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Historical Examination of United States Intentional Mass School Shootings in the 20th and 21st Centuries: Implications for Students, Schools, and Society

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Journal of Child and Family Studies
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The deadliest U.S. school shooting to date, occurring on February 14, 2018 at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida serves as a powerful reminder that school violence is ever present. Addressing school violence, however, has been an elusive endeavor. The purpose of this review is to provide a historical examination of United States intentional mass school shootings in the 20th and 21st centuries. In addition, implications for students, schools, and society are discussed in light of policy and legislative initiatives as well as school-based prevention and intervention tiered models of support, such as positive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS).
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Journal of Child and Family Studies
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1096-2
ORIGINAL PAPER
Historical Examination of United States Intentional Mass School
Shootings in the 20th and 21st Centuries: Implications for Students,
Schools, and Society
Antonis Katsiyannis1Denise K. Whitford2Robin Parks Ennis3
© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018
Abstract
The deadliest U.S. school shooting to date, occurring on February 14, 2018 at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in
Parkland, Florida serves as a powerful reminder that school violence is ever present. Addressing school violence, however,
has been an elusive endeavor. The purpose of this review is to provide a historical examination of United States intentional
mass school shootings in the 20th and 21st centuries. In addition, implications for students, schools, and society are discussed
in light of policy and legislative initiatives as well as school-based prevention and intervention tiered models of support, such
as positive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS).
Keywords Shooting Guns Violence Schools PBIS Mental health
The mass school shooting on February 14, 2018 at Marjory
Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, FL shocked
the conscience of a nation once more (Astor et al. 2018).
This event, however, is not an isolated one and does present
a persistent concern over gun violence in general and school
shootings in particular. Schools are expected to be con-
ducive to learning environments where students feel safe
and secure to pursue boundless learning opportunities.
Unfortunately school violence is ever present and fear for
safety affects not only students but also teachers, staff, and
communities. The purpose of this paper is to provide an
overview of school violence in the United States with an
emphasis on school related mass shootings in the 20th and
21st centuries.
Gun Violence in the United States
Gun related violence in the United States has been char-
acterized as an epidemic and a public health crisis with a
substantial nancial burden estimated to be $174 billion in
2010 (Miller 2012; for cost estimates see also Follman et al.
2015). Specically, in 2015, there were a total of 36,252
gun related fatalities (35.8% fatalities were nonlaw
enforcement related and 60.74% were suicides). Regarding
children and youth, 142 children ages 5 to 12 died from gun
related injuries (73.94% were non-law enforcement related)
and 1851 adolescents ages 1318 died from gun related
injuries (55.00% were non-law enforcement related and
40.25% were suicides; Katsiyannis et al. 2018; see also
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2017).
In 2014, data from the National Crime Victimization
Survey showed that students ages 12 to 18 experienced
841,100 nonfatal victimizations at school and 545,100
nonfatal victimizations away from school (Musu-Gillette
et al. 2017; see also Centers for Disease Control and Pre-
vention 2016). Between 1992 and 2014, total victimization
rates for students ages 12 to 18 at school declined 82%,
from 181 victimizations per 1000 students in 1992 to 33
victimizations per 1000 students in 2014 (Zhang et al.
2016). Overall, during 201314 school year, 65% of public
schools documented one or more incidents of violence
resulting in about 757,000 crimes. Specically, 58% of
*Antonis Katsiyannis
antonis@clemson.edu
1Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
2Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
3University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL, USA
1234567890();,:
1234567890();,:
schools recorded one or more incidents of a physical attack
or ght without a weapon, 47% of schools recorded one or
more incidents of threat of physical attack without a
weapon, and 13% of public schools recorded one or more
serious violent incidents (Musu-Gillette et al. 2017, p. v).
Further, in 2015, 7.8% students in grades 912 reported
being in a physical ght, 6.0% reported being threatened or
injured with a weapon; 20.2% reported being bullied; and
15.5% reported being bullied electronically during the
previous 12 months. In addition, 5.6% of students reported
missing school one or more days because they felt unsafe
and 4.1% reported carrying a weapon during the previous
30 days (Centers for Disease Control & Prevention 2016).
Though violent deaths at school are rare, 53 school-
associated violent deaths occurred from July 1, 2012 to June
30, 2013 (Musu-Gillette et al. 2017). Figure 1illustrates
school-associated homicides and suicides of youth ages
518 at school since 1992.
Despite calls to the contrary, Lemieux (2014) concluded
that gun access was the best predictor of gun deaths. Indeed,
Lemieux (2014), in examining mass shootings, found no
support indicating that armed guards or citizens reduced
deaths or injuries, though repower capacity was a key factor
associated with the number of deaths; in fact, only 17% of
shooters were killed by police, but after they inicted sub-
stantial casualties. Further, Wintemute (2008) reported that
risk of death by gun increased 40 to 170% and Dahlberg et al.
(2004) reported a 90% increase when living in a home with
guns. Related to home safety, keeping guns locked, unloaded,
and storing ammunition separately reduced youth suicide and
unintentional injury (Grossman et al. 2005).
Efforts to curb gun violence, such as the federal ban on
assault weapons and large capacity ammunition magazines
(expired in 2004), were effective in reducing availability
and use. For example, Fallis et al. (2011) reported that in
Virginia during the ban (19942004) there was a decline in
weapons with large capacity magazines reaching a low of
10% in 2004. Following the expiration of the ban the
number increased by 24%, and by 2010, 22% of weapons
received had large capacity magazines. Similarly, since the
enactment of the Brady law (1994) and 2012, background
checks blocked 2.4 million individuals from purchasing
guns (e.g., domestic abusers, felons, mentally ill); in 2012,
82,000 felons were blocked from buying guns because of
background checks.
Unfortunately, there is a paucity of research related to gun
violence and gun policy, which limits the ability to evaluate
the effectiveness of gun violence prevention efforts. There-
fore, there is a need to establish a robust and comprehensive
research agenda regarding gun law and policy as well as a
need for substantial federal funding (National Research
Council 2005;Weineretal.2007). Such effort, however, will
necessitate the repeal of a 1994 law limiting federal govern-
ment research on the health implications of rearms by
restricting the funding for the National Center for Injury
Prevention and Control at the CDC. The law dictates that that
none of the funds made available for injury prevention and
control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may
be used to advocate or promote rearm control(Kellermann
and Rivara 2013; see also, Alcorn 2017).
School Related Legislative Initiatives to Curb
Gun Violence
The Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990 imposes criminal
penalties for the possession or discharge of a rearm in a
school zone, though specic exceptions apply (e.g., the
possession or discharge by an individual as part of a school
program, law enforcement ofcer acting in an ofcial capa-
city). This law signicantly reduced gun violence in schools
and fewer students reported carrying guns Centers for Dis-
ease Control & Prevention 2008a; Centers for Disease
Control & Prevention 2008b). Although almost all states
prohibit guns in K12 schools, only 40 states and
Washington, D.C. extend this prohibition to people who have
232
204
57
45
60
14
0
50
100
150
200
250
2010's2000's1099's
Homicides Suicides
Fig. 1 Homicides and suicides of youth ages 518 at school (https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d15/tables/dt15_228.10.asp)
Journal of Child and Family Studies
been granted a permit to carry a concealed weapon (Cliffords
Law Center 2018). Further, the Gun-Free Schools Act of
1994 requires states receiving federal funds to have a law
requiring school districts to expel, for at least 1 year, any
student carrying a gun to school unless a chief administering
ofcer may modify such expulsion on a case-by-case basis.
Further, schools are directed to develop policies requiring
referral to the criminal justice or juvenile delinquency system
for any student who brings a rearm or weapon to school.
Following the Columbine mass shooting, the secret ser-
vice in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Education
reviewed 37 incidents of targeted school violenceand
identied 10 key ndings associated with these incidents.
Specically, (a) incidents were not sudden or impulsive, (b)
others knew of the attackers idea, (c) most attackers did not
threaten targets ahead of the attack time, (d) no accurate or
useful prole of the attackers exist, (e) most attackers
exhibited behavior of concern prior to the attack, (f) most
attackers experienced problems coping with losses or per-
sonal failures, (g) most attackers felt bullied or injured by
others, (h) most attackers had access to guns, (i) often other
students were involved, and (j) most shootings ended
without law enforcement intervention though ofcers
responded (Vossekuil et al. 2004, p.31). The U.S. Secret
Service, FBI and U.S. Department of Education have all
recommended that K12 schools implement threat assess-
ment teams. The primary charge of these teams is to identify
(authorities identify threats), assess (involves gathering and
evaluating information from multiple sources), and manage
(often an assessment reveals a manageable underlying issue
such as bullying, anxiety or depression that mental health
professionals are trained to handle; American Psychological
Association 2018).
Historical Analysis of Major School
Shootings in the United States
Sporadic school shootings have occurred at various points
in the history of the United States; some occurred without
death, by accident, and during ghts between students.
Many school shootings are planned with the intention of
killing one person. For example, (a) the 1853 shooting in
Louisville, Kentucky of an administrator by the sibling of
one of his students, as retaliation for administering corporal
punishment to the shooters brother (New York Times
1853); (b) the 1890 shooting in Brazil, Indiana of a 10-year-
old girl by her male peer, as retaliation for informing adults
of his behavior (Daily Alta California 1890); (c) the
1983 shooting in St. Louis, Missouri of two 15-year-old
students, by their peer and his immediate suicide, for
unknown reasons (Ribbing 1999), and (d) the 1998 shoot-
ing in Fayetteville, Tennessee of an 18-year-old male peer,
as retaliation for dating the perpetrators ex-girlfriend
(Sharp 1998).
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) does not have
adenition for mass school shootings. They do however,
dene mass murder as the killing of four or more people in
the same incident (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2005).
Based on this criteria, we dene mass school shooting as a
situation in which one or more people intentionally plan and
execute the killing or injury of four or more people, not
including themselves, using one or more guns, with the
killings or injuries taking place on school grounds during
the school day or during a school-sponsored event on
school grounds. For the purposes of this paper, we focus on
mass shootings perpetrated by adolescents and adults at K-
12 schools, and excluded organized gang shootings and
those that occurred at universities.
Figure 2shows the increase in mass school shootings and
their related deaths from the rst one in 1940 to the most
current in early 2018. The United States had no mass school
shootings that t our criteria until 1940, when a junior high
school principal killed the superintendent, the high school
principal, the district business manager, and two teachers,
before attempting suicide, because he thought he was going
to be red at the end of the school year (Williams 2017).
The United States had no mass school shootings in the
1950s and 1960s, but started a steady increase beginning
with a school shooting in 1979 orchestrated by a 16-year-
old female with mental health issues who began shooting at
an elementary school, killing two adults and injuring eight
students and one adult (Daly 2014). Since 1979, the number
of shootings increased and then decreased, with the 1990s
being a peak period. However, deaths from shootings went
from 12 in the 1980s, to 36 in the 1990s, 14 in the 2000s,
and a high of 51 in the 2010s.
In the 20th century, 22 school shootings that t our cri-
teria occurred in the United States. The mass school
shootings were perpetrated by 15 (60%) adolescents and by
10 (40%) adults. Characteristics of mass school shootings in
the 20th century perpetrated by adolescents can be found in
Table 1and characteristics of those perpetrated by adults
can be found in Table 2. The adolescent shooters ranged in
age from 11- to 18-years-old (M=14.71; SD =1.82), while
the adult shooters ranged in age from 19- to 47-years-old
(M=33.4; SD =10.55). The perpetrators were over-
whelmingly White males (n=19; 76%); 88% (n=22) of
the shooters were White, 88% (n=22) males, 36% (n=9)
were identied as having a mental illness at the time of the
shooting, 76% (n=19) acted alone, and 32% (n=8)
committed suicide. The shootings predominantly occurred
at high schools when adolescents were the shooters (n=7;
54%), and predominantly occurred at elementary schools
when adults were the shooters (n=5; 56%). In total, 55
people were killed; 71% students and 29% adults.
Journal of Child and Family Studies
Additionally, 260 people were injured, but survived; 93%
students and 7% adults. The mass shootings took place
predominately in the Western region of the United States
(n=12; 55%).
In the rst segment of the 21th century, 13 school
shootings that t our criteria, occurred in the United States.
The mass school shootings were perpetrated by 10 (77%)
adolescents and by 3 (23%) adults. Characteristics of mass
school shootings in the 21st century perpetrated by adoles-
cents can be found in Table 3and characteristics of those
perpetrated by adults can be found in Table 4. The ado-
lescent shooters ranged in age from 14- to 18-years-old
(M=15.4; SD =1.35), while the adult shooters ranged in
age from 19- to 32-years-old (M=23.67; SD =7.23). The
perpetrators were overwhelmingly White males (n=11;
85%); 85% (n=11) of the shooters were White, 100%
(n=13) males, 46% (n=6) were identied as having a
mental illness at the time of the shooting, 100% (n=13)
acted alone, and 38% (n=5) committed suicide. The
shootings predominantly occurred at high schools when
adolescents were the shooters (n=9; 90%). In total, 66
people were killed; 82% students and 18% adults. Addi-
tionally, 81 people were injured, but survived; 93% students
and 7% adults. The mass shootings have taken place pre-
dominately in the Western (n=4; 31%) and Midwestern
(n=4; 31%) regions of the United States.
Discussion
Clearly, mass school shootings present an epidemic that
must be addressed. Firearm violence in the United States is
viewed as a public health crisis by the Centers for Disease
Control & Prevention (2016). When evaluating the number
of shooting in the 20th and 21st centuries, it is alarming that
in the span of less than 18 years, the 21st century has already
seen more deaths than the 20th century, which represents
shootings spanning from 1940 to 2000. Of shootings in the
20th century, a surge of shootings in the 1990s represents
the overwhelming majority of school shooting deaths and
injuries. Another alarming trend is that the overwhelming
majority of 21st century shooters were adolescents, sug-
gesting that it is now easier for adolescents to access guns
and adolescents are more frequently suffering from mental
illness or limited conict resolution skills. Finally, to date,
the 21st century shootings have resulted in 66 deaths as
opposed to 55 for the entirety of the 20th century. Likewise,
in the 20th century there were more injuries related to school
shootings than in the 21st (260 and 81 respectfully). This
alarming trend may be attributed to easy access to high-
power rearms used in many of the mass shootings of the
21st century. While these gures do not clearly link recent
shootings to more adolescent problems or high-powered
weapons as a causality, the trends must be noted. Several
school shooters noted the ease with which they secured
guns from parents and grandparents (Dickey 2013;
Anchorage Daily News 2017), while some noted that they
would not have carried out the attacks had they not had easy
access to the weapons (Anchorage Daily News 2017). Some
of the students who served their sentences for the shootings,
continued to have serious legal challenges related to gun
violence after they were released (Bult 2016).
In addition to the many school-related legislative issues
previously discussed, in 2018, in response to the school
1940's 1950's 1960's 1970's 1980's 1990's 2000's 2010's
10017135 8
0 0 0 1 2104 6
10005312
All Combined Deaths 5 0 0 2 12 36 14 51
Students Killed 0 0 0 0 10 29 12 42
Adults Killed 50022729
1001
7
13
5
8
00012
10
4
6
1000
5
3
12
5
00
2
12
36
14
51
0000
10
29
12
42
5
00
22
7
2
9
0
10
20
30
40
50
Raw Numbers
Fig. 2 Number of mass school shootings and deaths from 1940-early 2018
Journal of Child and Family Studies
Table 1 20th Century Intentional Mass School Shootings Perpetrated by Adolescents in United States K-12 Schools
Date Location School Level Perpetrator(s) Victim(s) Firearm(s) Description of the Perpetrator(s)
6 December 1999 Fort Gibson, OK Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 student
(survived)
5 students (injured) One 9 mm handgun A 13-year-old Native American male. He was an honor
student who was seeing a psychiatrist for mental health
issues before the shooting (Walton 2005).
20 May 1999 Conyers, GA High School 1 student
(survived)
6 students (injured) One .22 caliber rie A 15-year-old White male. He threatened to kill
himself, but did not (Queen 2016).
20 April 1999 Littleton, CO High School 2 students
(committed
suicide)
12 students and 1 adult
(killed) 21 students
(injured)
Two shotguns, one assault rie, and one semi-
automatic pistol
A 17-year-old White male and an 18-year-old White
male, described as mentally ill, and having been bullied
(Kohn 2001).
21 May 1998 Springeld, OR High School 1 student
(survived)
2 students (killed)
25 students (injured)
One semiautomatic rie A 15-year-old White male who took Prozac, killed his
parents and then went to school during the lunch hour
(Bennett 2012).
24 April 1998 Edinboro, PA Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 student
(survived)
1 adult (killed) 2 students
and 1 adult (injured)
One .25 caliber handgun A 14-year-old White male, described by peers as a
loner who never smiled and dressed sloppily.
(Associated Press 1998).
24 March 1998 Jonesboro, AR Jr. High/ Middle
School
2 students
(survived)
4 students and 1 adult
(killed) 10 students
(injured)
Four revolvers, three ries, and two pistols An 11-year-old White male and 13-year-old White
male, described as bullies by their peers (Bult 2016).
1 December 1997 West Paducah, KY High School 1 student
(survived)
3 students (killed)
5 students (injured)
Two Marlin .22 ries, one Ruger 10/22 .22 rie,
one Remington .22 rie, two 12 gauge pump-
action shotguns, one Marlin 336 .3030 rie, and
one .38 special revolver Ruger MK II .22-caliber
pistol
A 14-year-old White male on schizophrenia medication
(Associated Press 2010).
1 October 1997 Pearl, MI High School 1 student
(survived)
2 students (killed)
7 students (injured)
One .30/30 rie A 16-year-old White male, who killed his mother
(Mitchell 2016).
19 February 1997 Bethel, AK High School 1 student
(survived)
1 student and 1 adult
(killed) 2 students (injured)
One shotgun A 16-year-old White and Alaska Native male who was
abused and lived in foster care (Anchorage Daily News
2017).
2 February 1996 Moses Lake, WA Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 student
(survived)
2 students and 1 adult
(killed) 1 student (injured)
One .30/30 caliber hunting rie, one .357 caliber
revolver, and one .25 caliber semiautomatic pistol
A 14-year-old White male who had mental health issues
at the time of the shooting (Geranios 2017b).
4 December 1986 Lewistown, MT High School 1 student
(survived)
1 adult (killed) 2 students
and 1 adult (injured)
One .44 Magnum A 14-year-old White male went to school with the
intention of killing his teacher for giving him a failing
grade (Associated Press 1986).
21 January 1985 Goddard, KS Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 student
(survived)
1 adult (killed) 1 student
and 2 adults (injured)
One M1A .308 caliber semiautomatic rie and
one .357 caliber Magnum pistol
A 14-year-old White male, described as a loner who
was bullied (Adame 2015).
29 January 1979 San Diego, CA Elementary School 1 student
(survived)
2 adults (killed) 8 students
and 1 adult (injured)
One 10/22 semi-automatic .22 caliber rie with a
telescope
A 16-year-old White female, described as having
mental health issues at the time of the shooting (Daly
2014).
Journal of Child and Family Studies
Table 2 20th Century Intentional Mass School Shootings Perpetrated by Adults in United States K-12 Schools
Date Location School Level Perpetrator(s) Victim(s) Firearm(s) Description of the Perpetrator(s)
7 November 1994 Wickliffe, OH Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 adult (survived) 1 adult (killed) 1 student and 4
adults (injured)
One shotgun A 37-year-old White male, described as a former
student with mental health issues (ODonnell 2014).
17 September 1993 Sheridan, WY Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 adult (committed
suicide)
4 students (injured) One 9 mm handgun A 29-year-old White male, described as a former
student with a recent less-than-honorable discharge
from the Navy (Associated Press 1993).
1 May 1992 Olivehurst, CA High School 1 adult (survived) 3 students and 1 adult (killed)
9 students and 1 adult (injured)
One 12 gauge pump action shotgun and
one sawed-off .22 caliber rie
A 20-year-old White male, described as a former
student with a grudge against a teacher who failed
him (Luery 2017).
17 January 1989 Stockton, CA Elementary School 1 adult (committed
suicide)
5 students (killed) 31 students
and 1 adult (injured)
One AK-47 assault rie A 24-year-old White male, described as a drifter
(Emmons and Richman 2016).
26 September 1988 Greenwood, SC Elementary School 1 adult (survived) 2 students (killed) 7 students
and 2 adults (injured)
One revolver A 19-year-old White male, described as having a
history of mental health issues (Knapp 2012).
20 May 1988 Winnetka, IL Elementary School 1 adult (committed
suicide)
2 students (killed) 6 students
and 2 adults (injured)
One .22 semi-automatic pistol, one .357
Magnum revolver, and one .32 Smith &
Wesson
A 30-year-old White female, described as having
mental health issues (McCoppin and Berger 2013).
16 May 1986 Cokeville, WY Elementary School 2 adults (committed
suicide)
78 students and 1 adult (injured) Five ries A 43-year-old White male and a 47-year-old White
female, husband and wife, took 136 children and 18
adults hostage because the husband was red from
his position as the town marshal (Mitchell 1996).
24 February 1984 Los Angeles, CA Elementary School 1 adult (committed
suicide)
1 student (killed) 11 students
and 1 adult (injured)
One AR-15 rie, one 12 gauge double-
barreled shotgun, and one 12 gauge pump-
action shotgun
A 47-year-old Black male, described as a surviving
child of parents and siblings from the Jonestown
massacre (Lindsey 1984).
6 May 1940 Pasadena, CA Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 adult (survived) 5 adults (killed) 1 adult
(injured)
One .22-caliber Colt Woodsman
semiautomatic pistol
A 38-year-old White male, described as the junior
high schools principal, thought he was going to be
red at the end of the school year (Williams 2017).
Journal of Child and Family Studies
Table 3 21st Century Intentional Mass School Shootings Perpetrated by Adolescents in United States K-12 Schools
Date Location School Level Perpetrator(s) Victim(s) Firearm(s) Description of the Perpetrator(s)
23 January 2018 Benton, KY High School 1 student (survived) 2 students (killed) 14 students
(injured)
One 9 mm semi-automatic
pistol
A 16-year-old White male (Sayers and Wolfson 2018).
13 September 2017 Rockford, WA High School 1 student (survived) 1 student (killed) 3 students
(injured)
One assault weapon and one
pistol
A 15-year-old White male, described as having mental health
issues and having been bullied by peers (Geranios 2017a).
28 September 2016 Townville, SC Elementary School 1 student (survived) 1 student (killed) 2 students and
1 adult (injured)
One .40 caliber pistol A 14-year-old White male who killed his father. He was
homeschooled after being expelled for bringing a hatchet to
his middle school (Mayo 2018).
29 February 2016 Middletown, OH High School 1 student (survived) 4 students (injured) One .38 caliber handgun A 14-year-old White male, self-described as having abused
Adderall and not being wanted by others, including his
parents (BieryGolick 2018).
24 october 2014 Marysville, WA High School 1 student (committed
suicide)
1 student (killed) 4 students
(injured)
One .40 caliber pistol A 15-year-old Native American male, described by his peers
as an outgoing and popular football player (Johnson and
Dewan 2014).
27 February 2012 Chardon, OH High School 1 student (survived) 3 students (killed) 3 students
(injured)
One .22 caliber semi-
automatic handgun
A 17-year-old White male (Caniglia 2014).
10 October 2007 Cleveland, OH High School 1 student (committed
suicide)
3 students and 2 adults (injured) One .22 caliber revolver and
one .38 caliber revolver
A 14-year-old White male at an alternative high school,
described as having mental health issues and having been
bullied and suspended from school (Maag 2007).
21 March 2005 Red Lake, MN High School 1 student (committed
suicide)
5 students and 2 adults (killed)
5 students (injured)
One .22 caliber pistol A 16-year-old Native American male, who killed two family
members, was described as having been bullied and was on
Prozac and anti-depressants at the time of the shootings
(Roberts 2005).
22 March 2001 El Cajon, CA High School 1 student (survived) 4 students (injured) One pump-action 12-gauge
shotgun and one .22 caliber
pistol
An 18-year-old White male, described as a loner with a
history of mental illness (Texeira et al. 2001).
5 March 2001 Santee, CA High School 1 student (survived) 2 students (killed) 11 students
and 2 adults (injured)
One .22 caliber double-
action revolver
A 15-year-old White male, described as having been bullied
and sexually abused by an adult (Dickey 2013).
Journal of Child and Family Studies
shooting at Stoneman Douglas High School, an Inter-
disciplinary Group on Preventing School and Community
Violence wrote a call to action with several action items
related to both increased gun control and increased pre-
ventative and responsive mental health services within K-12
schools (Astor et al. 2018). The interdisciplinary group used
a three-tiered model, common in both public health and
schoolwide systems of positive behavioral interventions and
supports (PBIS), to seek to protect individuals from gun
violence using universal approaches for all (Tier 1), targeted
approaches to reduce risk factors and promote protective
factors (Tier 2), and individualized interventions for indi-
viduals for whom violence appears imminent (Tier 3).
Related to gun control, the group called for a ban on
assault-style weapons, high-capacity ammunition clips,
and products that modify semi-automatic rearms to enable
them to function like automatic rearms(Astor et al. 2018;
p. 1). This universal, preventative support is in line with the
Obama administrations recommendation to Congress fol-
lowing the Newton, CO shooting (The White House
2013a). As a secondary prevention measure, the group
called for universal background checks to screen for indi-
viduals with a history of violence to themselves or others or
those suspected of terrorist activity. At Tier 3, the group
called for laws allowing for short-term protection orders
allowing for the recovery of rearms by law enforcement
when violence is imminent (Astor et al. 2018).
Related to school-based safety measures, the inter-
disciplinary group called for a standard, universal practice
of assessing school climate and maintaining safe schools,
including both physically and emotionally. As a targeted,
Tier 2, support they identied a need for increased stafng
of service providers who can deliver coordinated mental
health services for those with violent risk factors, including
counselors, psychologists, and social workers. Astor et al.
(2018) also noted a need to acknowledge that not all vio-
lence stems from mental illness, a notion supported by the
summary of 20th and 21st century mass school shooting
presented herein. Increased funding for school based mental
health services is essential and should involve partnerships
among schools, families, and community agencies (see
Durlak et al. 2011; Kern et al. 2016; Kern et al. 2017).
Likewise, the group called for the adoption of discipline
practices that foster positive social, behavioral, emotional,
and academic successalong with the reduction of exclu-
sionary practices in school discipline (Astor et al. 2018,p.
1). At Tier 3, they recommend programs to allow mental
health, school, and law enforcement ofcials to conduct
threat assessments, including interventions to support indi-
viduals who pose a threat, once identied. This practice was
also supported by the U.S. Secret Service (2004) in their
report on school violence prevention. In the same vein, the
interdisciplinary group called for increased sharing of
Table 4 21st Century Intentional Mass School Shootings Perpetrated by Adults in United States K-12 Schools
Date Location School Level Perpetrator(s) Victim(s) Firearm(s) Description of the Perpetrator(s)
14 February 2018 Parkland, FL High School 1 adult (survived) 14 students and 3 adults (killed)
17 students (injured)
One AR-15 style semi-automatic rie A 19-year-old White male, described as a
former student with mental health issues
(Berman 2018).
14 December 2012 Newtown, CT Elementary School 1 adult (committed
suicide)
20 students and 6 adults (killed)
2 adults (injured)
One .22 caliber bolt action rie and
one Bushmaster XM15-E2S rie
A 20-year-old White male who killed his
mother, was described as having mental health
issues (Vogel et al. 2012).
2 October 2006 Nickel Mines, PA Elementary/ Middle
School
1 adult (committed
suicide)
5 students (killed) 5 students
(injured)
One 9 mm handgun, one 12 gauge
pump-action shotgun, and one .3006
bolt-action rie
A 32-year-old White male (Folmer et al. 2013).
Journal of Child and Family Studies
information among mental health, school, and law enfor-
cement ofcials, which necessitates a removal of legal
barriers (Astor et al. 2018). Again, these recommendations
are consistent with those made by the Obama Administra-
tion in 2013 (White House 2013b).
Policy Implications
Many of the above changes require signicant changes in
public policy and law. Many researchers (e.g., Katsiyannis
et al. 2018; Kellerman and Rivara 2013) and public entities
alike have called for the removal of current restrictions on
research regarding the implications of rearm violence.
Funding is needed to better understand the impact of mass
school shootings on students, school personnel, and society
as a whole. This information will further our knowledge of
how to prevent and respond to such incidents. As educators,
like any citizen, we must speak out about the negative
impacts we are seeing in schools as a result of the surge in
mass school shootings by contacting our lawmakers. Many
organizations, such as the American Psychological Asso-
ciation, the Council for Exceptional Children, the Council
for Children with Behavioral Disorders, and the Prevention
Institute, lobby for change on the behalf of their member-
ship. Educators should consider supporting and becoming a
member of such organizations to facilitate coordinated
efforts among professionals. Similarly, we encourage edu-
cators to support the grass roots efforts of community
members and students against gun violence in schools and
in support of increased school-based prevention and inter-
vention practices (e.g., Associated Press 2018).
Further, it is necessary to strengthen and reinforce Pre-
sident Obamas executive orders to address school safety in
the aftermath of the Newtown, CT shooting in 2013. These
executive orders resulted in (a) the Departments of Justice
and Homeland Security providing continuing training and
security assessments for law enforcement, rst responders,
and school ofcials on active shooter situations, (b) the
Departments of Education, Justice, Homeland Security, and
Health and Human Services developing model emergency
management planning guides to help schools prepare for
shootings, and (c) the Department of Justice (DOJ) making
Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) Hiring
Grants available to fund school resource ofcers (SRO). In
September 2013, the DOJ awarded approximately $125
million, including around $45 million to fund 356 new
school resource ofcer positions (The White House 2013a).
SROs, are uniformed, armed police ofcers trained to work
in schools; they are involved in patrolling the school,
handling student rule/law violators, minimizing disruptions,
and engaging in preventative programs (Finn and McDevitt
2005). The National Association of School Resource
Ofcers (NASRO) estimates that they are between 14,000
and 20,000 SROs with about a third of public schools
employing at least one SRO (National Association of
School Resource Ofcers n.d.)
Finally, the Obama administrationscallforactionto
Congress is still timely after the Newtown shooting. Actions
to be taken by Congress include Strengthen the background
check system for gun sales, pass a new, stronger ban on
assault weapons, limit ammunition magazines to 10 rounds,
nish the job of getting armor-piercing bullets off the streets,
give law enforcement additional tools to prevent and prose-
cute gun crime, end the freeze on gun violence research, make
our schools safer with new resource ofcers and counselors,
better emergency response plans, and more nurturing school
climates, and ensure quality coverage of mental health treat-
ment, particularly for young people(The White House
2013b). These actions have the potential as it has been already
demonstrated (background checks, ban on assault weapons)
to address the issue of school shootings and gun violence in
general in a systemic, comprehensive, and effective manner.
School-based Prevention and Intervention
Tiered models of supports, such as PBIS and comprehen-
sive, integrated three-tiered models of prevention (Ci3T;
Lane et al. 2010) are essential to addressing many issues in
schools, including those called for by Astor et al. (2018).
Universal supports with PBIS such as the establishment of
school-wide expectations, procedures for teaching, model-
ing, and reinforcing those expectations, provision of social
and emotional awareness and prevention practices by all
students, and consistent discipline practices across all
individuals (Horner and Sugai 2015). Such practices have
been shown to improve school climate, reduce ofce dis-
cipline referrals, and improve social emotional competence
(e.g., Bradshaw et al. 2010; Bradshaw et al. 2012). For
more information on these practices visit (pbis.org and ci3t.
org). Within PBIS and Ci3T frameworks, an emphasis on
using school-wide data to identify students with risk factors,
including academic, behavior, and/or social, is essential for
identifying students needing Tier 2 and Tier 3 supports.
Many schools have responded to this by identifying sys-
tematic emotional and behavioral screeners to identify stu-
dents with externalizing (e.g., aggression, disruption,
property disruption), internalizing (e.g., painfully shy,
socially withdrawn, depressed), and co-morbid (i.e., pos-
sessing both types of behaviors) behavior patterns.
Screening involves the adoption of a school-wide measure
(s), with strong psychometric properties that is also feasible
and socially acceptable, to be administered at three time
points each year (fall, winter, spring; Lane et al. 2012).
These screening measures can be used to assess the overall
Journal of Child and Family Studies
risk of schools as a whole or identify students needing more
support through Tier 2 and Tier 3 supports.
Tier 2 and 3 supports include any intervention that can be
used to address studentsacademic, behavioral, and/or
social needs, with Tier 2 supports that involve targeted
interventions offered to multiple students whereas Tier
3 supports involve individualized supports for students with
the highest level of need/risk. Within this framework,
schools can provide the most appropriate level of support,
addressing issues pertinent to the prevention of mass school
shootings, including the instruction and practice of social,
conict resolution, coping, and self-regulation skills, which
have all been recommended as practices to reduce violence
(Katsiyannis et al. 2018). Supports at Tier 2 and 3 can also
involve small-group or individualized counseling, coordi-
nated home-school supports through a school social worker,
cognitive behavioral therapy, and other mental health ser-
vices. However, even with these models in place, many
schools struggle to meet the demands as they dont have
inadequate student support services staff (e.g., counselors,
social workers, school psychologists) to provide the level of
support needed for many students, as increased funding and
support is needed to support these practices. The good
news, however, is that these systems do exists and with
adequate funding can create a school culture and climate
where violence is admonished and student communities are
celebrated.
Conclusion
The horric events associated with school shootings, mass
shootings in particular, have had a negative impact on our
society for a long time. Such events should not be part of
school environments where the safety and welfare of stu-
dents, teachers, and staff should be a given. Deliberate and
sensible policy and legislative actions, such as expanded
background checks and a ban on assault weapons, along
with expanded support to address mental health issues
among adolescent students and adults and other related
preventative measures will likely reduce the occurrence of
such events in the future. Further, school personnel are
uniquely situated in implementing tiered models of sup-
ports, such as PBIS with a particular emphasis on school-
based mental health services to address school violence.
Such preventative efforts not only require policy/legislative
action but increased and targeted funding across federal,
state, local and private sectors.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conict of
interest.
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Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Journal of Child and Family Studies
... Involving various stakeholders in threat assessment teams can help reduce overall fears of school violence and exaggerated perceptions of school shootings, which could lead to better responses, measures, and policies to student threats (Borum et al., 2010). Unfortunately, sometimes, safety and security measures are decided on and implemented solely by the school leaders themselves, while stakeholders working the frontline (e.g., teachers, aides, bus drivers, cafeteria services, custodial, and even students) are "hands off" (Katsiyannis et al., 2018). ...
... There is no one single profile or motive for school violent acts, but perpetrators typically appear to struggle with life-skills and frequently leave behind clues (Bushman et al., 2016;Katsiyannis et al., 2018;Wike & Fraser, 2009). It is not surprising, then, that the schools that had threat assessment teams in this study were more likely to have supportive resources in place including school resource officers, mental health assessments, parent and community involvement, along with individual mentoring, tutoring, and/or coaching of students by adults. ...
Article
The purpose of this quantitative empirical study is to determine whether a non-hardened security measure such as threat assessment teams has a relationship to school crime and violence. This study incorporated descriptive and inferential statistics from a nationally representative cross-sectional survey of 2,762 participating schools administered by the National Center for Education Statistics. Statistically significant relationships existed between school type and two of the 10 criminal offense variables: number of robberies with a weapon and number of incidents of theft/larceny. For nine of 10 variables, schools that had threat assessment teams, and met more frequently, had higher school crime and violence means compared to schools that did not have threat assessment teams. Because schools that did have a threat assessment team had higher school crime and violence incidents than those that did not, results suggest schools should be more proactive, rather than reactive, in implementing threat assessment teams.
... Nevertheless, although the environmental context may have diminished the mechanistic impact of cognitive restructuring, it is important to acknowledge that the smartphone based MBCT-based intervention using the Sanvello application exhibited similar efficacy in such a crisis-related context as it did in non-crisis related contexts. However, given the pervasive rise of violent incidents and mass shootings within US schools over the past several decades which has contributed to reducing student perceptions of well-being and further exacerbating stress and anxiety (Fox & Fridel, 2018;Katsiyannis et al., 2018); further research in this area may benefit from including measures of PTSD, as secondary or 'shared' trauma may be more prevalent than commonly assumed potentially altering those target mechanisms for positively impacting stress and anxiety. Such measures may also contribute to a greater understanding of the intervention durations necessary to elicit changes given meta-analytic findings indicating that longer MBCT intervention exhibit greater efficacy in PTSD populations (Hopwood & Schutte, 2017). ...
Article
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The pervasiveness of anxiety and stress among college students necessitates the investigation of potential alternative and accessible interventions which can be implemented into existing curricular and student-support programming to improve students' mental health. Mindfulness based cognitive therapy (MBCT) smartphone applications have shown promising outcomes in alleviating anxiety and stress. However, it is essential to gain insight into the feasibility and efficacy of such an interventional approach in a collegiate population, as well as explore potential underlying mechanisms, which could be better targeted to enhance the efficacy of future interventions for promoting mental health and well-being. The aims for this study were (1) to assess the efficacy of a 4-week MBCT intervention using the Sanvello smartphone application in reducing trait-level anxiety and chronic stress in college-aged young adults (n = 150) compared to a positive control group (n = 139), and (2) to examine potential mediators of this effect. Participants completed assessments of trait anxiety, chronic stress, cognitive reappraisal, cognitive refocusing, distractive refocusing, and negative automatic thoughts at pretest and following 4 weeks of the interventions. Analysis of primary outcomes revealed greater reductions in trait anxiety and chronic stress for the MBCT group, relative to the positive control group with small to moderate effect sizes. The anxiolytic and stress-reducing effects of the MBCT intervention were observed to be mediated by changes in negative automatic thoughts but not by changes in cognitive reappraisal, constructive refocusing, or distractive refocusing. Given the efficacy of the Sanvello smartphone application and the overwhelmingly strong assessments of the appropriateness and feasibility of it use; student support initiatives may be well served by adopting such a platform within the context of first-line treatment and prevention of high anxiety and chronic stress within first year college students. Registered at ClinicalTrials.gov [number NCT06019299].
... 177). Katsiyannis et al. (2018) found that rampage school shootings were generally rare, that adolescent perpetrators were on average 14.71 years of age, and that adults were on average 33.4 years of age. Further, most occurred in high schools for adolescent shooters, and adults preferred elementary schools, which are similar to Joseph and Purser's findings (see Table 2). ...
Chapter
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High-profile school shootings (i.e., rampage school shootings) have fueled empirical and general inquiry into school shooting characteristics and have been a point of emphasis for stakeholders (e.g., parents, teachers, and students) nationwide. The current chapter's goals are to provide a systematic overview of the available evidence examining school shooting incidents. Specifically, this review is intended to gather, summarize, and review relevant peer-reviewed studies on the topic, integrate and identify key findings and themes, identify gaps and limitations in the literature, and discuss implications for directions for future research. Further, it is expected this systematic review can inform practitioners, academics, researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders on the current state of school shooting research and promote innovation in methodological approaches for investigating school shooting incidents.
Article
Mass public shootings in the U.S. have become a major public health hazard, impacting the safety and well-being of individuals and communities. Motivated by this pressing issue, we propose a mid-quantile mixed graphical model for investigating the intricacies of inter- and infra-domain relationships of this complex phenomenon, where conditional relations between discrete and continuous variables are modelled without stringent distributional assumptions using Parzen’s definition of mid-quantile. To retrieve the graph structure and recover only the most relevant connections, we consider the neighbourhood selection approach in which conditional mid-quantiles of each variable in the network are modelled as a sparse function of all others. We propose a two-step procedure to estimate the graph where, in the first step, conditional mid-probabilities are obtained semi-parametrically and, in the second step, the model parameters are estimated by solving an implicit equation with a LASSO penalty.
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الهدف من الكتاب الهدف الأساسي من الكتاب هو استكشاف واقع إدارة المناطق التعليمية في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية وفهمه، من خلال تحليل هيكلها الإداري، والعوامل المؤثرة فيها، ودور الجهات المشرفة، مع تسليط الضوء على التحديات المعاصرة التي تواجه هذه المناطق؛ بهدف الاستفادة من تلك الممارسات وتطبيق الأنسب منها في تطوير قطاع التعليم في الدول العربية. ويتفرع من هذا الهدف الأهداف الفرعية الآتية، حيث يهدف الكتاب إلى:  التعرف على الجهات المشرفة على المدارس العامة في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية.  اكتشاف التطور التاريخي للتعليم العام في الولايات المتحدة وتأثيره في إدارة المناطق التعليمية.  تسليط الضوء على دور مجالس أمناء المناطق التعليمية، ومسؤولياتهم، ومواصفاتهم، والتحديات التي تواجههم، ودورهم الكبير في إدارة المناطق التعليمية.  معرفة دور مدير المنطقة التعليمية ومسؤولياته.  فهم أدوار مكاتب التعليم التي تدير المدارس في المنطقة التعليمية.  إدراك العلاقة بين مديري المدارس وإدارة المقاطعات التعليمية.  فهم العوامل القانونية والثقافية والاقتصادية، وأثرها في تشكيل سياسات إدارة المناطق التعليمية الأمريكية.  اكتشاف تأثير القوانين التعليمية في قيادة المنطقة التعليمية.  تحليل دور القضاء وتأثير قرارات المحكمة العليا في إدارة المناطق التعليمية.  التعرف على تأثير القوانين والقضايا القانونية في إدارة الموارد البشرية في المنطقة التعليمية.  عرض المعلومات المتعلقة بتمويل المدارس العامة في الولايات المتحدة والقضايا المرتبطة بالتمويل.  معرفة دور نقابات المعلمين وتأثيرها في إدارة المناطق التعليمية.  استكشاف التحديات المعاصرة التي تواجه إدارة المقاطعات التعليمية.
Article
Gli autori cercano di fornire una comprensione sistemica ed ecologica del fenomeno delle sparatorie nelle scuole negli Stati Uniti. Viene presentata una panoramica degli impatti sistemici conseguenti a questi eventi insieme a una breve applicazione delle teorie generali dei sistemi ed ecologiche, culminando in un appello all'azione per tutti i terapisti sistemici affinché collaborino nel rispondere a queste tragedie.
Article
Background The need for evidence to inform interventions to prevent mass shootings (MS) in the USA has never been greater. Methods Data were abstracted from the Gun Violence Archive, an independent online database of US gun violence incidents. Descriptive analyses consisted of individual-level epidemiology of victims, suspected shooters and weapons involved, trends and county-level choropleths of population-level incident and fatality rates. Counties with and without state-level assault weapons bans (AWB) were compared, and we conducted a multivariable negative binomial model controlling for county-level social fragmentation, median age and number of gun-related homicides for the association of state-level AWB with aggregate county MS fatalities. Results 73.3% (95% CI 72.1 to 74.5) of victims and 97.2% (95% CI 96.3 to 98.3) of shooters were males. When compared with incidents involving weapons labelled ‘handguns’, those involving a weapon labelled AR-15 or AK-47 were six times more likely to be associated with case-fatality rates greater than the median (OR=6.1, 95% CI 2.3 to 15.8, p<0.00001). MS incidents were significantly more likely to occur on weekends and during summer months. US counties in states without AWB had consistently higher MS rates throughout the study period (p<0.0001), and the slope for increase over time was significantly lower in counties with AWB (beta=−0.11, p=0.01). In a multivariable negative binomial model, counties in states with AWB were associated with a 41% lower incidence of MS fatalities (OR=0.58, 95% CI 0.37 to 0.97, p=0.02). Conclusions Counties located in states with AWB were associated with fewer MS fatalities between 2014 and 2022.
Chapter
Understanding the international perspective discerning mass shootings is complicated and difficult to understand due to the lack of complete data. The problem that the world is facing with mass shootings in the last couple of decades is a fairly new phenomenon that has been a common topic in the news and media. Mass shootings that have cost the lives of dozens of people per event has been due to a variety of reasons including drug markets, terrorism, mentally unstable individuals, availability of firearms, ethnic and religious tensions, and much more. The impact of mass shootings is vast including mental health trauma for survivors and their families, change in public policy, cost of billions of dollars, the cost of human life, and much more. These shootings vary widely throughout countries and regions in each country. The chapter focuses on specific nations throughout the world, common firearms involved in the shootings, the environments in which these shootings take place, the characteristics of the shooter and much more.
Thesis
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According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (2020), 28 mass shootings occurred in the United States in 2019, which resulted in 247 casualties—97 of which were fatalities. Active shooter incidents in an educational environment account for almost 11% of the total active shooting incidents in 2019 (FBI, 2020). This study examined different methods of training to find the effectiveness of different trainings for college students on variables such as knowledge of training, safety self-efficacy, and perceived probability. This study implemented three types of training programs: an online brochure, a professionally prepared training video, a live distant learning session with a trained professional, and a no-intervention control group, who watched an educational video on the Bobo Doll Experiment. This study found that different levels of interaction and methods of implementation affect the effectiveness of active shooter training programs. This research is important because there is an absence of knowledge surrounding delivery methods of training programs for these low-frequency, high-risk events. This will contribute to making better training programs for active shooter events.
Chapter
On May 24, 2022, nineteen students and two teachers in Robb Elementary School in Uvalde, Texas lost their lives and several students and staff were injured due to a mass school shooting perpetrated by an eighteen-year-old assailant. Applying the social-ecological framework, this chapter explores the antecedents of the Robb Elementary School shootings within the individual, relational/interpersonal, community, and societal contexts. The antecedents of the shootings at Robb Elementary School identified in this chapter are male sex and violent and narcissistic behaviors at the individual level, parent-child conflict, and lower social status in peer groups within the relational context, poor school performance within the community context, and living in poverty and permissive gun laws within the societal context. Implications for practice, policy, and future research are also discussed.
Article
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Firearm violence in United States has been a persistent concern for decades particularly in light of mass shootings. Firearm violence is increasingly viewed as a public health crisis, and results in a heavy financial burden to society. In light of the continuous challenges associated with firearm violence, limited research in the area, it is necessary to examine current trends regarding firearm deaths and injuries. Extant data from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Web-based Inquiry Statistics Query and Reporting System fatal and nonfatal injury reports were used for this study. Available data were examined in light of age groups across the life span, region, gender, and minority status for both fatalities and injuries related to firearms. Strategies for reducing firearm fatalities, particularly among children and youth, are also discussed.
Research
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This report covers topics such as victimization, teacher injury, bullying and cyber-bullying, school conditions, fights, weapons, availability and student use of drugs and alcohol, student perceptions of personal safety at school, and criminal incidents at postsecondary institutions. Indicators of crime and safety are compared across different population subgroups and over time. Data on crimes that occur away from school are offered as a point of comparison where available.
Article
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Mental illness is a major public health concern with significant social cost. Symptoms of mental health problems generally emerge during the school-age years. Although effective interventions are available to decelerate or eliminate incipient concerns, they are rarely accessible to youth. Evidence suggests that school-based mental health services (SBMHS) have the highest likelihood of reaching youth in need. In this paper, the authors and the Council for Children with Behavior Disorders present a foundation for future policy recommendations relative to the need for SBMHS and recommendations for implementation.
Article
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In this article, we discuss the importance of systematic screenings to monitor K—12 students’ behavioral and academic performance, with an emphasis on the need to identify and support students with emotional and behavioral disorders before they develop significant learning and behavior problems requiring special education services under the category of emotional disturbances. We emphasize the importance of conducting systematic screenings across the K—12 grade span within the context of comprehensive, integrated, three-tiered models of prevention. We provide brief descriptions of some of the current tools available to assess academic and behavioral performance patterns over time and present a balanced discussion of the benefits and challenges associated with the screening. Specifically, we describe how these measures can be used to (a) assess overall levels of performance within and across the school years and (b) identify students who may require secondary and tertiary levels of prevention beyond primary prevention efforts. We conclude with responsibilities that come with conducting screenings, with specific considerations for practitioners, researchers, and policy makers.
Article
The response to firearm injuries and gun violence in the United States is constrained by a lack of scientific knowledge. According to a 2013 report from the Institute of Medicine, “the scarcity of research on firearm-related violence limits policymakers’ ability to propose evidence-based policies that reduce injuries and deaths and maximize safety.”¹ In the 1980s, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention initiated research on firearm injuries, but, in 1996, Congress forbid the agency from spending funds to “advocate or promote gun control.”² Its spending on firearm injury research fell 96% by 2012,³ and the agency retreated from the subject.
Article
School-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is an example of applied behavior analysis implemented at a scale of social importance. In this paper, PBIS is defined and the contributions of behavior analysis in shaping both the content and implementation of PBIS are reviewed. Specific lessons learned from implementation of PBIS over the past 20 years are summarized.
Article
Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) is a universal, schoolwide prevention strategy that is currently implemented in over 9,000 schools across the nation to reduce disruptive behavior problems through the application of behavioral, social learning, and organizational behavioral principles. SWPBIS aims to alter school environments by creating improved systems and procedures that promote positive change in student behavior by targeting staff behaviors. This study uses data from a 5-year longitudinal randomized controlled effectiveness trial of SWPBIS conducted in 37 elementary schools to examine the impact of training in SWPBIS on implementation fidelity as well as student suspensions, office discipline referrals, and academic achievement. School-level longitudinal analyses indicated that the schools trained in SWPBIS implemented the model with high fidelity and experienced significant reductions in student suspensions and office discipline referrals. (Contains 1 table and 5 figures.)
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There has been a growing interest in placing sworn police officers in schools as SROs to improve school safety. The purpose of the National Assessment was to identify what program "models" have been implemented, how programs have been implemented, and what the programs' possible effects may be. To obtain this information, Abt Associates conducted a nationwide survey of established and relatively new SRO programs and collected implementation data from 19 SRO programs. This report describes the activities the project team conducted for the National Assessment and summarizes the study findings. The report has five sections, which follow the chronology of the project: (1) Mail Survey--a summary of the methodology and findings of the first significant project task; (2) Selection of Study Sites--a review of the site selection criteria and the sites selected; (3) The Site Visits--a description of the preparation for, goals, and conduct of the site visits; (4) Modifications to the Research Methodology--a description of the change from an outcome study to a process evaluation for the large new sites and the reasons for the change; and (5) Data Analysis and Findings--a summary of the methodology and findings of the five other reports prepared under the project. The report concludes with appendices providing protocols and other materials used in the project. Appended are: (1) Principal Materials Examined for the Study; (2) Mail Survey of Law Enforcement Agencies; (3) Mail Survey of School Principals; (4) Site Visit Preparation Protocol; (5) Program Participation Interview Guide; and (6) Survey of Students: Large New Programs. [Appendixes are not included in ERIC version of this report.]