The phonetics of second language learning and bilingualism

Abstract

This chapter provides an overview of major theories and findings in the field of second language (L2) phonetics and phonology. Four main conceptual frameworks are discussed and compared: the Perceptual Assimilation Model-L2, the Native Language Magnet Theory, the Automatic Selective Perception Model, and the Speech Learning Model. These frameworks differ in terms of their empirical focus, including the type of learner (e.g., beginner vs. advanced) and target modality (e.g., perception vs. production), and in terms of their theoretical assumptions, such as the basic unit or window of analysis that is relevant (e.g., articulatory gestures, position-specific allophones). Despite the divergences among these theories, three recurring themes emerge from the literature reviewed. First, the learning of a target L2 structure (segment, prosodic pattern, etc.) is influenced by phonetic and/or phonological similarity to structures in the native language (L1). In particular, L1-L2 similarity exists at multiple levels and does not necessarily benefit L2 outcomes. Second, the role played by certain factors, such as acoustic phonetic similarity between close L1 and L2 sounds, changes over the course of learning, such that advanced learners may differ from novice learners with respect to the effect of a specific variable on observed L2 behavior. Third, the connection between L2 perception and production (insofar as the two are hypothesized to be linked) differs significantly from the perception-production links observed in L1 acquisition. In service of elucidating the predictive differences among these theories, this contribution discusses studies that have investigated L2 perception and/or production primarily at a segmental level. In addition to summarizing the areas in which there is broad consensus, the chapter points out a number of questions which remain a source of debate in the field today.

Full text

427
Introduction
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acquisition, and applied linguistics. The broad goal of L2 speech research is to understand
the mechanisms and processes underlying L2 speech development, with a view toward
applications in language learning and language pedagogy. This chapter provides an over-
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To evaluate the predictive differences among these theories, this chapter discusses a number
of empirical studies that have investigated L2 speech primarily at a segmental level. However,
it should be pointed out that research on L2 speech learning addresses many different aspects
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approaches to the study of L2 speech. Thus, although several empirical studies are covered in
a fair amount of detail, we will concentrate primarily on exploring the points of convergence
and divergence, as well as the complementarities, among theories of L2 speech.
15
The phonetics of second
language learning and
bilingualism
Charles B. Chang

Charles B. Chang
428
Despite the ways in which theories of L2 speech differ from one another, three recurring
themes emerge from the L2 speech literature. First, the learning of a target L2 structure
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the role played by certain factors, such as acoustic-phonetic similarity between close L1
and L2 sounds, changes over the course of learning, such that advanced learners may differ
from novice learners with respect to the effect of a given variable on observed L2 behavior.
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L1 acquisition. Each of these themes is addressed in more detail in the rest of the chapter.
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to experimental advances in phonetics and laboratory phonology, but also to theoretical
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bilingualism. That is, the chapter considers L2 learners both as acquirers of a new language
and as individuals with two languages, for two reasons. First, many individuals exposed
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lingualism, may be the most appropriate point of departure for considering interlanguage
phenomena in L2 learning. As such, this chapter situates the study of L2 speech within the
long tradition of bilingualism research on bidirectional cross-linguistic interactions. Under
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of L2 speech because it can provide unique insights into learners’ observed trajectory of L2
development.
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between L2 perception and L2 production.
Theoretical frameworks
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widely tested theory of nonnative and L2 speech perception, the Perceptual Assimilation
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The Perceptual Assimilation Model – L2
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earlier theory of nonnative speech perception focused on naive listeners, the Perceptual

Second language learning and bilingualism
429
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from the direct realist approach to speech perception; for further discussion, see Best, 1995,
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theory sets out a typology of diverse ways in which two L2 sounds x and y can be assimi-
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one or both members of an L2 contrast not to be assimilated to L1 sounds. In Uncatego-
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TC CG SC 8& 88 1$
/VRXQGVSHUFHLYHGDVVSHHFK" yes yes yes yes yes no
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Charles B. Chang
430
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and discrimination accuracy ranges from poor to intermediate, depending on the degree to
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sounds.
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sounds, the L2 sounds are so divergent from any member of the L1 sound inventory that
they are effectively treated as non-speech. In this case, discrimination of the L2 contrast
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their acoustic characteristics.
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that L2-to-L1 mapping may occur due to cross-linguistic similarity at a gestural level
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lishing equivalences between L1 and L2 sounds; we will return to this topic later in the
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proximity between L2 sounds and L1 attractors. In the next section, we introduce a theory
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respect to the internal structure of L1 phonological categories and the acoustic perceptual
space.
The Native Language Magnet Theory
Developed originally to account for L1 perceptual development in infants, Kuhl’s Native
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patterns in the ambient L1 input and by the enhanced acoustic properties of infant-directed
speech. Second, exposure to the L1 leads to a neural commitment to L1 speech patterns,
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Second language learning and bilingualism
431
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WKURXJKH[SHULHQFHUDWKHUWKDQEHLQJLQQDWH1 Fifth, early perceptual abilities for, as well as
neural responses to, native and nonnative sound contrasts are predictors of L1 development.
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predict faster L1 development, whereas better perceptual abilities for nonnative speech pre-
dict slower L1 development.
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the study of L2 speech: SHUFHSWXDOZDUSLQJ and the SHUFHSWXDOPDJQHW. Perceptual warping
refers to the way in which the acoustic perceptual space related to a given type of speech
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category. L1 learners develop such prototypes for speech sounds early in life during their
distributional analysis of L1 input, and these prototypes act as attractors for newly per-
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net effect does not refer to cross-linguistic assimilation per se; rather, the idea is that, once
there are phonological categories in place, listeners are biased to perceive incoming speech
input in terms of these categories as opposed to objectively, without reference to categories.
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categories.
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L1 experience and the development of prototypes, the acoustic perceptual space becomes
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to a prototype than when far from a prototype. The reason for this phenomenon is the nature
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away from the prototype.
Applied to L2 speech perception, the perceptual warping involved in L1 development
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L1 category.
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ceptual warping formalizes crucial outcomes of L1 experience that have consequences for
L2 perception. In the next section, we review a theory of L2 perception which is similar to
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Charles B. Chang
432
The Automatic Selective Perception Model
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perceptual specialization for the L1. According to ASP, perceptual specialization involves
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specialization for the L1 as a central component of L1 perceptual ability, ASP views the
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these L1 SPRs also lead to L1 interference in perception of an L2, because the L2 will often
require learners to attend to different properties of the speech signal than the ones relevant
in their L1, and/or to integrate these cues differently.
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processing L2 speech is a core consideration of ASP, which distinguishes this theory from
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tested on discrimination of several French vowel contrasts, including front rounded vowels
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contexts. Results showed two systematic disparities between the experienced and inexpe-
rienced groups. First, with the exception of /u/-/y/, the experienced listeners outperformed
the inexperienced listeners overall on most of the vowel contrasts. Second, there was a
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perienced listeners performed differently on certain vowel contrasts across coarticulatory
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as familiarity with rule-governed coarticulatory patterns in the L2, which allows learners
to abstract over phonemically non-contrastive coarticulatory variation, such as the vowel
fronting effect associated with alveolars.
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This positive correlation between L2 experience and L2 perceptual performance can be

Second language learning and bilingualism
433
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of mental representations for the contrastive sounds of the L2, particularly those which do
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advantage for experienced L2 listeners compared to naive or inexperienced listeners.
Thus, ASP accounts for L1 biases in L2 perception, as well as for L2 perceptual learning
over time, in terms of the same fundamental construct: SPRs, which direct a listener’s atten-
tion to a proper subset of the numerous acoustic properties that a listener could potentially
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cue weighting than on cross-linguistic mapping or category prototypes; this focus helps to
account for perceptual variation observed among L2 learners with similar L1 phonological
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they are theories of L2 perception, not theories of L2 production. Next, we discuss a theory
of L2 speech that addresses aspects of both perception and production.
The Speech Learning Model
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for HTXLYDOHQFH FODVVL¿FDWLRQ of L2 sounds with close L1 counterparts. This mechanism
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abstract appropriately over phonetic variability in L1 speech. The inappropriate operation
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perception and/or production of target L2 sounds.
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the same as their closest L1 sound; therefore, straight transfer of the L1 sound to the L2 will
result in high accuracy with the L2 sound immediately. New sounds, by contrast, are more
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to a high degree of disparity along one or more dimensions, this cross-linguistic disparity
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performance. These novel aspects, however, are hypothesized to be learnable in the long
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In other words, similar sounds exist in an intermediate space of cross-linguistic similarity
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properties of close L1 sounds.
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Charles B. Chang
434
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Although assimilation and dissimilation result in opposite directions of movement rela-
tive to an L1 sound, crucially they may affect sounds of both the L1 and the L2, in line with
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This study focused on two acoustic properties of learners’ speech in both the L1 and the
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a vowel phoneme that occurs only in French. Results provided evidence for bidirectional
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English. As for F2, both L1 English learners of French and L1 French learners of English
produced French /u/ with too-high F2YDOXHVLHDV(QJOLVKLQÀXHQFHGDOWKRXJKRQO\WKH
L1 French learners of English also produced English /u/ with too-low F2 values. Notably,
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Figure 15.1 Continuum of similarity of L2 sounds to L1 sounds. NEW sounds are the least
similar to L1 sounds; IDENTICAL sounds, the most similar; and SIMILAR sounds, intermediate
in similarity.

Second language learning and bilingualism
435
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Summary and synthesis
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predictions in regard to L2 phonetic development, they differ in a number of ways. The
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Learner level novice to
advanced
advanced novice to
advanced
advanced
Basic unit articulatory
gesture
phonological
category
auditory cue SRVLWLRQVSHFL¿F
allophone
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perceptual
assimilation
perceptual
warping
perceptual
attunement
L1-L2
diaphones
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diaphones

Charles B. Chang
436
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To close this section, it is worth noting that the diversity of L1 and L2 outcomes in L2
learners has been approached analytically in additional ways, including systems typology
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to schematize the different possible bilingual phonological systems, which each lead to a
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computational account of shifts in bilingual speech through variation in the ambient lan-
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with exemplar approaches to phonology and L2 acquisition incorporating a role for episodic
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The role of L1-L2 similarity
Although the theories of L2 speech discussed in this chapter differ in a number of ways,
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L2 development. Whether described as perceptual assimilation to the L1, equivalence clas-
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which raises the question of how L2 learners identify the L1 correspondents of L2 sounds.
In other words, assuming that the main criterion for establishing L1-L2 correspondence is
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At the heart of this question is a crucial feature of L2 learners that distinguishes them
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the phonemic inventory, phonotactic constraints, allophonic alternations, and/or the ortho-
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sequently, there are several sources of information about L2 sounds that L2 learners may
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For L2 learners, the availability of multiple sources of information about L2 sounds
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Second language learning and bilingualism
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of acoustic proximity in F1îF2VSDFH0DQGDULQ\LVFORVHUWR(QJOLVKXWKDQLV0DQGDULQ
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(QJOLVKOHDUQHUVRI0DQGDULQSURGXFHG0DQGDULQXZLWKF2 values that were higher than
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advanced L1 English learners of French.
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example from loanword adaptation, high lax vowels in English loanwords are adapted by
French-English bilinguals not with the acoustically closest mid vowels of French, but with
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basis is systematic rather than idiosyncratic. Thus, at least for advanced L2 learners, there
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tion between phonetic and phonological types of cross-linguistic similarity, the manner in
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Linking L2 perception and L2 production
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similarities between child and adult learners, there are some important differences between
L1 learning and L2 learning of a target language, and one area in which such differences are
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during L1 acquisition, due in part to the articulatory-auditory loop associated with an infant

Charles B. Chang
438
hearing the consequences of her own vocalizations. Further, the timing of perception and
production milestones in L1 development, which typically shows children reliably perceiv-
ing speech sounds well before they can produce them, suggests that perception generally
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production in perceptual development, this should be regarded as a gross view of percep-
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In L2 speech learning, the relationship between perception and production is less clear
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to the untrained modality. In brief, although some studies report perception-production
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between perception and production for L2 speech. For example, Kartushina and Frauen-
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production of French front mid vowel contrasts and found no correlation between learn-
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does not constitute evidence that there is no relationship between them; however, when
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gest that transfer of perceptual learning to production, and vice versa, may be complicated
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The complex relationship between L2 developments in perception and production invites
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WKDQ RQH PRGDOLW\ VHH &KDSWHU  WKLV YROXPH GLVFXVVLQJ PXOWLFKDQQHO WUDLQLQJ RI WKH
/,I/ WUDLQLQJ LQ RQHPRGDOLW\WHQGVWRLPSURYHPDLQO\WKHWUDLQHGPRGDOLW\ DQG QRW
necessarily the untrained modality, could L2 speech development be enhanced or acceler-
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suggest that multimodal L2 engagement does not necessarily improve L2 outcomes, and
in certain cases can actually be detrimental to L2 speech development. In one study of L1
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types of multimodal perceptual training were systematically compared to each other, includ-
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Although test results showed perceptual gains with all training types, single-cue exposure
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Second language learning and bilingualism
439
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ally consider the potentially detrimental effect of extraneous processing of redundant or
irrelevant information. Either or both of these factors may be responsible for the observed
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performance in their dual-cue condition was never worse than in the single-cue condition,
which is not entirely consistent with an account of their results in terms of cognitive load
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interference across modalities, provide evidence that perception and production processes
must draw on mental representations that are at least partly shared between the two modali-
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some degree of dissociation between perception and production representations as well.
The degree to which L2 perception and L2 production processes overlap, the nature of this
overlap, and the manner in which the perception-production relationship differs between L1
and L2 learning remain some of the basic questions in research on L2 speech learning and
phonetic development more generally.
Concluding remarks
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Charles B. Chang
440
In closing, although the focus of this chapter has been phonetic development in typical
late-onset L2 learners, it is worth drawing the reader’s attention to some related areas of
research activity that, for reasons of space, have not been given extensive discussion here.
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spurred, and continue to spur, research on differences between early and late L2 learners
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the effect of other properties of the individual learner, such as language aptitude and basic
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In light of transnational migration and multilingualism across the world, these and other
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to many new discoveries in the years to come, with practically relevant implications we
cannot yet imagine.
Notes
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Second language learning and bilingualism
441
References
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Speech perception by Korean-English bilinguals. Language Learning, ±
$NDKDQH<DPDGD50F'HUPRWW($GDFKL7.DZDKDUD+DQG3UXLWW-6&RPSXWHU
EDVHG VHFRQG ODQJXDJH SURGXFWLRQ WUDLQLQJ E\ XVLQJ VSHFWURJUDSKLF UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ DQG +00
based speech recognition scores. In 3URFHHGLQJVRI WKH WK ,QWHUQDWLRQDO &RQIHUHQFHRQ6SRNHQ
/DQJXDJH3URFHVVLQJ,&6/3SDSHU6\GQH\$XVWUDOLD,QWHUQDWLRQDO6SHHFK&RP-
munication Association.
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language. ,QWHUQDWLRQDO5HYLHZRI$SSOLHG/LQJXLVWLFVLQ/DQJXDJH7HDFKLQJ, ±
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Research, ±
$QWRQLRX0%HVW&77\OHU0'DQG.URRV&/DQJXDJHFRQWH[WHOLFLWVQDWLYHOLNHVWRS
voicing in early bilinguals’ productions in both L1 and L2. -RXUQDORI3KRQHWLFV, 38±
$QWRQLRX0DQG:RQJ3&09DU\LQJLUUHOHYDQWSKRQHWLFIHDWXUHVKLQGHUVOHDUQLQJRIWKH
feature being trained. 7KH-RXUQDORIWKH$FRXVWLFDO6RFLHW\RI$PHULFD, ±
$R\DPD.)OHJH-(*XLRQ6*$NDKDQH<DPDGD5DQG<DPDGD73HUFHLYHGSKR-
netic dissimilarity and L2 speech learning: The case of Japanese /r/ and English /l/ and /r/. -RXUQDO
of Phonetics, ±
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SKRQRORJLFDOFDWHJRULHV. Ph.D. thesis, Northwestern University.
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learning speech sounds. -RXUQDORI0HPRU\DQG/DQJXDJH, ±
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trasts varying in perceptual assimilation to the listener’s native phonological system. 7KH-RXUQDO
of the Acoustical Society of America, ±
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Productions.
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lands: John Benjamins Publishing.
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Sons.
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Charles B. Chang
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Language Learning, 66±
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ers to identify English /r/ and /l/, IV: Some effects of perceptual learning on speech production. The
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on L1 versus L2 systems. ,QWHUQDWLRQDO-RXUQDORI%LOLQJXDOLVP, ±
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phonological contrast: The case of stop consonants in French-English bilinguals. 7KH-RXUQDORI
the Acoustical Society of America, ±
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handbook of language attrition2[IRUG2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
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guistics Society, 1±
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8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD%HUNHOH\&$
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Harvard Studies in Korean Linguistics, 13±
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3URFHHGLQJVRIWKHWK LQWHUQDWLRQDOFRQJUHVVRISKRQHWLFVFLHQFHVSS ±+RQJ.RQJ
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JXDO,Q6%HUVRQ$%UDWNLHYLFK'%UXKQ$&DPSEHOO5(VFDPLOOD$*LRYLQH/1HZEROG
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speech production. -RXUQDORI3KRQHWLFV, ±
&KDQJ&%$QRYHOW\HIIHFWLQSKRQHWLFGULIWRIWKHQDWLYHODQJXDJH-RXUQDORI3KRQHWLFV,
±
&KDQJ & %  'HWHUPLQLQJ FURVVOLQJXLVWLF SKRQRORJLFDO VLPLODULW\ EHWZHHQ VHJPHQWV 7KH
SULPDF\RI DEVWUDFW DVSHFWVRI VLPLODULW\,Q ( 5DLP\ DQG& ( &DLUQV(GV The segment in
SKRQHWLFVDQGSKRQRORJ\SS±&KLFKHVWHU-RKQ:LOH\6RQV
&KDQJ&%%LOLQJXDOSHUFHSWXDOEHQH¿WVRIH[SHULHQFHZLWKDKHULWDJHODQJXDJHBilingual-
ism: Language and Cognition, ±
&KDQJ & %  3HUFHSWXDO DWWHQWLRQ DV WKH ORFXV RI WUDQVIHU WR QRQQDWLYH VSHHFK SHUFHSWLRQ
-RXUQDORI3KRQHWLFV, 68±
&KDQJ&%LQSUHVV3KRQHWLFGULIW,Q066FKPLGDQG%.|SNH(GVThe Oxford handbook of
language attrition2[IRUG2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
&KDQJ& %DQG%RZOHV$5 &RQWH[WHIIHFWVRQVHFRQGODQJXDJHOHDUQLQJ RIWRQDOFRQ-
trasts. 7KH-RXUQDORIWKH$FRXVWLFDO6RFLHW\RI$PHULFD, 138±

Second language learning and bilingualism
443
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tage for non-native listeners. 7KH-RXUQDORIWKH$FRXVWLFDO6RFLHW\RI$PHULFD, ±
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WXDOSURSHUWLHVRIWRQHSURGXFHGE\KHULWDJHQDWLYHDQGVHFRQG ODQJXDJHVSHDNHUVRI0DQGDULQ
+HULWDJH/DQJXDJH-RXUQDO, 13±
&KDQJ&%<DR<+D\QHV()DQG5KRGHV53URGXFWLRQRISKRQHWLFDQGSKRQRORJL-
FDOFRQWUDVWE\KHULWDJHVSHDNHUVRI0DQGDULQ7KH-RXUQDORIWKH$FRXVWLFDO6RFLHW\RI$PHULFD,
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&DPEULGJH&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
&RRN9-  7KH SRYHUW\RIWKHVWLPXOXV DUJXPHQW DQG PXOWLFRPSHWHQFH Second Language
Research, ±
&RRN9-(YLGHQFHIRUPXOWLFRPSHWHQFHLanguage Learning, ±
&RRN9 - 7KHFKDQJLQJ /LQWKH/ XVHU¶VPLQG,Q 9 &RRN(GEffects of the second
ODQJXDJHRQWKH¿UVWSS±&OHYHGRQ0XOWLOLQJXDO0DWWHUV
&XWOHU$/LVWHQLQJWRDVHFRQGODQJXDJHWKURXJKWKHHDUVRID¿UVW,QWHUSUHWLQJ, 5±
'DYLGVRQ/3KRQRORJ\SKRQHWLFVRUIUHTXHQF\,QÀXHQFHVRQWKHSURGXFWLRQRIQRQQDWLYH
sequences. -RXUQDORI3KRQHWLFV, ±
'DYLGVRQ/3KRQHWLFSKRQHPLFDQGSKRQRORJLFDOIDFWRUVLQFURVVODQJXDJHGLVFULPLQDWLRQ
of phonotactic contrasts. -RXUQDO RI ([SHULPHQWDO 3V\FKRORJ\ +XPDQ 3HUFHSWLRQ DQG 3HUIRU-
mance, ±
'DYLGVRQ/&URVVODQJXDJHVSHHFKSHUFHSWLRQDQGSURGXFWLRQ,Q0$URQRII(GOxford
ELEOLRJUDSKLHVLQOLQJXLVWLFV2[IRUG2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
GH%RW./RZLH:DQG9HUVSRRU0$G\QDPLFV\VWHPVWKHRU\DSSURDFKWRVHFRQGODQ-
guage acquisition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, ±
GH/HHXZ(LQSUHVV3KRQHWLF/DWWULWLRQ,Q066FKPLGDQG%.|SNH(GVThe Oxford hand-
book of language attrition2[IRUG2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
GH/HHXZ(0HQQHQ,DQG6FREELH-0'\QDPLFV\VWHPVPDWXUDWLRQDOFRQVWUDLQWVDQG
L1 phonetic attrition. ,QWHUQDWLRQDO-RXUQDORI%LOLQJXDOLVP, ±
GH/HHXZ(6FKPLG06DQG0HQQHQ,7KHHIIHFWVRIFRQWDFWRQQDWLYHODQJXDJHSURQXQ-
ciation in an L2 migrant setting. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13±
'PLWULHYD2-RQJPDQ$ DQG 6HUHQR -  3KRQRORJLFDO QHXWUDOL]DWLRQ E\ QDWLYHDQGQRQ
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'XSRX[(+LURVH<.DNHKL.3DOOLHU&DQG0HKOHU-(SHQWKHWLFYRZHOVLQ-DSDQHVH
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(FNPDQ)50DUNHGQHVVDQGWKHFRQWUDVWLYHDQDO\VLVK\SRWKHVLVLanguage Learning, 
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(FNPDQ)57KHVWUXFWXUDOFRQIRUPLW\K\SRWKHVLVDQGWKHDFTXLVLWLRQRIFRQVRQDQWFOXVWHUV
in the interlanguage of ESL learners. 6WXGLHVLQ6HFRQG/DQJXDJH$FTXLVLWLRQ, 13±
(FNPDQ ) 5  7\SRORJLFDO PDUNHGQHVV DQG VHFRQG ODQJXDJH SKRQRORJ\ ,Q - * +DQVHQ
(GZDUGVDQG 0 / =DPSLQL(GV 3KRQRORJ\ DQG VHFRQG ODQJXDJHDFTXLVLWLRQ SS ±
Amsterdam, The Netherlands: John Benjamins Publishing.
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(OOLV1 &6HOHFWLYHDWWHQWLRQ DQGWUDQVIHUSKHQRPHQDLQ /DFTXLVLWLRQ&RQWLQJHQF\FXH
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Linguistics, ±
(VFXGHUR 3  /LQJXLVWLF SHUFHSWLRQ RI ³VLPLODU´ / VRXQGV ,Q 3 %RHUVPD DQG 6 +DPDQQ
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)OHJH-(7KHSURGXFWLRQRI³QHZ´DQG³VLPLODU´SKRQHVLQDIRUHLJQODQJXDJH(YLGHQFHIRU
WKHHIIHFWRIHTXLYDOHQFHFODVVL¿FDWLRQ-RXUQDORI3KRQHWLFV, 15±

Charles B. Chang
444
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dam, The Netherlands: John Benjamins Publishing.
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logical contrasts. Phonetica, ±
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the stop consonant systems of Korean-English bilinguals. 7KH-RXUQDORIWKH$FRXVWLFDO6RFLHW\RI
America,  ±
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tion. /DQJXDJHDQG/LQJXLVWLFV&RPSDVV, ±
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ferences in L1 production on L2 pronunciation. Frontiers in Psychology, 5

Second language learning and bilingualism
445
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new words. Cognitive Psychology, 55±
/HDWKHU -  ,QWHUUHODWLRQ RI SHUFHSWXDO DQG SURGXFWLYH OHDUQLQJ LQ WKH LQLWLDO DFTXLVLWLRQ RI
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SURFHVVSS±%HUOLQ*HUPDQ\0RXWRQGH*UX\WHU
/HY\(6DQG6WUDQJH:3HUFHSWLRQRI)UHQFKYRZHOVE\$PHULFDQ(QJOLVKDGXOWVZLWKDQG
without French language experience. -RXUQDORI3KRQHWLFV, 36±
/L$DQG3RVW%/DFTXLVLWLRQRISURVRGLFSURSHUWLHVRIVSHHFKUK\WKP(YLGHQFHIURP/
0DQGDULQDQG*HUPDQOHDUQHUVRI(QJOLVK6WXGLHVLQ6HFRQG/DQJXDJH$FTXLVLWLRQ, 36±
/LEHUPDQ$ 0+DUULV . 6+RIIPDQ + 6 DQG *ULI¿WK % &  7KH GLVFULPLQDWLRQRI
speech sounds within and across phoneme boundaries. -RXUQDORI([SHULPHQWDO3V\FKRORJ\, 
±
0DFN0&RQVRQDQWDQGYRZHOSHUFHSWLRQDQGSURGXFWLRQ(DUO\(QJOLVK)UHQFKELOLQJXDOV
and English monolinguals. 3HUFHSWLRQDQG3V\FKRSK\VLFV, ±
0DFN03KRQHWLFWUDQVIHULQ D )UHQFK(QJOLVK ELOLQJXDO FKLOG ,Q 3+ 1HOGH (G Lan-
JXDJHDWWLWXGHVDQGODQJXDJHFRQÀLFWSS±%RQQ*HUPDQ\'PPOHU
0DFN0 7KH SKRQHWLF V\VWHPV RIELOLQJXDOV,Q07 %DQLFK DQG 0 0DFN (GV Mind,
EUDLQDQGODQJXDJH0XOWLGLVFLSOLQDU\SHUVSHFWLYHVSS ±0DKZDK1-/DZUHQFH(UO-
baum Press.
0DMRU5&/RVLQJ(QJOLVKDVD¿UVWODQJXDJH7KH0RGHUQ/DQJXDJH-RXUQDO, ±
0DMRU5 &/DFTXLVLWLRQ/ORVVDQGWKHFULWLFDOSHULRG K\SRWKHVLV ,Q$-DPHVDQG-
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0RXWRQGH*UX\WHU

Charles B. Chang
446
0DMRU5 &  )RUHLJQ DFFHQW 7KH RQWRJHQ\ DQG SK\ORJHQ\ RI VHFRQGODQJXDJHSKRQRORJ\.
0DKZDK1-/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV
0HQQHQ,%H\RQGVHJPHQWV7RZDUGVD/LQWRQDWLRQOHDUQLQJWKHRU\,Q('HODLV5RXV-
VDULH0$YDQ]LDQG6+HUPHQW(GV3URVRG\DQGODQJXDJHLQFRQWDFW/DFTXLVLWLRQDWWULWLRQ
and languages in multilingual situationsSS±%HUOLQ*HUPDQ\6SULQJHU9HUODJ
0HQQHQ,DQGGH/HHXZ(%H\RQGVHJPHQWV3URVRG\LQ6/$Studies in Second Language
$FTXLVLWLRQ, 36±
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future directions. 6WXGLHVLQ6HFRQG/DQJXDJH$FTXLVLWLRQ, ±
2GOLQ 7  /DQJXDJH WUDQVIHU &URVVOLQJXLVWLF LQÀXHQFH LQ ODQJXDJH OHDUQLQJ &DPEULGJH
&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
2K*(*XLRQ$QGHUVRQ6$R\DPD.)OHJH-($NDKDQH<DPDGD5DQG<DPDGD7
A one-year longitudinal study of English and Japanese vowel production by Japanese adults and
FKLOGUHQLQDQ(QJOLVKVSHDNLQJVHWWLQJ-RXUQDORI3KRQHWLFV, ±
2QLVKL+ &URVVOLQJXLVWLFLQÀXHQFH LQWKLUGODQJXDJHSHUFHSWLRQ/ DQG/SHUFHSWLRQRI
-DSDQHVHFRQWUDVWV. Ph.D. thesis, University of Arizona.
3HSHUNDPS6DQG%RXFKRQ&7KHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQSHUFHSWLRQDQGSURGXFWLRQLQ/SKR-
nological processing. In 3URFHHGLQJV RI WKH WK LQWHUQDWLRQDO FRQIHUHQFH RQ VSRNHQ ODQJXDJH
SURFHVVLQJ,QWHUVSHHFKSS±)ORUHQFH ,WDO\,QWHUQDWLRQDO6SHHFK&RPPXQLFD-
tion Association.
3HUUDFKLRQH7./HH-+D/<<DQG:RQJ3&0 /HDUQLQJDQRYHOSKRQRORJLFDO
contrast depends on interactions between individual differences and training paradigm design. The
-RXUQDORIWKH$FRXVWLFDO6RFLHW\RI$PHULFD, ±
3LHUUHKXPEHUW-([HPSODUG\QDPLFV:RUGIUHTXHQF\OHQLWLRQDQGFRQWUDVW,Q-%\EHHDQG
3+RSSHU(GV)UHTXHQF\HIIHFWVDQGWKHHPHUJHQFHRIOH[LFDOVWUXFWXUHSS±$PVWHU-
dam, The Netherlands: John Benjamins Publishing.
3ROND/&URVVODQJXDJHVSHHFKSHUFHSWLRQLQDGXOWV3KRQHPLFSKRQHWLFDQGDFRXVWLFFRQWUL-
butions. 7KH-RXUQDORIWKH$FRXVWLFDO6RFLHW\RI$PHULFD, ±
3ROND/&KDUDFWHUL]LQJWKHLQÀXHQFHRIQDWLYHODQJXDJHH[SHULHQFHRQDGXOWVSHHFKSHUFHS-
tion. 3HUFHSWLRQDQG3V\FKRSK\VLFV, ±
3ROND / DQG %RKQ 2 6  $ FURVVODQJXDJH FRPSDULVRQ RI YRZHO SHUFHSWLRQ LQ (QJOLVK
OHDUQLQJDQG*HUPDQOHDUQLQJLQIDQWV7KH-RXUQDORIWKH$FRXVWLFDO6RFLHW\RI$PHULFD, 
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E\$UDELFVSHDNHUV-RXUQDORI3KRQHWLFV, 11±
6FKZDUW]*:RUGERXQGDULHVLQ/VSHHFK(YLGHQFHIURP3ROLVKOHDUQHUVRI(QJOLVKSec-
ond Language Research, ±
6KHOGRQ$DQG6WUDQJH:7KHDFTXLVLWLRQRIUDQGO E\ -DSDQHVH OHDUQHUV RI(QJOLVK
Evidence that speech production can precede speech perception. $SSOLHG3V\FKROLQJXLVWLFV, 3
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6LPRQHW 0  7KH SKRQHWLFV DQG SKRQRORJ\ RI ELOLQJXDOLVP ,Q Oxford handbooks online
SS±2[IRUG2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
6WUDQJH :  $XWRPDWLF 6HOHFWLYH 3HUFHSWLRQ $63 RI ¿UVW DQG VHFRQG ODQJXDJH VSHHFK
$ZRUNLQJPRGHO-RXUQDORI3KRQHWLFV, ±
6WUDQJH: /HY\(DQG/HKQKROI5 -U3HUFHSWXDODVVLPLODWLRQRI)UHQFK DQG *HUPDQ
vowels by American English monolinguals: Acoustic similarity does not predict perceptual simi-
larity. 7KH-RXUQDORIWKH$FRXVWLFDO6RFLHW\RI$PHULFD, 11 5
6\UGDO$.DQG *RSDO+6$SHUFHSWXDOPRGHORIYRZHOUHFRJQLWLRQEDVHGRQWKHDXGL-
tory representation of American English vowels. 7KH-RXUQDORIWKH$FRXVWLFDO6RFLHW\RI$PHULFD,
±

Second language learning and bilingualism
447
7DMLPD..DWR+5RWKZHOO$$NDKDQH<DPDGD5DQG0XQKDOO.*7UDLQLQJ(QJOLVK
listeners to perceive phonemic length contrasts in Japanese. 7KH-RXUQDORIWKH$FRXVWLFDO6RFLHW\
of America, ±
7LFH 0 DQG :RRGOH\ 0  3DJXHWWHV DQG EDVWULHV 1RYLFH )UHQFK OHDUQHUV VKRZ VKLIWV LQ
native phoneme boundaries. 8&%HUNHOH\3KRQRORJ\/DE$QQXDO5HSRUW±
7RELQ6-1DP+DQG)RZOHU&$3KRQHWLFGULIWLQ6SDQLVK(QJOLVKELOLQJXDOV([SHUL-
ment and a self-organizing model. -RXUQDORI3KRQHWLFV, 65±
7XFNHU*5$JOREDOSHUVSHFWLYHRQELOLQJXDOLVPDQGELOLQJXDOHGXFDWLRQ,Q-($ODWLVDQG
$+7DQ(GV /DQJXDJH LQ RXUWLPH%LOLQJXDO HGXFDWLRQ DQG RI¿FLDO (QJOLVK(ERQLFVDQG
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University Press.
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tion of non-native vowel contrasts. Phonetica, ±
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The L2LP model revised. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1000.
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developments and future directions. Educational Psychology Review, ±
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productions before and after perceptual training. 7KH-RXUQDORIWKH$FRXVWLFDO6RFLHW\RI$PHULFD,
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nasalization in Korean and Korean-accented English. Language, ±