between the Afghan rebels and government forces escalated
for control of the government. In March 1990 there was an unsuccessful coup attempt led
by Afghan military forces and in September 1991 the US and USSR declared that they
would halt arms supplies from January 1992 with the purpose of achieving a permanent
cease-fire. In April 1992 Afghan rebels with the assistance of General Abdul Rashid
Dostam, leader of the government's secret police seized control of Kabul ousting
President Najibullah's regime. On June 28, 1992 caretaker President Sibgatullah
Mojadedi surrendered power to Burhanuddin Rabbani who headed a 10-member Supreme
Leadership Council of guerrilla leaders.
In June 1992, fighting escalated between Shiite and Sunni Muslim factions around Kabul
with some 100 people killed and 1,000 injured in four days of conflict. On Dec. 30, 1992
some 1,335 delegates from around the country formed a National Council which met in
Kabul and elected Rabbani to a two-year term as president. The majority of the rebels
boycotted the council meeting and shelled the city from their hill strongholds while
voting was in progress. In Jan. 1993 the national assembly of tribal and religious leaders
reaffirmed Rabbani's presidency, approved the creation of new armed forces and a
parliament, and set out a strict Islamic path for the country. In Mar. 1993 Gulbuddin
Hekmatyar leader of the Hezb-i-Islami was designated Prime Minister with a 22-member
cabinet divided amongst the 10 major rebel groups being formed on May 20 despite
continuing fighting. On June 17. 1993 Hekmatyar was formally sworn in and on Sept. 27,
1993 after four days of negotiations an interim constitution had been approved with
planned elections announced for 1994.
9
9
S.M Zahin, Web page-1
6
In 1996 a newer group called the Taliban has gained control of most of Afghanistan,
introduced in 1994.
The Taliban captured the Afghan capital, Kabul, in 1996, and control all except Panjshir
Valley and other smaller areas in northern Afghanistan. They imposed a highly restrictive
form of Islamic law throughout Afghanistan which Muslim and non-Muslim observers
have described as inhumane.
10
From the very beginning, because of internal conflict and
crises Taliban Government never appeared to be compatible, nationally and
internationally and only recognized by three Islamic states.
In 2001, the attack on twin world trade tower brought further miseries in Afghanistan
when the attack was linked with Al-Qaeda and Taliban movement.
Present Terrorists attack on America
On 11th September 2001 terrorist staged a devastating attack on the world Trade Center
(WTC) and the Pentagon. The Al-Qaeda netwoek run by Osama bin Laden, whom
Washington blames for the September 11 terror strikes, and warned Taliban official to
hand over Osama to United States for trail. On their repeated refusal the United Stated
and Great Britain launched attacks on at least three cities in Afghanistan on Sunday 7th
October 2001 in retaliation for the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington on
September 11, U.S. This was for the 2nd time when America hit Afghanistan, first in
December 1998, and than in 2001. In both cases Usama Bin Laden was considered the
root cause. To what extent America was right in her blame, this discussion is beyond the
scope of this paper, but the war was there. There was loss of precious human lives in both
incidents, terrorist attack on America and attack on Afghanistan, in this way by reviewing
the history Afghanistan appeared to be under continuous was since 1973.
In Born, Germany, a new administrative structure was designed and was installed on 22nd
December 2001 under the leadership of Hamid Karzai. What will be the future of this
government appeared as a big question mark.
10
Time Magazine, Nov. 4, 1996
7
Environment of Afghanistan
To date, no specific environmental study has been carried out in Afghanistan.
11
The lack
of information on the quality of air, water, vegetation, land, and other environmental
factors could be attributed to the non-existence of organizations or agencies devoted to
this issue.
The ecosystem in Afghanistan had never been damaged to the extent that it has been in
the last three decades. This deterioration has been created by the unlimited use of nature
and its energy. Environmental degradation in Afghanistan was enhanced by war.
Land Use: Two thirds of the landscape of Afghanistan is occupied by mountainous
terrain with little or no vegetation, typical of an arid country.
12
For this reason, the
vegetation in these terrains plays a vital role in the ecosystem. For example, consider the
role of pistachio (Pistacia vera, yielding) among hundreds of other floras. It not only
provides climatic and environmental stabilization over the areas of its growth, but eases
the life of thousands of families by providing them with a natural source of income.
Half of the remaining parts of the country's landscape are deserts, which are hostile
environments. The rest are farmlands and pastures. At present, only six percent of the
fifteen percent of agricultural land in Afghanistan is under cultivation. In the past twenty-
five years, the agricultural areas have been drastically decreased. It is estimated that
Afghanistan lost thirty percent of farmlands and pastures, either by abandonment or
degradation. The farmlands in the province of Kabul have been lost due to degradation
resulting from the expansion of the urban institutions. This led to a drastic change of the
previously dominant climatic and environmental factors in this region.
13
Compared to that of 1979, agricultural farm products have decreased by fifty percent. To
11
Nour Ali, 1999, Web page-28
12
The New Britannica Vol.-I, p-25
13
Nour Ali, 1999, Web page-28
8
compensate for this loss, rural people started to utilize the free natural resources of their
environment. The end result of this process was a disaster for a few natural forests, which
were cut and smuggled.
14
Deforestation, floods and avalanches added to the devastation.
Once the forest's productivity was declined or monopolized by certain warlords, the poor
farmers sought another cheap and accessible alternative; this was the cultivation of
opium. Afghan warlords and the growing international drug market encouraged this.
Hence, this resulted in further degradation of Afghanistan's environment.
Forest: Many forested areas and farmlands were burned and degraded by the use of heavy
war technology and chemicals. It is estimated that ten thousand villages and their
surrounding environments were destroyed. This continuous process still takes its toll on
the environment
15
. According to World Bank for sound economy a country must have at
least 25% forested Area, while in Afghanistan the forest area is below 2%
In Afghanistan land mines is another worst environmental nightmare that has been
created as a result of constant war. The presence of more than ten million land mines in
the country makes it the world's most deadly minefield. The daily death toll due to these
devices is about 20 to 30 people, mostly children and civilians.
16
Air pollution: Afghanistan itself doesn't have any industry to create air pollutants; smog
is a common phenomenon in most of the urban areas. Trans-boundary air pollution is
another concern. Due to this, Afghanistan receives enormous amounts of pollutants
originating from the Aral sedimentary basin, Iran, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan's
industrial parks. How much of the pesticides originating from these countries and
worldwide end up on the lands and environment through air currents and rains, is another
mystery that is adding to environmental crises. Chemical weapons have been used during
the Afghan war with the Soviets, and this caused severe short-term damage of
environment and ecosystem in Afghanistan. No data exists on their long-term effects.
14
ibid
15
ibid
16
ibid
9
Migration: is another problem (both inside and out side Afghanistan migration)
associated with war. It has also negative impact on environment. On one hand there is
burden on resource-base of the area, on the other hand they leave resource/s unattended
and unused. In this way balance between resource distribution, availability and use
disturbed, ultimately affecting environment in terms of resource loss and waste
production.
Wak Foundation for Afghanistan
17
conducted survey on ethnic composition in 1996-97.
According to that, there was heavy migration outside Afghanistan in 1979, when Soviet
Union invaded Afghanistan. Similarly after 1992 as a result of the internal conflict many
of them left their homes in Konduz, Baghlan, Balkh, Fryab and Tawzjan provinces, and
were migrated out side the country. Internal migration (other than Nomads) appeared after
1992. This was because of Ethnic antagonism. Such as after 1992, many Pukhtana
(Pashton) and Turkman were displaced during the clashes between Taliban and Uzbeks.
Pukhtana in Togab left their homes and settled in Nangrahar. Similalrlay in north Kabul
many Pukhtana and Tajik left the area since the 1992 internal clashes. Hazara became
stronger in Kabul after 1992, but due to factional clashes and particularly after 1996 with
the arrival of the Taliban in Kabul, most Hazara left Kabul. Uzbaks mostly left Kabul
between 1992 and 1994.
After the Taliban took over control of Kabul in 1996, some Pukhtana who had left Kabul
under Jmiat rule returned and settled in Kabul. Consequently Pukhtana were increased,
and Hazara and Tajiks decreased in Kabul.
In this way, ecological balance among the ethnic groups was disturbed. The interethnic
relationships were broken or weakened, and this was a serious setback for the national
society formation, effecting negatively economic activities, natural resource re-
habilitation process and ultimately environment.
17
Wak Foundation for Afghanistan, 1998. P-38
10
Because of war, economic activities in Afghanistan remained suspended and almost
inactive. Due to which Afghanistan may not be able to repair her degraded ecosystem. In
this way to initiate economic activities, further degradation is expected.
Water Resources: There are about 10 river systems in Afghanistan. The northern half of
is quite rich in water resources. The entire drainage system of Afghanistan is enclosed
within the country. Only the rivers in the east (Kabul River), which drain an area of
32,000 square miles, reach the sea. All the rivers appeared quite productive in terms of
electric power generation, irrigation and water supply. Until 1964 eight hydropower
plants were in operation and canals from various rivers irrigated 118500 hectares of land,
while 117400 hectares where in progress. Eighty percent of which were completed in
1973
18
. These systems not only help to uplift the socio-economic condition of
Afghanistan but also to protect the country from flood hazard and drought. Because of
continuous crises these canal systems were destroyed and the efficient use of water
resources is no more there. On one side there was threat to one environmental resource on
the other side the poor people were badly affected.
Recently, Afghanistan in collaboration with India has planned 12 multipurpose dams on
Kabul River system. This will generate 1177 megawatt electricity. For this 4.7 million
acre feet water will be extracted from Kabul River system. This will have negative
impacts on Kabul River System Ecology. These impacts will not only affect Afghanistan,
but Pakistan also.
19
Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusion
With the Soviet invasion, Afghanistan remained under war (1979-89). During this period,
the natural resources were badly exploited. Afghanistan is a multi ethnic country, after the
withdrawal of Soviet army there was internal conflict. Therefore because of Social
18
Av Westfakk and VJ Latkvich 1960
19
Afghanistan Energy Information center, 2016
11
antagonism, internal crises were there until to day. Due to which no proper attention was
given to natural resources, and was affected negatively.
Beside this, as mentioned earlier, the geography and climatic condition shows that the
environmental set-up of Afghanistan is very much fragile and sensitive. Because more
than 60% area consists on; highland and mountain, while climate is dry, therefore more
susceptible to erosion and degradation. Therefore, proper attention was required, because
of war, which was not made possible.
This is why the environment in Afghanistan is in deep crises. The problems not only
affect the people of Afghanistan and their ecosystem, but the whole world. Once any of
the environmental components are lost, repair/recovery is almost difficult.
Recommendations
1. The people of Afghanistan are in desperate need of help to repair their natural habitat and
ecosystem. The international community should accept the responsibility for lending Afghans
a hand in order to help revive this wounded piece of common home, the earth.
2. The present government needs to make itself compatible with the rest of the world and give
top priority to natural resource repairs and enhancement.
3. Chalk out proper legislation for the protection of natural resources, especially those of both
environmental and economic concern. Such as water resources, fisheries & wild life, forest
resources, and soil &land resources.
12
Selected Bibliography
1. M. Shmsuddin S, ed: “The Ruling Dynasties of Central Asia” Area Study Center,
University of Peshawar, 1998. pp- 242-347
2. The New Britannica, 1998, Vol. 1, pp. 25-36,
3. R. H. Magnus & E. Naby, “Afghanistan, mullah, Marx and Mujahid” HrperCollian
Publishers India, 1998.
4. M. S. Zahin, “History of Afghanistan”, Hot Links, crick.fmed.uniba.sk/~zahin/main.html,
1995
5. Nour Ali, “Afghanistan, The Hottest Country in the World” n.p, afghan-info.com, 1999.
6. US. Institute of peace (USIP), “Afghanistan” USIP Library Resources, Washington DC.
1998. P-1
7. Wak Foundation for Afghanistan (WAF),”Ethnic Composition of Afghanistan”, WFA
publication, 1998. pp-1-3 and 9
8. Time Magazine, “The friends of Taliban” Vol. 148, No. 21, Nov. 4, 1996.
9. Av Westfakk and VJ Latkvich, ”Surface Water Resources Investigation Plan for
Afghanistan” Water Resource Division, US Geological Survey, 1960 pp. 17-24.
10. Afghanistan Energy Information center, 2016. Pakistan concerned over plan to build dams on
Kabul Rive. Hydropolitics Academy,Ankara, Turkery.
