ArticlePDF Available

Abstract and Figures

Educators face major challenges as a result of the shift from the Information Age to the Experience Age (Wadhera, 2016). For example, students are passive and disengaged (Capps and Crawford, 2013) and may struggle to see the relevance of what they are learning to their lives (Gee, 2009); also, important skills needed for 21st century learners-such as empathy, systems thinking, creativity, computational literacy, and abstract reasoning-are difficult to teach (Smith and Hu, 2013). Virtual reality, an immersive, hands-on tool for learning, can play a unique role in addressing these educational challenges. In this paper, we present examples of how the affordances of virtual reality lead to new opportunities that support learners. We conclude with a discussion of recommendations and next steps.
Content may be subject to copyright.
I
nt. J. Innovation in Education, Vol. 4, No. 4, 201
7
215
Copyright © 2017 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
Virtual reality in education: a tool for learning
in the experience age
Elliot Hu-Au* and Joey J. Lee
Department of Communications, Media,
Learning Technologies Design,
Teachers College,
Columbia University,
525 W 120th St. New York, 10027, USA
Fax: +2126788227
Email: elliot.hu-au@tc.columbia.edu
Email: jl3471@tc.columbia.edu
*Corresponding author
Abstract: Educators face major challenges as a result of the shift from the
Information Age to the Experience Age (Wadhera, 2016). For example, students
are passive and disengaged (Capps and Crawford, 2013) and may struggle to
see the relevance of what they are learning to their lives (Gee, 2009); also,
important skills needed for 21st century learners – such as empathy, systems
thinking, creativity, computational literacy, and abstract reasoning – are
difficult to teach (Smith and Hu, 2013). Virtual reality, an immersive, hands-on
tool for learning, can play a unique role in addressing these educational
challenges. In this paper, we present examples of how the affordances of virtual
reality lead to new opportunities that support learners. We conclude with a
discussion of recommendations and next steps.
Keywords: virtual reality; virtual environments; experience age; education;
technology.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Hu-Au, E. and Lee, J.J.
(2017) ‘Virtual reality in education: a tool for learning in the experience age’,
Int. J. Innovation in Education, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp.215–226.
Biographical notes: Elliot Hu-Au is a Doctoral student in Instructional
Technology and Media at Teachers College, Columbia University. He has over
10 years of experience teaching high school physics, biology, and mathematics.
He was born and raised in the San Francisco Bay Area where he taught in
urban public schools as well as spent four years founding a charter school.
His current research field is virtual reality and its possible uses in educational
settings.
Joey J. Lee is a Lecture Professor of Technology and Education at Teachers
College, Columbia University and Director of the Games Research Lab.
He designs, develops, and studies games and game-like experiences for
education and social impact. His projects include both digital and non-digital
games for climate change education, science education, motivation, identity
formation, and cross-cultural education.
216 E. Hu-
A
u and
J
.J. Lee
1 Introduction
We are now in the Experience Age – where 92% of teens are online daily, playing games,
livestreaming memorable experiences, sharing ephemeral moments on Snapchat, or
posting pictures of exciting daily occurrences on Instagram (Wadhera, 2016). Both
informal and formal learning, as a result, have shifted again: from an Industrial
Revolution model of education, where a teacher transmitted information to students via a
‘one size fits all’ mentality; to an Information Age model, in which access to and
accumulation of information was the highest priority; and now onto the Experience Age,
in which the ubiquity of interconnected mobile devices, gaming and social networking
software have led to sharing and experiencing new points of view. By creating, sharing
and participating in technology-mediated experiences, young people are becoming
accustomed to rich new learning environments.
At the same time, formal education faces three major challenges in adapting to this
shift to the Experience Age. First, teachers often still rely on transmissionist methods
such as lectures, leading to passive, disengaged students (Capps and Crawford, 2013).
Learning in this manner, when knowledge is isolated from context, causes many students
to struggle to see the relevance to their lives (Gee, 2009). Second, authentic learning
contexts require many factors that are either difficult to attain or simply absent from
traditional teaching methods (Hill and Smith, 2005). Third, important skills needed for
21st century learners such as empathy, systems thinking, creativity, computational
literacy, and abstract reasoning are difficult to teach (Smith and Hu, 2013). Each of these
challenges is significant and though it may have been acceptable to ignore them in the
past, will grow as obstacles if not addressed for the current generation of students.
Technological advances like tablet computers, Chromebooks, student-response-
systems (i.e., ‘clickers’), and smartphones have made incremental progress in keeping
education and its tools relevant. One technology that is pushing its way into the
mainstream is virtual reality (VR), defined as immersive, realistic, three-dimensional
environments that involve visual feedback from body movement (Aarseth, 2001). VR
technology is poised to be disruptive and vastly influential – projected to be a trillion-
dollar industry by the year 2035 according to market researchers (Boyle, 2016). Already,
developers have created compelling experiences allowing people to travel through the
cells of the body, to explore the Solar System, and to encounter recreations of ancient
battles in history (Hayden, 2015; Hamilton, 2016; Bienz, 2016). VR promises to provide
more immersive, engaging experiences, with applications in many domains, including
shopping, entertainment, training, and education.
There is evidence that VR can address the above educational challenges in the
experience age (Dalgarno and Lee, 2010; Psotka, 2013; Bailenson et al., 2008). In
particular, VR can: lead to increased student engagement; provide active, constructivist
learning; increase frequency of authentic learning experiences; allow for empathetic
experiences; enable students to exercise creativity; and provide an arena for visualising
abstract concepts concretely. In this paper, we start with a brief overview of VR
technology. Next, we present examples of how the affordances of VR lead to new
opportunities that can address the three major challenges to formal education described
above. Finally, we conclude with a discussion of recommendations and next steps.
Virtual reality in education: a tool for learnin
g
217
2 Overview: the evolution of virtual reality
The concept of VR is not new; in the early 1990’s speculation on its potential already
existed. VR promised to bring an exciting future – where everyone would wave their
hands to travel through strange neon geometric places, converse with virtual people, and
experience adventures in perfectly simulated worlds or times (Steinicke, 2016). However,
at the time, VR did not go far. Other than primarily military and industrial uses such as
combat training and 3D visualisations (Cruz-Niera, 2016; Pollack, 1989), it was
uncomfortable, not realistic, expensive and required immense amounts of computing
power to render.
Today, we are greeted with a very different landscape; the technology that once was
too expensive or impractical for consumers is now readily available. The popularity of
several mainstream consumer products like the Google Cardboard, Daydream View,
Oculus Rift, HTC Vive, Samsung Gear VR, Playstation VR, and Microsoft HoloLens
(Figure 1) are evidence that technical developments have finally resolved many of the
problems that previously doomed VR. In addition, the ubiquity of smartphones – used by
65% of the American population (Statista, 2017) – and their rapidly increasing
capabilities has expanded VR’s reach to more consumer bases. Development and
investment in VR – including key players Apple, Microsoft, Facebook, and Google
(Mason, 2016) – totalled over $2.3 billion in 2016 alone (Digi-Capital, 2017). Many are
optimistic that VR/AR can transform several industries, including education,
entertainment, healthcare and corporate training.
Figure 1 Microsoft HoloTours, a virtual field trip experience (see online version for colours)
Source: Used with permission from Microsoft
3 Definitions
VR is a part of a larger family of technology-mediated experiences involving a varying
degree of blends of reality with virtual components. Related areas along this continuum
of reality and virtuality are augmented reality and mixed reality (Figure 2).
218 E. Hu-
A
u and
J
.J. Lee
Figure 2 Milgram’s reality–virtuality continuum
Source: Milgram et al. (1995)
Augmented reality (AR) can be described as an integration of digital information onto a
view of the real-world environment, such as using a smartphone camera to view a live
translation of characters into a foreign language or scanning a QR code on a card to see a
3D image of an animal. Mixed reality, in between a real and virtual environment, is an
overlay of synthetic content onto the real world that is anchored to – and interacts with –
the real world, such as interactive holograms. In this paper, we are primarily concerned
with the affordances of VR, any form of digital media that creates a 3D visually-
immersive experience simulating a different reality.
In the following sections, we describe how past research in VR supports new
affordances that can address major educational challenges. We also highlight current
examples of how VR can create new learning opportunities.
4 Problems in education and opportunities in VR
4.1 Problem: traditional methods of teaching lead to a lack of student
engagement
A widespread problem in education is that traditional methods of lecture-based education
lead to disengaged students (Delialioglu, 2012). This lack of engagement is considered a
major reason for many unfavourable behaviours hindering student success, including
dissatisfaction, negative experience, and dropping out of school (Delialioglu, 2012).
If students’ engagement with academic activities is increased, so does the students’
learning and personal development (Delialioglu, 2012; Winn et al., 1997). In this section,
we describe two learning opportunities provided by VR that can complement traditional
forms of teaching.
4.1.1 Opportunity: virtual reality leads to increased student engagement
Several characteristics of VR provide an opportunity to boost student engagement. As a
hands-on, interactive, immersive experience, it provides a novel way of learning for
students, delivering powerful new experiences they may not have encountered before
(Bricken, 1991; Crosier et al., 2000; Eschenbrenner et al., 2008; Winn et al., 1997;
Johnson and Levine, 2008; Lau and Lee, 2015). For example, Google Expeditions allows
teachers to transport students to virtual field trips to Mars, the bottom of the ocean, and
many other settings, which can spark new interest in subject matter, provide a shared
experience for better classroom discussion, and improve overall engagement (Ferriter,
2016). Experiences like these provide unique and fresh learning moments that draw in
students and pique their interest as they actively explore and exercise their curiosity. This
increased engagement can be an opportunity for addressing typically boring or low
Virtual reality in education: a tool for learnin
g
219
appeal subject areas. For example, Costa and Melotti (2012) found that VR exhibits
increased interest in archaeology, especially where interest was low in the past. The
novelty and entertainment value of VR can be used strategically to draw in the attention
of lost and disinterested students, including in subjects that some students may usually
find boring or irrelevant. From there, VR-specific pedagogy, which will be discussed
later, can maximise the learning potential of these experiences.
VR also boosts engagement by providing students with a strong sense of presence and
immersion compared to traditional learning environments (Bailenson et al., 2008;
Dalgarno and Lee, 2010). Different kinds of classroom experiences have varying levels
of presence: reading literature in a classroom; passively watching videos; watching
performance theatre; and the most interactive, actually embodying actors and objects in
VR. (Aylett and Louchart, 2003). By enveloping a student in an authentic, multi-sensory
experience, VR makes a subject area come alive. For instance, students have the
opportunity to navigate inside the human body’s bloodstream as a red blood cell in
The Body VR (The Body VR, n.d.). The ability to simulate an environment and increasing
a student’s sense of presence is one of the most important opportunities of VR to create
more engaging educational experiences.
4.1.2 Opportunity: virtual reality allows for constructivist learning
VR also provides an opportunity for constructivist learning, i.e., allowing students to
construct their own knowledge from meaningful experiences. In these types of
experiences, students engage in authentic problems, exploring solutions and perhaps
collaborating with others. In research on virtual world-building simulations,
low-performing students improved academically more than those learning through
traditional methods, even more so than their high-achieving counterparts (Winn et al.,
1997). Furthermore, in introductory astronomy courses, VR activities where students
built 3D Solar Systems supported greater understanding of astronomical concepts
(Barnett et al., 2005). This affordance of VR gives students the ability to construct visual
and manipulable objects to represent knowledge, an affordance that traditional learning
methods lack. Fantastic Contraption is another example that uses constructivist theory to
reinforce principles of physics, where the player builds a machine and if it does not work
properly, he or she uses problem-solving skills until it functions correctly (Porter, 2015).
These types of experiences hold great potential for utilising the constructivist principles
of authentic activity and knowledge-creation environments (Dalgarno and Lee, 2010;
Driscoll, 2012; Bailenson et al., 2008). Thus, VR has great potential to enhance the
educational landscape by making immersive learning environments customisable,
actively engaging, and self-paced for student success (Smith et al., 2014).
VR also provides an opportunity for training, therapy, or simulation in situations
where repeated practice and a safe space to fail are present. This can be useful as spaces
for therapy for students with disabilities, post-traumatic stress disorder, or social anxiety.
The virtual environment allows students control over their learning in a consequence-
free, explorative manner, through which they become empowered and more engaged
(Crosier et al., 2000; Standen and Brown, 2006). VR applications such as VR Language
Learning and Public Speaking VR, give students a way to practice public speaking
without fear of serious consequences from their mistakes (Virtual Speech, 2016). In
essence, VR allows for practice in environments that are highly immersive and closely
parallel real-world situations.
220 E. Hu-
A
u and
J
.J. Lee
4.2 Problem: it is difficult to deliver authentic, highly relevant contexts
for learning
Students often find classroom-based learning to be irrelevant; there is a disconnect
between content learned in textbooks and authentic practice in the ‘real-world’.
Gee (2004) describes this as education lacking ‘situated’ learning (p.38). Correctly
implemented, situated learning in the example of biology allows students to learn terms
while seeing the broader applicability, instead of simply memorising biological facts
isolated from context. Virtual reality can provide an environment for situated learning
that is relatively easy to access. Through the increased relevance and situated nature of
virtual worlds, students can learn academic content in contexts that increase the potential
for learning (Gee, 2004).
4.2.1 Opportunity: virtual reality provides authentic experiences to impact
student identity
VR makes it possible to visit any location, time, or person in a relatively inexpensive way
via virtual field trips. This creates powerful learning opportunities for experiencing
historical contexts, scientific environments, and personally meaningful moments. Already
the immersive nature of VR is allowing assisted-living elders to visit their childhood
homes (Conti, 2016), the human body to be explored through the blood vessels (The
Body VR, n.d.), and battles from the 1500s to be reenacted in great detail (Bienz, 2016).
In classroom settings, the immersive nature of virtual field trips has enabled students to
have ‘authentic and powerful’ experiences in Colonial Williamsburg (Stoddard, 2009,
p.431) and increased attention and retention of information on Mexican immigration
(Lacina, 2004).
Perhaps equally important is the opportunity to impact student identity – for example,
can students be given experiences to inspire them to enter STEM careers? Virtual field
trips already exist that permit students to experience life in a professional’s workplace or
to learn from a mentor. Google Expeditions, for example, contains ‘career expeditions’
experiences where students can ‘shadow’ a scientist or professional in their laboratory or
office (O’Brien, 2016). This can be encouraging for students, especially minority
students, to pursue academic interests or occupations in fields in which they are
historically underrepresented (Butler, 2003). In addition, the existence of social VR
applications such as Rec Room and Facebook Spaces also provide channels for more
intimate and immersive communication. Already, scientists like Bill Nye have entered
into these virtual spaces to interact with the public. Opportunities like this, in schools
where low resources or time constraints limit going out into the field, are excellent
examples of VR’s potential benefits (Lacina, 2004; Placing and Fernandez, 2001; Tuthill
and Klemm, 2002). By delivering these first-hand experiences, VR increases the
possibility that students can adopt new identities that can impact their career trajectories.
4.3 Problem: teaching 21st century skills in a traditional classroom setting
is difficult
A third problem in education is that today’s workforce increasingly demands 21st century
skills such as creativity, empathy, critical thinking, and technological literacy (P.21,
2015) but these kinds of skills are difficult to teach and are not emphasised. This is
Virtual reality in education: a tool for learnin
g
221
because of several reasons, most notably that technology is frequently used to simply
increase the effectiveness of traditional teaching methods (Dede, 2010). In this section,
we describe below two opportunities provided by VR that provide 21st century skill
development.
4.3.1 Opportunity: virtual reality affords new perspective taking and empathy
VR excels at providing opportunities for new perspective taking, empathy, and the ability
to visualise difficult models. For example, when students were given a VR experience of
being an elderly person their empathy towards older generations significantly increased
(Bailenson et al., 2008). Chris Milk (2016), one of the foremost 360° film directors,
argues that VR makes anyone and anywhere feel local. In his VR film, Clouds Over
Sidra, Milk creates a compelling experience where the viewer is transported to a refugee
camp in Jordan. He uses this medium, where empathy with the subject is engendered by
immersing the viewer in a realistic experience of becoming a refugee. Another powerful
VR experience of this nature is the simulation Outcasted. In Outcasted, the player gets to
experience true stories of how people become homeless. VR builds empathy as the player
begins to experience the social rejection that many homeless people face (Priestman,
2015). One of the strongest arguments for VR as a learning tool is this ability to create
empathy in students and to change perspectives (Bailenson et al., 2008); this opportunity
is especially important in a divisive age in which understanding another’s point of view
can be essential to find solutions and ways to compromise.
4.3.2 Opportunity: virtual reality affords creativity and the ability to visualise
difficult models
VR also enables students to create anything from their imagination and to easily visualise
and manipulate objects to make difficult concepts easier to grasp. Inside creation-oriented
or world-building virtual environments (e.g., a tool such as CoSpaces (Figure 3) that
permits coding and easy VR creation), students can easily reify abstract ideas and
demonstrate their mental models (Winn et al., 1997). This ability to physically gesture to
create and its link to increasing cognitive learning is supported by the theory of embodied
cognition. This advantage of embodied learning through VR carries great potential in
expensive, dangerous, or spatially creative tasks (Dalgarno and Lee, 2010). For example,
Tiltbrush by Google is a VR application that encourages creativity and artistic
expression. Using Tiltbrush (Figure 4), students can paint, sculpt, and design life-sized
three-dimensional objects and landscapes using imaginative – and impossible materials
such as fire, snow and stars – and share them with others.
VR’s affordance of transferring perspective is not just limited to social or artistic
contexts. Winn et al. (1997) have also seen the advantages of VR in making abstract
concepts into concrete objects in science curricula. They posit that virtual environments
‘can represent in directly visible and manipulable forms concepts and procedures that are
intangible and invisible in the real world’ (p.2). In the realm of mathematics, VR offers
great possibilities in using technology to help students represent hard-to-visualise and
complex concepts. Students using a virtual environment to learn about surface area and
composite solids were seen to exhibit better performance on immediate and maintained
learning tests (Sung et al., 2015). This use of VR had an especially large impact on the
attitudes of low- and moderate-math level students, where ‘the concrete, individualised,
222 E. Hu-
A
u and
J
.J. Lee
and feedback-available environments mentioned above may have compensated for the
limited learning abilities’ (Sung et al., 2015, p.133). Thus, VR shows promise that it can
improve general learning contexts as well as bring important new strategies to reach
students who need the most support.
Figure 3 CoSpaces, a world-building tool for 3D and VR environments (see online version
for colours)
Source: Used with permission from Delightex GmbH
Figure 4 Tiltbrush, a VR app for drawing in 3-dimensions (see online version for colours)
Source: Used with permission from Google
5 Conclusion
As educators who teach in the experience age, we must embrace and leverage better
methods to deliver the most effective learning experiences. Educators have begun to
embrace VR and its wide possibilities for learning as the technology rapidly moves to the
mainstream. As discussed above, VR is especially useful for providing several
opportunities: increasing student engagement; providing constructivist, authentic
experiences to impact student identity; allowing for new perspective taking and empathy;
and supporting creativity and the ability to visualise difficult models.
Virtual reality in education: a tool for learnin
g
223
A strong reason for utilising VR as a learning tool is that it meets young students
experientially, a way that they prefer (Wadhera, 2016). Our current education system
needs engaging, authentic experiences that will drive successful learning. VR can provide
this and offers potential to expose students to worlds and people that are normally
inaccessible (Dalgarno and Lee, 2010). For example, a deliberate use of the social
affordances of VR could connect students with role models, thus encouraging greater
participation by students who typically shy away from certain fields, i.e., STEM fields
and minority and female students.
It should be pointed out that VR is no silver bullet; we must be wary of the tempting
novelty of technology and its initial hype – which is often followed by disillusionment.
Thorough research and practice are necessary to explore the full potential of using VR in
educational settings. As Lau and Lee (2015) warn against replacing real-world
educational experiences with virtual reality, they also emphasise that “the best way to use
virtual reality in learning is to create experiences that help students to understand the
learning context better” (p.15). A pedagogy based on the unique affordances of VR is
what is needed. A wrong way of implementing VR in education would be simply to
replicate face-to-face, didactic experiences of learning.
Instead, we should design creatively while building on how we know students learn.
Since VR is an excellent medium for constructivist learning experiences (Dalgarno and
Lee, 2010), pedagogy targeting its use should be founded on constructivist learning
models. Problem-based learning, anchored instruction, cognitive apprenticeship, and
intentional learning environments are all effective models founded on constructivism
(Wilson, 2012). VR has the potential to enrich these methods with interactive simulations
and stunning visuals that immerse students in authentic learning experiences. It can push
the boundaries of the traditional classroom to be engaging, creative, and responsive to the
needs of the student. As such, overlap with game design principles is likely and ideal. VR
is a medium where limits are still being explored, so likewise, why limit the possibilities
of how education can be delivered? With sound pedagogy and innovative experiences,
virtual reality is a gateway for educators to enter the Experience Age.
References
Aarseth, E. (2001) ‘Virtual worlds, real knowledge: towards a hermeneutics of virtuality’,
European Review, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp.227–232.
Aylett, R. and Louchart, S. (2003) ‘Towards a narrative theory of virtual reality’, Virtual Reality,
Vol. 7, No. 1, pp.2–9.
Bailenson, J., Yee, N., Blascovich, J., Beall, A., Lundblad, N. and Jin, M. (2008) ‘The use of
immersive virtual reality in the learning sciences: digital transformations of teachers, students
and social context’, The Journal of the Learning Sciences, Vol. 17, pp.102–141.
Barnett, M., Yamagata-Lynch, L., Keating, T., Barab, S.A. and Hay, K.E. (2005) ‘Using virtual
reality computer models to support student understanding of astronomical concepts’, The
Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp.333–356.
Bienz, J. (2016) Microsoft Quietly Releases Three new HoloApps, One is More VR Than MR, Road
to Holo, 27 April, Retrieved from http.//www.roadtoholo.com/2016/04/27/1342/microsoft-
quietly-releases-three-new-holoapps-one-is-more-vr-than-mr/
Boyle, K. (2016) Citi GPS: Virtual and Augmented Reality, Citi: Private Bank, 19 October,
Retrieved from https.//www.privatebank.citibank.com/home/fresh-insight/citi-gps-virtual-and-
augmented-reality.html
224 E. Hu-
A
u and
J
.J. Lee
Bricken, M. (1991) ‘Virtual reality learning environments: potentials and challenges’, Computer
Graphics, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp.178–184.
Butler, S.K. (2003) ‘Helping urban African American high school students to excel academically:
the roles of school counselors’, The High School Journal, Vol. 87, No. 1, pp.51–57.
Capps, D.K. and Crawford, B.A. (2013) ‘Inquiry-based instruction and teaching about nature
of science: are they happening?’, Journal of Science Teacher Education, Vol. 24, No. 3,
pp.497–526.
Conti, K. (2016) MIT Startup Lets Seniors Enter the World of Virtual Reality, The Boston Globe,
12 May, Retrieved from https.//www.bostonglobe.com/business/2016/05/12/mit-startup-lets-
seniors-enter-world-virtual-reality/XbaWge6EseufMYu2tZ87TN/story.html
Costa, N. and Melotti, M. (2012) ‘Digital media in archaeological areas, virtual reality, authenticity
and hyper-tourist gaze’, Sociology Mind, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp.53–60.
Crosier, J.K., Cobb, S.V. and Wilson, J.R. (2000) ‘Experimental comparison of virtual reality with
traditional teaching methods for teaching radioactivity’, Education and Information
Technologies, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp.329–343.
Cruz-Niera, C. (2016) ‘Beyond fun and games: VR as a tool of the trade’, Session Presented at the
Virtual Reality Summit, 12 April, New York, NY.
Dalgarno, B. and Lee, M.J. W. (2010) ‘What are the learning affordances of 3-D virtual
environments?’, British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol. 41, No. 1, pp.10–32.
Dede, C. (2010) ‘Comparing frameworks for 21st century skills ‘, in Bellance, J. and Brandt, R.
(Eds.): 21st Century Skills: Rethinking How Students Learn, Solution Tree Press,
Bloomington, IN, pp.51–76.
Delialioglu, O. (2012) ‘Student engagement in blended learning environments with lecture-based
and problem-based instructional approaches’, Journal of Educational Technology and Society,
Vol. 15, No. 3, pp.310–n/a, Retrieved from http.//eduproxy.tc-library.org/?url=/docview/
1287025353?accountid=14258
Digi-Capital (2017) Record $2.3 billion VR/AR investment in, 2016, February, Retrieved from
http.//www.digi-capital.com/news/2017/02/record-2–3-billion-vrar-investment-in-2016/#.
WWZmP.4jyuUn
Driscoll, M.P. (2012) ‘Psychological Foundations of Instructional Design’, in Reiser, R.A. and
Dempsey, J.V. (Eds.): Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology, 3rd ed.,
Boston: Pearson, pp.35–44.
Eschenbrenner, B., Nah, F.F. and Siau, K. (2008) ‘3-D virtual worlds in education: applications,
benefits, issues and opportunities’, Journal of Database Management, Vol. 19, No. 4,
pp.91–110.
Ferriter, B. (2016) Tool Review: #GoogleExped.s. Virtual Reality App, The Tempered Radical,
9 March, Retrieved from http.//blog.williamferriter.com/2016/03/09/tool-review-googleexped.
s-virtual-reality-app/
Gee, J.P. (2004) ‘Situated Language and Learning: A Critique of Traditional Schooling, Routledge,
London.
Gee, J.P. (2009) ‘Deep learning properties of good digital games: how far can they go?’,
in Rittenfeld, U., Cody, M. and Vorderer, P. (Eds.): Serious Games: Mechanisms and Effects,
Routledge, New York, pp.67–82.
Hamilton, I. (2016) Exclusive: Titans of space 2’ Arrives in Early Access Next Week for Vive and
Rift, Upload, V.R., 20 May, Retrieved from http.//uploadvr.com/titans-space-2-arrives-early-
access-next-week-rift-vive/
Hayden, S. (2015) Review: Incell’is A VR Racer that Puts You Inside the Microscopic World of a
Cell, Road To, V.R., 4 September, Retrieved from http.//www.roadtovr.com/review-incell-vr-
racer-puts-inside-microscopic-world-cell/
Virtual reality in education: a tool for learnin
g
225
Hill, A.M. and Smith, H.A. (2005) ‘Research in purpose and value for the study of technology in
secondary schools: a theory of authentic learning’, International Journal of Technology and
Design Education, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp.19–32, Retrieved from http.//eduproxy. tc-library.
org/?url=/docview/870284311?accountid=14258
Johnson, L.F. and Levine, A.H. (2008) ‘Virtual worlds: inherently immersive, highly social
learning spaces’, Theory Into Practice, Vol. 47, No. 2, pp.161–170.
Lacina, J.G. (2004) ‘Designing a virtual field trip’, Childhood Education, Vol. 80, No. 4,
pp.221–222.
Lau, K. and Lee, P. (2015) ‘The use of virtual reality for creating unusual environmental
stimulation to motivate students to explore creative ideas’, Interactive Learning Environments,
Vol. 23, No. 1, pp.3–18.
Mason, W. (2016) 8 of the Top.10 Tech Companies in the World are Invested in VR/AR,
Upload, V.R., 8 March, Retrieved from http.//uploadvr.com/8-of-the-top-10-tech-companies-
invested-in-vr-ar/
Milgram, P., Takemura, H., Utsumi, A. and Kishino, F. (1995) ‘Augmented reality: a class of
displays on the reality-virtuality continuum’, Proceedings of Society of Photo-Optical
Instrumentation Engineers: Telemanipulator and Telepresence Technologies (2351), Boston,
MA, http.//dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.197321
Milk, C. (2016) How Virtual Reality can Create the Ultimate Empathy Machine [Video file],
February, Retrieved from https.//www.ted.com/talks/chris_milk_how_virtual_reality_can_
create_the_ultimate_empathy_machine
O’Brien, S. (2016) Exped.s. Career Tours can take Kids to Work, Virtually. [Web log comment],
28 April, Retrieved from https.//www.blog.google/topics/education/exped.s-career-tours-can-
take-kids/
P.21 (2015) ‘Framework for 21st Century Learning. P.21 Partnership for 21st Century Learning,
Washington DC, https.//doi.org/http.//www.21stcenturyskills.org/documents/framework_
flyer_updated_jan_09_final-1.pdf
Placing, K. and Fernandez, A. (2001) ‘Virtual experiences for secondary science teaching’,
Australian Science Teachers Journal, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp.40–42.Retrieved from ProQuest.
Pollack, A. (1989) ‘For artificial reality, wear a computer’, New York Times, 10 April, Retrieved
from http.//www.nytimes.com/1989/04/10/business/for-artificial-reality-wear-a-computer.
html?pagewanted=all.
Porter, C.G. (2015) Hands-on: Creating Magical Machines with ‘Fantastic Contraption’ on HTC
Vive, Road to VR, 21 August, Retrieved from http.//www.roadtovr.com/fantastic-contraption-
htc-vive-hands-on-pax-prime-2015/
Priestman, C. (2015) ‘The video game trying to change how we teach the homeless’, Kill Screen,
26 March, Retrieved from https.//killscreen.com/articles/outcasted/
Psotka, J. (2013) ‘Educational games and virtual reality as disruptive technologies’, Educational
Technology and Society, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp.69–80.
Smith, J. and Hu, R. (2013) ‘Rethinking teacher education: synchronizing eastern and western
views of teaching and learning to promote 21st century skills and global perspectives’,
Education Research and Perspectives (Online), Vol. 40, pp.86–108, Retrieved from
http.//ezproxy.cul.columbia.edu/login?url=http.//search.proquest.com.ezproxy.cul.columbia.ed
u/docview/1462385468?accountid=10226
Smith, M.J., Ginger, E.J., Wright, K., Wright, M.A., Taylor, J.L., Humm, L.B. and Fleming, M.F.
(2014) ‘Virtual reality job interview training in adults with autism spectrum disorder’, Journal
of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Vol. 44, No. 10, p.2450–2463.
Standen, P.J. and Brown, D.J. (2006) ‘Virtual reality and its role in removing the barriers that turn
cognitive impairments into intellectual disability’, Virtual Reality, Vol. 10, Nos. 3–4,
pp.241–252.
226 E. Hu-
A
u and
J
.J. Lee
Statista (2017) Number of Smartphone Users in the United States from 2010–2021, Retrieved from
https.//www.statista.com/statistics/201182/forecast-of-smartphone-users-in-the-us/
Steinicke, F. (2016) Being Really Virtual: Immersive Natives and the Future of Virtual Reality,
Springer, Switzerland.
Stoddard, J. (2009) ‘Toward a virtual field trip model for the social studies’, Contemporary Issues
in Technology and Teacher Education, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp.412–438.
Sung, Y., Shih, P. and Chang, K. (2015) ‘The effects of 3D-representation instruction on
composite-solid surface-area learning for elementary school students’, Instructional Science,
Vol. 43, No. 1, pp.115–145.
The Body VR (n.d.) Retrieved from http.//thebodyvr.com/
Tuthill, G. and Klemm, E.B. (2002) ‘Virtual field trips: alternatives to actual field trips’,
International Journal of Instructional Media, Vol. 29, No. 4, pp.453–468.
Virtual Speech (2016) Virtual Speech Ltd., Retrieved from http.//virtualspeech.com/
Wadhera, M. (2016) ‘The information age is over; welcome to the experience age’, Tech Crunch,
May, Vol. 9, Retrieved from https.//techcrunch.com/2016/05/09/the-information-age-is-over-
welcome-to-the-experience-age/
Wilson, B.G. (2012) ‘Constructivism in practical and historical context’, in Reiser, R.A. and
Dempsey, J.V. (Ed.): Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology, 3rd ed.,
Pearson, Boston, pp.45–52.
Winn, W., Hoffman, H., Hollander, A., Osberg, K., Rose, H. and Char, P. (1997) ‘The effect of
student construction of virtual environments on the performance of high-and low-ability
students’, Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association
ResearchGate, Chicago, IL.
... In the field of education, virtual reality technology brings a richer learning experience to education and stimulates students' interest and creativity. At the same time, the online learning platform makes learning more open and flexible, and students can arrange their learning according to their interests and time [6][7][8]. Virtual reality technology requires the use of interactive devices to complete the simulation activities of real-world behaviors [9][10][11]. The application of virtual reality technology to physical education can achieve good training results in a short period of time [12][13]. ...
... wB , A , and B respectively is also known as Monge-Kantorovich distance [26]. Let ij f be the carrying distance from position A to B , F be the matrix with ij f as an element, and ij d be the ground distance between AB , then the Monge-Kantorovich distance is: (11) First of all, the first and last frames i f , j f using the formula (8) to calculate the distance between the center of gravity of the two postures, if it is more than a certain threshold, it is not possible to carry out the subsequent operation, otherwise the use of the formula (9) to calculate the difference in the degree of freedom of the human body circumference, and then according to the formula (11) ...
Article
Full-text available
Online sports teaching has long faced the problems of monotonous teaching demonstration and insufficient interactivity, and the development of virtual reality technology provides a useful reference for revolutionizing the traditional sports teaching mode. This paper combines the linear interpolation and quadratic spherical interpolation methods to optimize the virtual human animation technology, and then selects the public frame and calculates the splicing algorithm and action fusion formula to deal with the related action and irrelevant action segments of the action scheduling problems, optimizing the smoothness of the articulation between the frames of the sports teaching animation, and improving the accuracy of the presentation of the virtual sports action. A sports teaching aid system is established, and its application effect is analyzed based on two optimization parts. The experiment shows that the average performance of boys’ high horizontal kick is improved by 10.1, and the average performance of double flying kick is improved by 26.57. The average performance of girls’ high cross kicks increased by 6.68, the average performance of double flying kicks increased by 18.68, and the average overall total score on the virtual reality technology acceptance scale was 3.826 points. Virtual reality technology has been proven to enhance the effectiveness of physical education teaching and is welcomed by students.
... VR environments are ideal for agents because they provide learners with the feeling of 'being there', thereby benefiting the learning process (Hu-Au & Lee, 2017). Immersion and presence play a prominent role in VR environments. ...
Article
Full-text available
English academic presentation (EAP) is an indispensable skill set of academic communication for university students. With the rapid development of desktop virtual reality (DVR), its application in language learning is worth exploring. The present study aimed to examine whether there is an improvement and difference in students' EAP by learning from the DVR with an in‐video pedagogical agent (PA) or an out‐of‐video PA. Adopting a between‐subject experimental design, a total of 64 students were randomly assigned to one of two group conditions depending on whether the PA was inside or outside the lecture video embedded in DVR. Participants' EAP performance, attention allocation and behavioural patterns were measured and analysed. As hypothesized, t‐tests, repeated ANOVA and lag sequence analysis showed that the participants who learned from the DVR with an out‐of‐video PA showed better learning performance, less attention allocation on content and more frequent behavioural patterns than those with an in‐video PA. Overall, our findings suggest that in a VR educational environment of video lectures, instructors should consider using an out‐of‐video PA to increase their social presence and improve students' learning experience. Practitioner notes What is already known about this topic EAP is an indispensable skill set of academic communication for university students. PA is an effective social cue in video lectures to promote learning. VR has been widely applied in language learning. What this paper adds Reveals the relationship between the PA's positioning and the learners' EAP performance and deepens the understanding of the PA's positioning in video lectures of a DVR learning environment. Provides empirical analysis of natural eye‐tracking during the video learning in DVR scene and EAP data during the experimental condition. Students who learned from the DVR with an out‐of‐video PA showed better learning performance, less attention allocation on content and more frequent behavioural patterns than those with an in‐video PA. Implications for practice and/or policy Designers are encouraged to use DVR with an out‐of‐video PA to enhance students' social presence and learning experience.
... VR helps create new forms of engagement and communication and is applicable across many sectors. Although this cutting-edge technology was first used in the gaming sector, it is now employed in various areas in the modern world: the military, healthcare, entertainment, fashion, business, sports, media, etc. VR has also found application in the domain of education [8,14,23,35,37,51,70,80,97,110,120]. VR generates information that may be utilised to create models for building concepts in healthcare or architectural industries and training programs for workers and students [29,34,43,98,127]. ...
... Recent research specifically focusing on older adults with mental health issues challenges the assumption that older individuals cannot benefit from or are intimidated by VR technology. Studies have reported promising outcomes, demonstrating that older adults can indeed engage with and benefit from VR interventions [70][71][72]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Virtual Reality in mental health treatment has potential to address a wide spectrum of psychological and neurocognitive disorders. Despite the proven benefits, integration into clinical practice faces significant challenges. There is a critical need for research into clinicians’ perceptions of virtual reality due to the gap between rapid technological advancements and their adoption in mental health services. Method A scoping review was conducted to comprehensively understand clinicians’ perspectives on the application of immersive virtual reality technologies within mental health settings. 4 data bases were searched, from inception, with the search areas of clinicians’, technology, perspectives and mental health. The scoping review followed the PRISMA-ScR checklist. All results were thematically analysed to identify and categorise themes with a focus on qualitative analyses of clinicians’ experiences and perceptions of VR applications in therapeutic contexts. Results 17 articles were selected, encompassing a range of mental health settings. The findings indicate that the integration of VR in clinical environments is heavily influenced by clinicians’ knowledge and experience, with unfamiliarity often leading to scepticism. Positive attitudes towards VR, bolstered by direct experience and training, were found to drive acceptance, as clinicians’ acknowledged its potential to complement traditional therapies. However, there are still gaps in understanding VR’s therapeutic applications, particularly concerning its impact on human interaction and its suitability for specific patient groups. Balancing VR’s clinical benefits with ethical and safety concerns is crucial, especially when working with vulnerable populations. Furthermore, structural and administrative support is essential to overcoming the financial and logistical challenges of VR implementation, ensuring its safe and effective integration into mental health care. Conclusion While VR holds significant potential for enhancing mental health care, its successful integration into clinical practice necessitates addressing existing gaps in knowledge, training, and structural support. By carefully balancing its clinical benefits with ethical, practical, and safety considerations, VR can be effectively utilised as a valuable tool in mental health treatment, providing innovative solutions while ensuring that patient care remains paramount.
... Literature [13] suggests that the creation of artifact-based informal learning environments through AR and VR is a growing phenomenon, but there is less insight from art educators related to the conceptualization of the potential and implementation perspectives in the classroom. Literature [14] suggests that virtual reality technology is an immersive learning prop that can play its unique role in addressing educational challenges and that virtual reality technology presents new opportunities for learner learning. Literature [15] concludes through experiments that the use of VR technology in education shows a high degree of adaptability, and students' demands for quality in subsequent academic training have increased, ultimately concluding that the impact of VR technology on education is very significant. ...
Article
Full-text available
Virtual reality technology constructs realistic and non-realistic scenes through computer simulation, which can provide users with a platform for human-computer interaction and a rich visual experience. In this paper, the application of virtual reality technology in art teaching helps to improve students’ information acceptance and promote the development of students’ spatial creativity and imagination. By combining the key technology of virtual reality with the spatial geometry teaching content of art, students can enhance their spatial imagination ability. The results obtained after the teaching practice illustrate that there is a significant difference between the experimental class and the control class in the three dimensions of memorization, comprehension, and application after the virtual reality teaching intervention (t=5.782, p=0.000<0.010), indicating that the virtual reality teaching has a significant effect on improving the spatial geometry constructing ability of the art majors.
... Students typically report dissatisfaction regarding the traditional teaching techniques (8). Those who participate in a dental operator simulation acquire a higher level of knowledge than those who receive instructions only via standard lectures or preclinical laboratories (9)(10)(11). Using XR as a learning aid can facilitate a better understanding of dental operations among students (7). ...
Article
Objective: Extended reality (XR) technology using head-mounted devices enables the operator to visu- alise anatomical structures. We aimed to investigate student perceptions regarding applying XR simu- lation for transferring endodontic educational information between a lecturer in Japan and students in Saudi Arabia. Methods: In this study, the students engaged with an XR simulation system and viewed teeth in virtual reality (VR). Pictures of dental anatomy were shown in the VR space, allowing participants to manipulate them. Then, the participants viewed a patient-specific three-dimensional printed model and three-dimensional root canal access guide in a second VR area. Before the sessions, the students completed a questionnaire on demograph- ic data and information concerning their VR experience. After the sessions, they completed a questionnaire evaluating the XR simulation system. The questionnaire included questions on dental anatomy, root canal access, usability, emotional impression, and data transfer. Results: Eleven 5th-year dental students, comprising six male and five female students, were enrolled; three of them had previous VR experience, whereas eight did not. The highest levels of satisfaction were noted in the tooth anatomy (4.6±0.4) and emotional impression (4.5±0.5) domains, whereas the lowest level was noted in the data transmission domain (3.5±0.9). Female participants and those without previous VR experience reported higher satisfaction levels across questionnaire domains compared to male participants and those with previous VR experience. Conclusion: XR can be successfully used in dental education and integrated into online lectures. Restrictions on education caused by health crises can be averted by using XR. Further, fifth-generation networks can offer better data transmission than wireless fidelity. Keywords: Endodontic education, extended reality, virtual reality, wireless fidelity network
Article
This study reviews the current status and future perspectives of virtual simulation games in entrepreneurship education in higher education institutions. Virtual simulation games act as digital twins to replicate real-world scenarios, which can be integrated as a part of online learning in entrepreneurship courses or digital learning resources in entrepreneurship education in higher education institutions. Virtual simulation games as digital tools for specific learning tasks or teaching methods engage students with virtual simulation learning experiences to generate improved student learning in immersive and interactive environments through the use of extended reality (XR) including virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR) in a virtual or blended learning environment. This study indicates the promising development of AI and XR applications in virtual simulation games in entrepreneurship education. It provokes discussions on the technological, pedagogical, and content design of virtual simulation games and their integration into hybrid and online models of entrepreneurship education, which has significant implications for the digital transformation and innovation of entrepreneurship education in higher education institutions. It draws attention to digital well-being and digital inclusion in virtual simulation game-based learning in entrepreneurship education in higher education institutions.
Article
In recent years, the popularity of information technologies, their role and degree of use in many areas, in particular in the field of education, has been growing. The implementation of digital educational tools in the educational process allows to increase its flexibility, to apply more individual approaches to the education seekers and to encourage them to self-improvement. Today, the use of many digital technologies, such as audio and video devices, interactive whiteboards, computers, tablets, etc., for better learning of educational material is common in educational institutions. Immersive technologies, such as virtual reality and augmented reality, have been gaining more and more development over the last decade and are occupying their niche in the field of education. Virtual reality technologies make it possible to create an artificial interactive three-dimensional world with which the user interacts by engaging the senses. To interact with the objects of this world, you need to use special peripheral devices, which are of various types, from simple, like head-mounted displays or gloves, to complex, like navigation panels or rooms. The disadvantage of such software is the impossibility of ensuring its cross-platform compatibility for different types of hardware that can be used in the educational process. Based on the analysis of scientific literature, ways to increase the effectiveness of learning by introducing immersive learning environments into the educational process have been identified, and the main advantages of learning using virtual reality technologies compared to traditional methods have been highlighted. An analysis of modern head-mounted displays as the main device for reproducing the virtual world for educational platforms was conducted and it was determined that the most popular of them is the Oculus Quest 2 model. Through analysis of the Oculus app store, it has been determined that only a small percentage of commercial systems can be used as aids in the learning process. The article presents a formed classification of immersive educational environments, which defines a set of functions in a system of a certain type. Using the proposed classification, you can determine the necessary characteristics of the virtual reality application being developed for training and choose the optimal technologies for its implementation.
Article
Full-text available
The increasingly widespread use of digital media and "virtual reality" in archaeological areas seems to confirm the passage from the traditional tourist gaze to a new hyper-tourist gaze. Archaeological areas, incessantly re-presented in virtual reality, are already part of an a-geographical city, characterized by new kinds of flows. The "virtual reality" of archaeological areas helps to "mark" a new phase in the economic and cultural history of tourism. A comparative presentation of some important activities carried out in these areas and the forms of multimedia communication related to archaeological tourism illustrates this trend. Notwithstanding the sceptical or conservative attitude of many institutions, this use of digital media does not generate cultural perplexity in the general public, which instead seeks and rewards the most in-novative initiatives that best combine entertainment and educational aspects.
Book
This book focuses on the recent developments of virtual reality (VR) and immersive technologies, what effect they are having on our modern, digitised society and explores how current developments and advancements in this field are leading to a virtual revolution. Using Ivan Sutherland's ‘The Ultimate Display’ and Moore’s law as a springboard, the author discusses both popular scientific and technological accounts of the past, present and possible futures of VR, looking at current research trends, developments, challenges and ethical considerations to the coming age of differing realities. Being Really Virtual is for researchers, designers and developers of VR and immersive technologies and anyone with an interest in the exponential rise of such technologies and how they are changing the very way we perceive, interact and communicate within our digital society.
Article
New technologies often have the potential for disrupting existing established practices, but nowhere is this so pertinent as in education and training today. And yet, education has been glacially slow to adopt these changes in a large scale way, and innovations seem to be imposed mainly by students' and their changing social lifestyles than by policy. Will this change? Leadership is sorely needed. Education needs to become more modular and move out of the classroom into informal settings, homes, and especially the internet. Nationwide certifications based on these modules would permit technology to enter education more rapidly. Smaller nations may be more flexible in making these very disruptive changes. © International Forum of Educational Technology & Society (IFETS).
Article
Why do poor and minority students under-perform in school? Do computer games help or hinder learning? What can new research in psychology teach our educational policy-makers?
Article
This study investigates how blending of different instructional approaches with technology affects students' engagement. A computer networks course was designed and implemented for the first eight weeks of the semester as a lecture-based blended learning environment and for the second eight weeks of the semester as a problem-based blended learning environment. A single group repeated measures research design was carriedout to understand if there are significant differences in measures of student engagement between these two blended learning approaches. Repeated measure ANOVA analysis on the data collected from 89 students revealed that Active Learning and Total Time on Task indicators of student engagement were significantly higher in the problem-based part of the course. Interaction and Level of Academic Challenge components and course satisfaction did not show any significant differences between the two parts. Regression analysis showed that the difference in Active Learning is not due to student individual differences but rather the learning environment provided in the problem-based blended learning. © International Forum of Educational Technology & Society (IFETS).
Article
This article illustrates the utility of using virtual environments to transform social interaction via behavior and context, with the goal of improving learning in digital environments. We first describe the technology and theories behind virtual environments and then report data from 4 empirical studies. In Experiment 1, we demonstrated that teachers with augmented social perception (i.e., receiving visual warnings alerting them to students not receiving enough teacher eye gaze) were able to spread their attention more equally among students than teachers without augmented perception. In Experiments 2 and 3, we demonstrated that by breaking the rules of spatial proximity that exist in physical space, students can learn more by being in the center of the teacher's field of view (compared to the periphery) and by being closer to the teacher (compared to farther away). In Experiment 4, we demonstrated that inserting virtual co-learners who were either model students or distracting students changed the learning abilities of experiment participants who conformed to the virtual co-learners. Results suggest that virtual environments will have a unique ability to alter the social dynamics of learning environments via transformed social interaction.
Article
Providing instruction on spatial geometry, specifically how to calculate the surface areas of composite solids, challenges many elementary school teachers. Determining the surface areas of composite solids involves complex calculations and advanced spatial concepts. The goals of this study were to build on students’ learning processes for basic and composite solids and employ Google SketchUp, an Internet resource tool, to develop and implement surface-area instructional and learning strategies (SAILS) for composite solids, and then measure its effect on learning achievement and attitudes. The fifth-grade students (N = 111) who were enrolled in this study were divided into an experimental and a control group. The experimental group (N = 56) received SAILS instruction, whereas the control group (N = 55) received traditional instruction. The results indicated that students who received SAILS instruction exhibited better performance on both immediate and maintained surface-area learning achievement tests compared to those who received traditional instruction; furthermore, this effect was more prominent among boys than girls. Low- and moderate-ability students who received SAILS instruction exhibited significantly greater improvement of attitudes toward learning mathematics compared to those receiving traditional instruction with physical teaching aids.
Article
This paper discusses the roles of simulation in creativity education and how to apply immersive virtual environments to enhance students’ learning experiences in university, through the provision of interactive simulations. An empirical study of a simulated virtual reality was carried out in order to investigate the effectiveness of providing virtual simulation to enrich students’ learning experiences. The researchers found that virtual reality can possibly enhance students’ learning experiences by providing them with a heuristic and highly interactive simulated virtual environment. Being explorative and fun are essential parts of students’ learning experiences in virtual reality. This paper suggests that educators create stimulated virtual learning environments, for example game-like environments, to help students develop positive learning behaviors in the learning process.