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Journal of Child and Family Studies
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1096-2
ORIGINAL PAPER
Historical Examination of United States Intentional Mass School
Shootings in the 20th and 21st Centuries: Implications for Students,
Schools, and Society
Antonis Katsiyannis1●Denise K. Whitford2●Robin Parks Ennis3
© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018
Abstract
The deadliest U.S. school shooting to date, occurring on February 14, 2018 at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in
Parkland, Florida serves as a powerful reminder that school violence is ever present. Addressing school violence, however,
has been an elusive endeavor. The purpose of this review is to provide a historical examination of United States intentional
mass school shootings in the 20th and 21st centuries. In addition, implications for students, schools, and society are discussed
in light of policy and legislative initiatives as well as school-based prevention and intervention tiered models of support, such
as positive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS).
Keywords Shooting ●Guns ●Violence ●Schools ●PBIS ●Mental health
The mass school shooting on February 14, 2018 at Marjory
Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, FL shocked
the conscience of a nation once more (Astor et al. 2018).
This event, however, is not an isolated one and does present
a persistent concern over gun violence in general and school
shootings in particular. Schools are expected to be con-
ducive to learning environments where students feel safe
and secure to pursue boundless learning opportunities.
Unfortunately school violence is ever present and fear for
safety affects not only students but also teachers, staff, and
communities. The purpose of this paper is to provide an
overview of school violence in the United States with an
emphasis on school related mass shootings in the 20th and
21st centuries.
Gun Violence in the United States
Gun related violence in the United States has been char-
acterized as an epidemic and a public health crisis with a
substantial financial burden estimated to be $174 billion in
2010 (Miller 2012; for cost estimates see also Follman et al.
2015). Specifically, in 2015, there were a total of 36,252
gun related fatalities (35.8% fatalities were non–law
enforcement related and 60.74% were suicides). Regarding
children and youth, 142 children ages 5 to 12 died from gun
related injuries (73.94% were non-law enforcement related)
and 1851 adolescents ages 13–18 died from gun related
injuries (55.00% were non-law enforcement related and
40.25% were suicides; Katsiyannis et al. 2018; see also
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2017).
In 2014, data from the National Crime Victimization
Survey showed that students ages 12 to 18 experienced
841,100 nonfatal victimizations at school and 545,100
nonfatal victimizations away from school (Musu-Gillette
et al. 2017; see also Centers for Disease Control and Pre-
vention 2016). Between 1992 and 2014, total victimization
rates for students ages 12 to 18 at school declined 82%,
from 181 victimizations per 1000 students in 1992 to 33
victimizations per 1000 students in 2014 (Zhang et al.
2016). Overall, during 2013–14 school year, 65% of public
schools documented one or more incidents of violence
resulting in about 757,000 crimes. Specifically, 58% of
*Antonis Katsiyannis
antonis@clemson.edu
1Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
2Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
3University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL, USA
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schools recorded one or more incidents of a physical attack
or fight without a weapon, 47% of schools recorded one or
more incidents of threat of physical attack without a
weapon, and 13% of public schools recorded one or more
serious violent incidents (Musu-Gillette et al. 2017, p. v).
Further, in 2015, 7.8% students in grades 9–12 reported
being in a physical fight, 6.0% reported being threatened or
injured with a weapon; 20.2% reported being bullied; and
15.5% reported being bullied electronically during the
previous 12 months. In addition, 5.6% of students reported
missing school one or more days because they felt unsafe
and 4.1% reported carrying a weapon during the previous
30 days (Centers for Disease Control & Prevention 2016).
Though violent deaths at school are rare, 53 school-
associated violent deaths occurred from July 1, 2012 to June
30, 2013 (Musu-Gillette et al. 2017). Figure 1illustrates
school-associated homicides and suicides of youth ages
5–18 at school since 1992.
Despite calls to the contrary, Lemieux (2014) concluded
that gun access was the best predictor of gun deaths. Indeed,
Lemieux (2014), in examining mass shootings, found no
support indicating that armed guards or citizens reduced
deaths or injuries, though firepower capacity was a key factor
associated with the number of deaths; in fact, only 17% of
shooters were killed by police, but after they inflicted sub-
stantial casualties. Further, Wintemute (2008) reported that
risk of death by gun increased 40 to 170% and Dahlberg et al.
(2004) reported a 90% increase when living in a home with
guns. Related to home safety, keeping guns locked, unloaded,
and storing ammunition separately reduced youth suicide and
unintentional injury (Grossman et al. 2005).
Efforts to curb gun violence, such as the federal ban on
assault weapons and large capacity ammunition magazines
(expired in 2004), were effective in reducing availability
and use. For example, Fallis et al. (2011) reported that in
Virginia during the ban (1994–2004) there was a decline in
weapons with large capacity magazines reaching a low of
10% in 2004. Following the expiration of the ban the
number increased by 24%, and by 2010, 22% of weapons
received had large capacity magazines. Similarly, since the
enactment of the Brady law (1994) and 2012, background
checks blocked 2.4 million individuals from purchasing
guns (e.g., domestic abusers, felons, mentally ill); in 2012,
82,000 felons were blocked from buying guns because of
background checks.
Unfortunately, there is a paucity of research related to gun
violence and gun policy, which limits the ability to evaluate
the effectiveness of gun violence prevention efforts. There-
fore, there is a need to establish a robust and comprehensive
research agenda regarding gun law and policy as well as a
need for substantial federal funding (National Research
Council 2005;Weineretal.2007). Such effort, however, will
necessitate the repeal of a 1994 law limiting federal govern-
ment research on the health implications of firearms by
restricting the funding for the National Center for Injury
Prevention and Control at the CDC. The law dictates that that
“none of the funds made available for injury prevention and
control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention may
be used to advocate or promote firearm control”(Kellermann
and Rivara 2013; see also, Alcorn 2017).
School Related Legislative Initiatives to Curb
Gun Violence
The Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990 imposes criminal
penalties for the possession or discharge of a firearm in a
school zone, though specific exceptions apply (e.g., the
possession or discharge by an individual as part of a school
program, law enforcement officer acting in an official capa-
city). This law significantly reduced gun violence in schools
and fewer students reported carrying guns Centers for Dis-
ease Control & Prevention 2008a; Centers for Disease
Control & Prevention 2008b). Although almost all states
prohibit guns in K–12 schools, only 40 states and
Washington, D.C. extend this prohibition to people who have
232
204
57
45
60
14
0
50
100
150
200
250
2010's2000's1099's
Homicides Suicides
Fig. 1 Homicides and suicides of youth ages 5–18 at school (https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d15/tables/dt15_228.10.asp)
Journal of Child and Family Studies
been granted a permit to carry a concealed weapon (Cliffords
Law Center 2018). Further, the Gun-Free Schools Act of
1994 requires states receiving federal funds to have a law
requiring school districts to expel, for at least 1 year, any
student carrying a gun to school unless a chief administering
officer may modify such expulsion on a case-by-case basis.
Further, schools are directed to develop policies requiring
referral to the criminal justice or juvenile delinquency system
for any student who brings a firearm or weapon to school.
Following the Columbine mass shooting, the secret ser-
vice in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Education
reviewed 37 incidents of “targeted school violence”and
identified 10 key findings associated with these incidents.
Specifically, (a) incidents were not sudden or impulsive, (b)
others knew of the attacker’s idea, (c) most attackers did not
threaten targets ahead of the attack time, (d) no accurate or
useful profile of the attackers exist, (e) most attackers
exhibited behavior of concern prior to the attack, (f) most
attackers experienced problems coping with losses or per-
sonal failures, (g) most attackers felt bullied or injured by
others, (h) most attackers had access to guns, (i) often other
students were involved, and (j) most shootings ended
without law enforcement intervention though officers
responded (Vossekuil et al. 2004, p.31). The U.S. Secret
Service, FBI and U.S. Department of Education have all
recommended that K–12 schools implement threat assess-
ment teams. The primary charge of these teams is to identify
(authorities identify threats), assess (involves gathering and
evaluating information from multiple sources), and manage
(often an assessment reveals a manageable underlying issue
such as bullying, anxiety or depression that mental health
professionals are trained to handle; American Psychological
Association 2018).
Historical Analysis of Major School
Shootings in the United States
Sporadic school shootings have occurred at various points
in the history of the United States; some occurred without
death, by accident, and during fights between students.
Many school shootings are planned with the intention of
killing one person. For example, (a) the 1853 shooting in
Louisville, Kentucky of an administrator by the sibling of
one of his students, as retaliation for administering corporal
punishment to the shooter’s brother (New York Times
1853); (b) the 1890 shooting in Brazil, Indiana of a 10-year-
old girl by her male peer, as retaliation for informing adults
of his behavior (Daily Alta California 1890); (c) the
1983 shooting in St. Louis, Missouri of two 15-year-old
students, by their peer and his immediate suicide, for
unknown reasons (Ribbing 1999), and (d) the 1998 shoot-
ing in Fayetteville, Tennessee of an 18-year-old male peer,
as retaliation for dating the perpetrator’s ex-girlfriend
(Sharp 1998).
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) does not have
adefinition for mass school shootings. They do however,
define mass murder as the killing of four or more people in
the same incident (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2005).
Based on this criteria, we define mass school shooting as a
situation in which one or more people intentionally plan and
execute the killing or injury of four or more people, not
including themselves, using one or more guns, with the
killings or injuries taking place on school grounds during
the school day or during a school-sponsored event on
school grounds. For the purposes of this paper, we focus on
mass shootings perpetrated by adolescents and adults at K-
12 schools, and excluded organized gang shootings and
those that occurred at universities.
Figure 2shows the increase in mass school shootings and
their related deaths from the first one in 1940 to the most
current in early 2018. The United States had no mass school
shootings that fit our criteria until 1940, when a junior high
school principal killed the superintendent, the high school
principal, the district business manager, and two teachers,
before attempting suicide, because he thought he was going
to be fired at the end of the school year (Williams 2017).
The United States had no mass school shootings in the
1950’s and 1960’s, but started a steady increase beginning
with a school shooting in 1979 orchestrated by a 16-year-
old female with mental health issues who began shooting at
an elementary school, killing two adults and injuring eight
students and one adult (Daly 2014). Since 1979, the number
of shootings increased and then decreased, with the 1990’s
being a peak period. However, deaths from shootings went
from 12 in the 1980’s, to 36 in the 1990’s, 14 in the 2000’s,
and a high of 51 in the 2010’s.
In the 20th century, 22 school shootings that fit our cri-
teria occurred in the United States. The mass school
shootings were perpetrated by 15 (60%) adolescents and by
10 (40%) adults. Characteristics of mass school shootings in
the 20th century perpetrated by adolescents can be found in
Table 1and characteristics of those perpetrated by adults
can be found in Table 2. The adolescent shooters ranged in
age from 11- to 18-years-old (M=14.71; SD =1.82), while
the adult shooters ranged in age from 19- to 47-years-old
(M=33.4; SD =10.55). The perpetrators were over-
whelmingly White males (n=19; 76%); 88% (n=22) of
the shooters were White, 88% (n=22) males, 36% (n=9)
were identified as having a mental illness at the time of the
shooting, 76% (n=19) acted alone, and 32% (n=8)
committed suicide. The shootings predominantly occurred
at high schools when adolescents were the shooters (n=7;
54%), and predominantly occurred at elementary schools
when adults were the shooters (n=5; 56%). In total, 55
people were killed; 71% students and 29% adults.
Journal of Child and Family Studies
Additionally, 260 people were injured, but survived; 93%
students and 7% adults. The mass shootings took place
predominately in the Western region of the United States
(n=12; 55%).
In the first segment of the 21th century, 13 school
shootings that fit our criteria, occurred in the United States.
The mass school shootings were perpetrated by 10 (77%)
adolescents and by 3 (23%) adults. Characteristics of mass
school shootings in the 21st century perpetrated by adoles-
cents can be found in Table 3and characteristics of those
perpetrated by adults can be found in Table 4. The ado-
lescent shooters ranged in age from 14- to 18-years-old
(M=15.4; SD =1.35), while the adult shooters ranged in
age from 19- to 32-years-old (M=23.67; SD =7.23). The
perpetrators were overwhelmingly White males (n=11;
85%); 85% (n=11) of the shooters were White, 100%
(n=13) males, 46% (n=6) were identified as having a
mental illness at the time of the shooting, 100% (n=13)
acted alone, and 38% (n=5) committed suicide. The
shootings predominantly occurred at high schools when
adolescents were the shooters (n=9; 90%). In total, 66
people were killed; 82% students and 18% adults. Addi-
tionally, 81 people were injured, but survived; 93% students
and 7% adults. The mass shootings have taken place pre-
dominately in the Western (n=4; 31%) and Midwestern
(n=4; 31%) regions of the United States.
Discussion
Clearly, mass school shootings present an epidemic that
must be addressed. Firearm violence in the United States is
viewed as a public health crisis by the Centers for Disease
Control & Prevention (2016). When evaluating the number
of shooting in the 20th and 21st centuries, it is alarming that
in the span of less than 18 years, the 21st century has already
seen more deaths than the 20th century, which represents
shootings spanning from 1940 to 2000. Of shootings in the
20th century, a surge of shootings in the 1990’s represents
the overwhelming majority of school shooting deaths and
injuries. Another alarming trend is that the overwhelming
majority of 21st century shooters were adolescents, sug-
gesting that it is now easier for adolescents to access guns
and adolescents are more frequently suffering from mental
illness or limited conflict resolution skills. Finally, to date,
the 21st century shootings have resulted in 66 deaths as
opposed to 55 for the entirety of the 20th century. Likewise,
in the 20th century there were more injuries related to school
shootings than in the 21st (260 and 81 respectfully). This
alarming trend may be attributed to easy access to high-
power firearms used in many of the mass shootings of the
21st century. While these figures do not clearly link recent
shootings to more adolescent problems or high-powered
weapons as a causality, the trends must be noted. Several
school shooters noted the ease with which they secured
guns from parents and grandparents (Dickey 2013;
Anchorage Daily News 2017), while some noted that they
would not have carried out the attacks had they not had easy
access to the weapons (Anchorage Daily News 2017). Some
of the students who served their sentences for the shootings,
continued to have serious legal challenges related to gun
violence after they were released (Bult 2016).
In addition to the many school-related legislative issues
previously discussed, in 2018, in response to the school
1940's 1950's 1960's 1970's 1980's 1990's 2000's 2010's
10017135 8
0 0 0 1 2104 6
10005312
All Combined Deaths 5 0 0 2 12 36 14 51
Students Killed 0 0 0 0 10 29 12 42
Adults Killed 50022729
1001
7
13
5
8
00012
10
4
6
1000
5
3
12
5
00
2
12
36
14
51
0000
10
29
12
42
5
00
22
7
2
9
0
10
20
30
40
50
Raw Numbers
Fig. 2 Number of mass school shootings and deaths from 1940-early 2018
Journal of Child and Family Studies
Table 1 20th Century Intentional Mass School Shootings Perpetrated by Adolescents in United States K-12 Schools
Date Location School Level Perpetrator(s) Victim(s) Firearm(s) Description of the Perpetrator(s)
6 December 1999 Fort Gibson, OK Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 student
(survived)
5 students (injured) One 9 mm handgun A 13-year-old Native American male. He was an honor
student who was seeing a psychiatrist for mental health
issues before the shooting (Walton 2005).
20 May 1999 Conyers, GA High School 1 student
(survived)
6 students (injured) One .22 caliber rifle A 15-year-old White male. He threatened to kill
himself, but did not (Queen 2016).
20 April 1999 Littleton, CO High School 2 students
(committed
suicide)
12 students and 1 adult
(killed) 21 students
(injured)
Two shotguns, one assault rifle, and one semi-
automatic pistol
A 17-year-old White male and an 18-year-old White
male, described as mentally ill, and having been bullied
(Kohn 2001).
21 May 1998 Springfield, OR High School 1 student
(survived)
2 students (killed)
25 students (injured)
One semiautomatic rifle A 15-year-old White male who took Prozac, killed his
parents and then went to school during the lunch hour
(Bennett 2012).
24 April 1998 Edinboro, PA Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 student
(survived)
1 adult (killed) 2 students
and 1 adult (injured)
One .25 caliber handgun A 14-year-old White male, described by peers as a
“loner who never smiled and dressed sloppily.”
(Associated Press 1998).
24 March 1998 Jonesboro, AR Jr. High/ Middle
School
2 students
(survived)
4 students and 1 adult
(killed) 10 students
(injured)
Four revolvers, three rifles, and two pistols An 11-year-old White male and 13-year-old White
male, described as bullies by their peers (Bult 2016).
1 December 1997 West Paducah, KY High School 1 student
(survived)
3 students (killed)
5 students (injured)
Two Marlin .22 rifles, one Ruger 10/22 .22 rifle,
one Remington .22 rifle, two 12 gauge pump-
action shotguns, one Marlin 336 .30–30 rifle, and
one .38 special revolver Ruger MK II .22-caliber
pistol
A 14-year-old White male on schizophrenia medication
(Associated Press 2010).
1 October 1997 Pearl, MI High School 1 student
(survived)
2 students (killed)
7 students (injured)
One .30/30 rifle A 16-year-old White male, who killed his mother
(Mitchell 2016).
19 February 1997 Bethel, AK High School 1 student
(survived)
1 student and 1 adult
(killed) 2 students (injured)
One shotgun A 16-year-old White and Alaska Native male who was
abused and lived in foster care (Anchorage Daily News
2017).
2 February 1996 Moses Lake, WA Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 student
(survived)
2 students and 1 adult
(killed) 1 student (injured)
One .30/30 caliber hunting rifle, one .357 caliber
revolver, and one .25 caliber semiautomatic pistol
A 14-year-old White male who had mental health issues
at the time of the shooting (Geranios 2017b).
4 December 1986 Lewistown, MT High School 1 student
(survived)
1 adult (killed) 2 students
and 1 adult (injured)
One .44 Magnum A 14-year-old White male went to school with the
intention of killing his teacher for giving him a failing
grade (Associated Press 1986).
21 January 1985 Goddard, KS Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 student
(survived)
1 adult (killed) 1 student
and 2 adults (injured)
One M1A .308 caliber semiautomatic rifle and
one .357 caliber Magnum pistol
A 14-year-old White male, described as a loner who
was bullied (Adame 2015).
29 January 1979 San Diego, CA Elementary School 1 student
(survived)
2 adults (killed) 8 students
and 1 adult (injured)
One 10/22 semi-automatic .22 caliber rifle with a
telescope
A 16-year-old White female, described as having
mental health issues at the time of the shooting (Daly
2014).
Journal of Child and Family Studies
Table 2 20th Century Intentional Mass School Shootings Perpetrated by Adults in United States K-12 Schools
Date Location School Level Perpetrator(s) Victim(s) Firearm(s) Description of the Perpetrator(s)
7 November 1994 Wickliffe, OH Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 adult (survived) 1 adult (killed) 1 student and 4
adults (injured)
One shotgun A 37-year-old White male, described as a former
student with mental health issues (O’Donnell 2014).
17 September 1993 Sheridan, WY Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 adult (committed
suicide)
4 students (injured) One 9 mm handgun A 29-year-old White male, described as a former
student with a recent less-than-honorable discharge
from the Navy (Associated Press 1993).
1 May 1992 Olivehurst, CA High School 1 adult (survived) 3 students and 1 adult (killed)
9 students and 1 adult (injured)
One 12 gauge pump action shotgun and
one sawed-off .22 caliber rifle
A 20-year-old White male, described as a former
student with a grudge against a teacher who failed
him (Luery 2017).
17 January 1989 Stockton, CA Elementary School 1 adult (committed
suicide)
5 students (killed) 31 students
and 1 adult (injured)
One AK-47 assault rifle A 24-year-old White male, described as a drifter
(Emmons and Richman 2016).
26 September 1988 Greenwood, SC Elementary School 1 adult (survived) 2 students (killed) 7 students
and 2 adults (injured)
One revolver A 19-year-old White male, described as having a
history of mental health issues (Knapp 2012).
20 May 1988 Winnetka, IL Elementary School 1 adult (committed
suicide)
2 students (killed) 6 students
and 2 adults (injured)
One .22 semi-automatic pistol, one .357
Magnum revolver, and one .32 Smith &
Wesson
A 30-year-old White female, described as having
mental health issues (McCoppin and Berger 2013).
16 May 1986 Cokeville, WY Elementary School 2 adults (committed
suicide)
78 students and 1 adult (injured) Five rifles A 43-year-old White male and a 47-year-old White
female, husband and wife, took 136 children and 18
adults hostage because the husband was fired from
his position as the town marshal (Mitchell 1996).
24 February 1984 Los Angeles, CA Elementary School 1 adult (committed
suicide)
1 student (killed) 11 students
and 1 adult (injured)
One AR-15 rifle, one 12 gauge double-
barreled shotgun, and one 12 gauge pump-
action shotgun
A 47-year-old Black male, described as a surviving
child of parents and siblings from the Jonestown
massacre (Lindsey 1984).
6 May 1940 Pasadena, CA Jr. High/ Middle
School
1 adult (survived) 5 adults (killed) 1 adult
(injured)
One .22-caliber Colt Woodsman
semiautomatic pistol
A 38-year-old White male, described as the junior
high school’s principal, thought he was going to be
fired at the end of the school year (Williams 2017).
Journal of Child and Family Studies
Table 3 21st Century Intentional Mass School Shootings Perpetrated by Adolescents in United States K-12 Schools
Date Location School Level Perpetrator(s) Victim(s) Firearm(s) Description of the Perpetrator(s)
23 January 2018 Benton, KY High School 1 student (survived) 2 students (killed) 14 students
(injured)
One 9 mm semi-automatic
pistol
A 16-year-old White male (Sayers and Wolfson 2018).
13 September 2017 Rockford, WA High School 1 student (survived) 1 student (killed) 3 students
(injured)
One assault weapon and one
pistol
A 15-year-old White male, described as having mental health
issues and having been bullied by peers (Geranios 2017a).
28 September 2016 Townville, SC Elementary School 1 student (survived) 1 student (killed) 2 students and
1 adult (injured)
One .40 caliber pistol A 14-year-old White male who killed his father. He was
homeschooled after being expelled for bringing a hatchet to
his middle school (Mayo 2018).
29 February 2016 Middletown, OH High School 1 student (survived) 4 students (injured) One .38 caliber handgun A 14-year-old White male, self-described as having abused
Adderall and not being wanted by others, including his
parents (BieryGolick 2018).
24 october 2014 Marysville, WA High School 1 student (committed
suicide)
1 student (killed) 4 students
(injured)
One .40 caliber pistol A 15-year-old Native American male, described by his peers
as an outgoing and popular football player (Johnson and
Dewan 2014).
27 February 2012 Chardon, OH High School 1 student (survived) 3 students (killed) 3 students
(injured)
One .22 caliber semi-
automatic handgun
A 17-year-old White male (Caniglia 2014).
10 October 2007 Cleveland, OH High School 1 student (committed
suicide)
3 students and 2 adults (injured) One .22 caliber revolver and
one .38 caliber revolver
A 14-year-old White male at an alternative high school,
described as having mental health issues and having been
bullied and suspended from school (Maag 2007).
21 March 2005 Red Lake, MN High School 1 student (committed
suicide)
5 students and 2 adults (killed)
5 students (injured)
One .22 caliber pistol A 16-year-old Native American male, who killed two family
members, was described as having been bullied and was on
Prozac and anti-depressants at the time of the shootings
(Roberts 2005).
22 March 2001 El Cajon, CA High School 1 student (survived) 4 students (injured) One pump-action 12-gauge
shotgun and one .22 caliber
pistol
An 18-year-old White male, described as a loner with a
history of mental illness (Texeira et al. 2001).
5 March 2001 Santee, CA High School 1 student (survived) 2 students (killed) 11 students
and 2 adults (injured)
One .22 caliber double-
action revolver
A 15-year-old White male, described as having been bullied
and sexually abused by an adult (Dickey 2013).
Journal of Child and Family Studies
shooting at Stoneman Douglas High School, an Inter-
disciplinary Group on Preventing School and Community
Violence wrote a call to action with several action items
related to both increased gun control and increased pre-
ventative and responsive mental health services within K-12
schools (Astor et al. 2018). The interdisciplinary group used
a three-tiered model, common in both public health and
schoolwide systems of positive behavioral interventions and
supports (PBIS), to seek to protect individuals from gun
violence using universal approaches for all (Tier 1), targeted
approaches to reduce risk factors and promote protective
factors (Tier 2), and individualized interventions for indi-
viduals for whom violence appears imminent (Tier 3).
Related to gun control, the group called for a ban on
“assault-style weapons, high-capacity ammunition clips,
and products that modify semi-automatic firearms to enable
them to function like automatic firearms”(Astor et al. 2018;
p. 1). This universal, preventative support is in line with the
Obama administration’s recommendation to Congress fol-
lowing the Newton, CO shooting (The White House
2013a). As a secondary prevention measure, the group
called for universal background checks to screen for indi-
viduals with a history of violence to themselves or others or
those suspected of terrorist activity. At Tier 3, the group
called for laws allowing for short-term protection orders
allowing for the recovery of firearms by law enforcement
when violence is imminent (Astor et al. 2018).
Related to school-based safety measures, the inter-
disciplinary group called for a standard, universal practice
of assessing school climate and maintaining safe schools,
including both physically and emotionally. As a targeted,
Tier 2, support they identified a need for increased staffing
of service providers who can deliver coordinated mental
health services for those with violent risk factors, including
counselors, psychologists, and social workers. Astor et al.
(2018) also noted a need to acknowledge that not all vio-
lence stems from mental illness, a notion supported by the
summary of 20th and 21st century mass school shooting
presented herein. Increased funding for school based mental
health services is essential and should involve partnerships
among schools, families, and community agencies (see
Durlak et al. 2011; Kern et al. 2016; Kern et al. 2017).
Likewise, the group called for the adoption of discipline
practices that “foster positive social, behavioral, emotional,
and academic success”along with the reduction of exclu-
sionary practices in school discipline (Astor et al. 2018,p.
1). At Tier 3, they recommend programs to allow mental
health, school, and law enforcement officials to conduct
threat assessments, including interventions to support indi-
viduals who pose a threat, once identified. This practice was
also supported by the U.S. Secret Service (2004) in their
report on school violence prevention. In the same vein, the
interdisciplinary group called for increased sharing of
Table 4 21st Century Intentional Mass School Shootings Perpetrated by Adults in United States K-12 Schools
Date Location School Level Perpetrator(s) Victim(s) Firearm(s) Description of the Perpetrator(s)
14 February 2018 Parkland, FL High School 1 adult (survived) 14 students and 3 adults (killed)
17 students (injured)
One AR-15 style semi-automatic rifle A 19-year-old White male, described as a
former student with mental health issues
(Berman 2018).
14 December 2012 Newtown, CT Elementary School 1 adult (committed
suicide)
20 students and 6 adults (killed)
2 adults (injured)
One .22 caliber bolt action rifle and
one Bushmaster XM15-E2S rifle
A 20-year-old White male who killed his
mother, was described as having mental health
issues (Vogel et al. 2012).
2 October 2006 Nickel Mines, PA Elementary/ Middle
School
1 adult (committed
suicide)
5 students (killed) 5 students
(injured)
One 9 mm handgun, one 12 gauge
pump-action shotgun, and one .30–06
bolt-action rifle
A 32-year-old White male (Folmer et al. 2013).
Journal of Child and Family Studies
information among mental health, school, and law enfor-
cement officials, which necessitates a removal of legal
barriers (Astor et al. 2018). Again, these recommendations
are consistent with those made by the Obama Administra-
tion in 2013 (White House 2013b).
Policy Implications
Many of the above changes require significant changes in
public policy and law. Many researchers (e.g., Katsiyannis
et al. 2018; Kellerman and Rivara 2013) and public entities
alike have called for the removal of current restrictions on
research regarding the implications of firearm violence.
Funding is needed to better understand the impact of mass
school shootings on students, school personnel, and society
as a whole. This information will further our knowledge of
how to prevent and respond to such incidents. As educators,
like any citizen, we must speak out about the negative
impacts we are seeing in schools as a result of the surge in
mass school shootings by contacting our lawmakers. Many
organizations, such as the American Psychological Asso-
ciation, the Council for Exceptional Children, the Council
for Children with Behavioral Disorders, and the Prevention
Institute, lobby for change on the behalf of their member-
ship. Educators should consider supporting and becoming a
member of such organizations to facilitate coordinated
efforts among professionals. Similarly, we encourage edu-
cators to support the grass roots efforts of community
members and students against gun violence in schools and
in support of increased school-based prevention and inter-
vention practices (e.g., Associated Press 2018).
Further, it is necessary to strengthen and reinforce Pre-
sident Obama’s executive orders to address school safety in
the aftermath of the Newtown, CT shooting in 2013. These
executive orders resulted in (a) the Departments of Justice
and Homeland Security providing continuing training and
security assessments for law enforcement, first responders,
and school officials on active shooter situations, (b) the
Departments of Education, Justice, Homeland Security, and
Health and Human Services developing model emergency
management planning guides to help schools prepare for
shootings, and (c) the Department of Justice (DOJ) making
Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) Hiring
Grants available to fund school resource officers (SRO). In
September 2013, the DOJ awarded approximately $125
million, including around $45 million to fund 356 new
school resource officer positions (The White House 2013a).
SROs, are uniformed, armed police officers trained to work
in schools; they are involved in patrolling the school,
handling student rule/law violators, minimizing disruptions,
and engaging in preventative programs (Finn and McDevitt
2005). The National Association of School Resource
Officers (NASRO) estimates that they are between 14,000
and 20,000 SROs with about a third of public schools
employing at least one SRO (National Association of
School Resource Officers n.d.)
Finally, the Obama administration’scallforactionto
Congress is still timely after the Newtown shooting. Actions
to be taken by Congress include “Strengthen the background
check system for gun sales, pass a new, stronger ban on
assault weapons, limit ammunition magazines to 10 rounds,
finish the job of getting armor-piercing bullets off the streets,
give law enforcement additional tools to prevent and prose-
cute gun crime, end the freeze on gun violence research, make
our schools safer with new resource officers and counselors,
better emergency response plans, and more nurturing school
climates, and ensure quality coverage of mental health treat-
ment, particularly for young people”(The White House
2013b). These actions have the potential as it has been already
demonstrated (background checks, ban on assault weapons)
to address the issue of school shootings and gun violence in
general in a systemic, comprehensive, and effective manner.
School-based Prevention and Intervention
Tiered models of supports, such as PBIS and comprehen-
sive, integrated three-tiered models of prevention (Ci3T;
Lane et al. 2010) are essential to addressing many issues in
schools, including those called for by Astor et al. (2018).
Universal supports with PBIS such as the establishment of
school-wide expectations, procedures for teaching, model-
ing, and reinforcing those expectations, provision of social
and emotional awareness and prevention practices by all
students, and consistent discipline practices across all
individuals (Horner and Sugai 2015). Such practices have
been shown to improve school climate, reduce office dis-
cipline referrals, and improve social emotional competence
(e.g., Bradshaw et al. 2010; Bradshaw et al. 2012). For
more information on these practices visit (pbis.org and ci3t.
org). Within PBIS and Ci3T frameworks, an emphasis on
using school-wide data to identify students with risk factors,
including academic, behavior, and/or social, is essential for
identifying students needing Tier 2 and Tier 3 supports.
Many schools have responded to this by identifying sys-
tematic emotional and behavioral screeners to identify stu-
dents with externalizing (e.g., aggression, disruption,
property disruption), internalizing (e.g., painfully shy,
socially withdrawn, depressed), and co-morbid (i.e., pos-
sessing both types of behaviors) behavior patterns.
Screening involves the adoption of a school-wide measure
(s), with strong psychometric properties that is also feasible
and socially acceptable, to be administered at three time
points each year (fall, winter, spring; Lane et al. 2012).
These screening measures can be used to assess the overall
Journal of Child and Family Studies
risk of schools as a whole or identify students needing more
support through Tier 2 and Tier 3 supports.
Tier 2 and 3 supports include any intervention that can be
used to address students’academic, behavioral, and/or
social needs, with Tier 2 supports that involve targeted
interventions offered to multiple students whereas Tier
3 supports involve individualized supports for students with
the highest level of need/risk. Within this framework,
schools can provide the most appropriate level of support,
addressing issues pertinent to the prevention of mass school
shootings, including the instruction and practice of social,
conflict resolution, coping, and self-regulation skills, which
have all been recommended as practices to reduce violence
(Katsiyannis et al. 2018). Supports at Tier 2 and 3 can also
involve small-group or individualized counseling, coordi-
nated home-school supports through a school social worker,
cognitive behavioral therapy, and other mental health ser-
vices. However, even with these models in place, many
schools struggle to meet the demands as they don’t have
inadequate student support services staff (e.g., counselors,
social workers, school psychologists) to provide the level of
support needed for many students, as increased funding and
support is needed to support these practices. The good
news, however, is that these systems do exists and with
adequate funding can create a school culture and climate
where violence is admonished and student communities are
celebrated.
Conclusion
The horrific events associated with school shootings, mass
shootings in particular, have had a negative impact on our
society for a long time. Such events should not be part of
school environments where the safety and welfare of stu-
dents, teachers, and staff should be a given. Deliberate and
sensible policy and legislative actions, such as expanded
background checks and a ban on assault weapons, along
with expanded support to address mental health issues
among adolescent students and adults and other related
preventative measures will likely reduce the occurrence of
such events in the future. Further, school personnel are
uniquely situated in implementing tiered models of sup-
ports, such as PBIS with a particular emphasis on school-
based mental health services to address school violence.
Such preventative efforts not only require policy/legislative
action but increased and targeted funding across federal,
state, local and private sectors.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
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