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Waste Management Strategies; the State of the Art
Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to present a short critical overview on the various municipal solid waste management (MSWM) technologies together with a glance at how conducting a feasibility study to choose the most suitable scenario for a particular region. In the first part, a conceptual approach to waste management followed by a valuable laconic review over the global status are presented. Short and must-know explanations about the various waste management technologies are provided in the second part within six subsections, i.e., materials recovery facility (MRF), refuse-derived fuel (RDF)/solid recovery fuel (SRF), landfill, compost, anaerobic digestion (AD), and combustion. Finally, the question of how to conduct a feasibility study to choose the most suitable scenario for a particular region is concisely answered along with a brief elucidation of life cycle assessment (LCA) and financial feasibility, as two of the most important factors.
... Methane is a ubiquitous one-carbon (C1) gas that has both natural and anthropogenic origin (van Basshuysen, 2016;Ghasemi Ghodrat et al., 2018). Since the start of the Industrial Revolution in 1750, methane emissions have been rapidly increasing (Blasing, 2013). ...
... ppb (Apr2020) (Dlugokencky, 2020). Natural gas and biogas are the main sources of methane (Ghasemi Ghodrat et al., 2018). The latter is released as a result of domestic and livestock waste treatment (Bhatia et al., 2021;Cantrell et al., 2008;Sakar et al., 2009). ...
... Biogas is a gaseous mixture produced as a result of solid and liquid organic waste treatment. Primarily, it is composed of methane (60-70%) and carbon dioxide (30-40%) (Ghasemi Ghodrat et al., 2018). Small amounts of nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and water vapor may also be present. ...
Global methane emissions have been steadily increasing over the past few decades, exerting a negative effect on the environment. Biogas from landfills and sewage treatment plants is the main anthropogenic source of methane. This makes methane bioconversion one of the priority areas of biotechnology. This process involves the production of biochemical compounds from non-food sources through microbiological synthesis. Methanotrophic bacteria are a promising tool for methane bioconversion due to their ability to use this greenhouse gas and to produce protein-rich biomass, as well as a broad range of useful organic compounds.
Currently, methane is used not only to produce biomass and chemical compounds, but also to increase the efficiency of water and solid waste treatment. However, the use of gaseous substrates in biotechnological processes is associated with some difficulties. The low solubility of methane in water is one of the major problems. Different approaches have been involved to encounter these challenges, including different bioreactor and gas distribution designs, solid carriers and bulk sorbents, as well as varying air/oxygen supply, the ratio of volumetric flow rate of gas mixture to its consumption rate, etc.
The aim of this review was to summarize the current data on different bioreactor designs and the aspects of their applications for methane bioconversion and wastewater treatment. The bioreactors used in these processes must meet a number of requirements such as low methane emission, improved gas exchange surface, and controlled substrate supply to the reaction zone.
... Millions of tons of industrial and agricultural waste are produced each year, posing a significant threat to the environment (Ghasemi Ghodrat et al. 2018;Xue and Liu 2019;Mazhandu and Muzenda 2019). To mitigate this negative impact and address growing concerns about the environmental effects of traditional cement production, including raw material extraction and carbon dioxide emissions, several waste materials have been examined as additives in cement paste and mortar, such as wood (Cheah and Ramli 2011;Zhuge et al. 2022), paper (Ahmad et al. 2013;Mehta et al. 2020), glass (Khan et al. 2015;Kanniyappan and Muthukumaran 2018), date seeds (Gunarani and Chakkravarthy 2017), groundnut shells (Lakshmi and Sagar 2017), plastic (Mahmood and Kockal 2020), ceramic (Shanmugam et al. 2020), nut shells (Jannat et al. 2021), PVC (Pan et al. 2022), and aluminum foil (Rajab et al. 2023). ...
Agricultural waste, generated in massive quantities each year, poses environmental challenges and offers an opportunity to enhance eco-friendly practices in construction. The current study aimed to address the concerns of minimizing agricultural waste and reducing the environmental impact associated with traditional cement production, including shortage in resources and carbon emissions. Thus, the feasibility of incorporating nano date pits and nano sunflower seed shells as sustainable additive materials in cement mortar were investigated. Three different nanomaterials content were used: (1, 3, and 5%), these nano additives were added into mortar mixtures to assess their influence on fresh and hardened characteristics, as well as on the microstructure. Fresh density and flowability were used as a measure to evaluate workability, while hardened properties such as density and compressive strength were utilized to evaluate the structural integrity. Microstructural analyses were also conducted through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The experimental results revealed that nano sunflower seed shells decreased flowability by 8–42%, while nano date pits had a lower impact, with reductions from 4 to 25%. Fresh density decreased with the increasing of nanomaterial content, particularly with the sunflower seed shells due to their lighter weight and higher porosity. For hardened characteristics, dry density dropped by approximately 20% in sunflower seed shell mixtures, while date pit mixtures density was reduced gradually, supporting the development of lightweight mortars. Furthermore, the mixture with 1% nano date pits has enhanced compressive strength by up to 22% at 28 days, attributed to the pozzolanic activity of nano date pits that refined the microstructure. SEM and XRD analyses revealed considerable interactions between the nano additives and the cement matrix. Furthermore, these analyses showed dense hydration products and enhanced contact zones between cement and aggregates, promoting structural integrity. The current study findings assure the potential of nano agricultural waste materials to improve sustainable mortar formulations, offering lightweight, durable, and eco-friendly alternatives to traditional cement-based mortars.
... Regardless of the food industry examined, byproducts and/or waste products always arise at various stages of the supply chain. Many studies have focused on the recovery of valuable compounds from these by-products or wastes generated during agricultural and food processing stages (Ghasemi Ghodrat et al., 2018). According to the data of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, 2020), the most produced oilseeds in the world are sunflower, soybean and canola. ...
The food industry produces millions of tons of food waste worldwide, which can be used
as a source of valuable ingredients with high added value. The use of food waste as a
source of low-cost valuable compounds is important for environmental protection as well
as for sustainable green technology. Especially during the processing of oilseeds, plenty
of by-products emerge. It has been determined that oilseed by-products contain
considerable amounts of protein, carbohydrates, fiber, bioactive components,
antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals. Antioxidants such as polyphenols can be extracted
from oilseed meals as functional food products. Since protein isolates obtained from
oilseed meals have rich amino acid content and functional properties, they can be
included in the human diet by adding them to various foods. This review includes
information about the nutritional values of oilseed residues and the importance of their
use in the food industry.
... In adherence to the CE principles, SEOLM is essential in supporting companies' sustainability initiatives in the F&H industry (Endres et al., 2022). This includes incorporating various processes to optimize resources while reducing and managing waste production and disposal (Ghasemi Ghodrat et al., 2018). Solutions for EOL food waste management in the F&H industry can include measures such as multiple uses of resources, proper demand forecasting and management, composting, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which enables recycling, reuse, and proper disposal of food or other waste that arises in the food companies (Hegab et al., 2023;Niyommaneerat et al., 2023). ...
Technology alignment in managing end-of-life products to overcome sustainability issues has drawn increasing attention in the food and hospitality industry. Recent literature on sustainable and agile practices in the food and hospitality industry recognizes the importance of reusing food waste materials at their end of life. The current study examines the mediating role that end-of-life food waste management plays in the relationship between agile practices and sustainable consumption and production from the viewpoint of food hospitality companies. The research employs a sequential mixed method design involving quantitative and qualitative analysis. The suggested model was empirically tested using information gathered from 298 respondents recruited through Prolific. After that, post hoc qualitative exploration was carried out by analyzing 24 interviews of the respondents identified out of the 298 respondents of the quantitative study. We discover that agile management practices are antecedents for responsible consumption and production. The findings highlight that food and hospitality firms must consider agile management practices to achieve more sustainable and socially responsible food waste management practices. Further, we find that information technology alignment is not a necessary condition to enhance or weaken the indirect effect of sustainable end-of-life (food waste) management between agile practices and sustainable consumption and production practices within the food and hospitality industry. This work advances theoretical and practical knowledge of conservation and natural resource management in the food and hospitality industry.
... The concept of anaerobic co-digestion of bread waste and sewage sludge for biogas production not only offers sustainable energy possibilities but also presents an effective waste management solution. However, in order to realize its positive impact on economic growth, energy security, and air quality, the various stakeholders must possess a clear and shared vision while fostering strong collaborative abilities [12]. ...
The purpose of this study is to develop a lab-scale model for energy self-sufficiency via the promotion of the generation of sustainable renewable energy from bread waste and sewage sludge to biogas. Most of the garbage consisting of bread and sewage sludge is typically disposed of in landfills, which can result in substantial health and environmental problems due to the release of gaseous substances. As a result of this, the research endeavors to make use of sewage sludge and bread wastes as substrates to produce methane. A pH meter and a drying oven were used, respectively, to analyze each substrate’s pH level as well as its dry weight, total solids, and volatile solids content. A methane gas detector was used on each sample to check for the presence of methane. The recorded pH is within the optimal range as it is between 6.9 and 7.2 for the substrates, bread waste, and sewage sludge as well as both ratios of the mixtures before and after the anaerobic co-digestion process. Following three to four days of cultivation using the streaking and spread culture method on nutrient agar, the microorganisms Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were isolated from the bread waste and sewage sludge, respectively. The methane gas detector registered a value of 9999 ppm, which is 20% LEL.
... In addition to AD, biogas can also be produced in landfills through anaerobic degradation processes (Ghasemi Ghodrat et al., 2018). However, waste disposal in landfills is associated with environmental risks such as soil, water, and air pollution. ...
In 2004, the "Who Cares Wins" initiative introduced the ESG Principles (Environmental, Social, and Governance), which have become a fundamental reference for assessing organizations' commitment to sustainable development, social responsibility, and good corporate governance practices. Studies on the adoption of ESG principles have primarily focused on their application in private organizations, aligning with an established trend in Europe and the USA. However, despite the growing interest, it is observed that their incorporation into public governance in Brazil is still in its early stages. Considering the context presented and the growing need for sustainable energy sources, the study in question aims to emphasize the crucial role of biogas as a viable alternative in the renewable energy panorama. This resource has been gaining prominence in the production of clean and environmentally responsible energy. Understanding how environmental management is integrated into biogas production and the resulting impacts is essential. Additionally, it is necessary to examine how social practices are considered in the collection of organic waste for biogas production and their effects on local communities. Finally, understanding how corporate governance influences decisions in biogas facilities and its role in production sustainability is essential. Given this, the main objective of this article is to identify how ESG criteria involving environmental, social, and governance issues are structured and addressed in the biogas production chain through a systematic literature review (SLR). After conducting the SLR, no eligible study was identified that directly addressed the theme in question. However, articles were sought on the biogas chain and new business models. Through the review, questions related to ESG aspects were raised, although not specifically in studies dedicated to ESG. Nevertheless, it was possible to gain an understanding of how ESG can be applied in the biogas chain.
... Biogas is produced under anaerobic settings in four distinct phases, which include hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis (Ghodrat et al., 2018). ...
The concept of “Biorefinery” refers conversion of biomass, either whole or part, into useful products through sustainable processes. Food waste composition includes complex organic and inorganic fractions, carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, which can be processed into much simpler organic compounds like glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, etc. Biofuels are produced from the Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste (OFMSW), comprising leftover kitchen waste. The transformation of any waste material into an energy source involves anaerobic digestion by bacteria that form methane gas due to the breakdown of organic matter. Thus, food waste is transported to facilities for producing energy, which is further utilized as heat or electrical sources. Even, food waste recycling has many advantages such as the production of fertilizers, bio-commodity chemicals, and other types of biofuels that serve as a promising alternative to depleting fossil fuels. Transformation of waste food into sustainable commodity chemicals is a resource recovery method and is a good alternative for fossil-based chemicals to a certain extent. A “green biorefinery” thus represents biomass processing in a sustainable way to produce a variety of commodity chemicals and energy.
... Anaerobic digestion not only diverts biodegradable materials from landfills, but also produces bioenergy and by-products like soil biofertilizers [35]. Bacteria play a crucial role in producing biogas during the anaerobic degradation of organic materials [36]. ...
As the global demand for renewable energy continues to rise, biogas production has emerged as a promising solution for sustainable energy generation. This review article presents the advantages of biogas technologies (mainly agricultural, based on waste of animal and plant origin) and extensively discusses the main principles of biogas production in the anaerobic digestion (AD). In this respect, the main parameters of the process, which require monitoring and decisive for its efficiency are described, therefore: temperature, pH value, retention time and organic loading rate (OLR). The principles of substrate selection are also discussed and the necessity and advantages of the use of organic waste according to the model of a circular economy and the concept of sustainable development, are indicated. It is emphasized that according to the new European regulations, the crops classified as food cannot be considered energy crops. The part on biogas production is summarised with an explanation of the necessity to treat and purify biogas. Biogas purification is important from the point of view of the efficiency of its conversion into electricity. A special place in this paper is devoted to the design, construction, functioning and operation of biogas plants, based on both scientific and practical aspects. In conclusion of this chapter, the economic aspects and profitability of operating biogas plants are discussed. Cost and benefit analyses are the major tool used for the systematic evaluation of the financial costs and potential benefits associated with the operation of biogas plants. The important fact is that the return on investment can be achieved within a few years, provided the activities are well-planned and executed. In addition to the fundamental issues of the operation of biogas plants, this article presents the global situation regarding the development of biogas plants, discussing in detail the specific needs and limitations on different continents. It is a interesting and extensive part of this article. The global agricultural biogas market is at very different levels of development. Most such installations are located in Asia and Europe. China has the highest number of biogas plants, with more than 100,000 biogas plants, followed by Germany with over 10,000 plants. In addition to the 100,000 biogas plants, China also has a large number of household biogas units, which gives a total of approx. 40 million operating units. The article concludes with a discussion of opportunities and barriers to the development of biogas plants, pointing to: financial issues, access to feedstock, political regulations, public awareness and the geopolitical situation. The most frequently cited reasons for investment failure include economic problems, lack of professional knowledge.
... WtE technologies can be divided into two categories i.e., nonthermal and thermal treatment techniques [35]. The by-products of these techniques are displayed in Fig. 3. From a technological perspective, these categories are critical in municipal solid waste management (MSWM), but they must be appropriate for the local situation. ...
... In a range of complex biochemical reactions, acid genesis, hydrolysis, methanogenesis and acetogenesis are produced under anaerobic conditions [63]. Equation In the first two levels, facultative anaerobic microorganisms will absorb the undesirable oxygen, and the anaerobic atmosphere is given for anaerobic microorganisms that are necessary. ...
Soil conditioners like manure and slurry from farmyard and digestate which supply important nutrients to plants are known to contain pathogens that are equally withering to plants. Anaerobic digestion (AD) is an organic or biological process that uses stored energy in organic compounds for biogas production. Ongoing research work has focused on the best possible ways of improving digestive processes. This work thus contains recent contributions towards the effective AD process parameter in biogas yield, the most important parameters affecting the production of biogas and its process parameters (process configuration, temperature, pH, organic loading rate, retention time, concentration of hydrogen, agitation, moisture content, and inoculum). However, with improvements in technology, AD bottlenecks caused by the physicochemical properties of the substrate are addressed and the hazardous greenhouse gas present in biogas yield is easily removed from AD processing yield. In this study, some of the process parameters and latest technologies for improved biogas yield have been revealed.
... This process consists of four stages: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis [13]. Each step relies on a specialized set of microorganisms working simultaneously to produce biogas and other compounds under anaerobic conditions [14]. The process of anaerobic digestion also occurs naturally in various types of environments: in hydromorphic soils; in the sediments at the bottom of water bodies, such as rivers, lakes [15], oceans, swamps, and ponds; in the guts of various insects [16][17][18][19][20][21]; and in the rumen of ruminant animals [22,23]. ...
The Pachnoda marginata larva have complex gut microbiota capable of the effective conversion of lignocellulosic biomass. Biotechnological utilization of these microorganisms in an engineered system can be achieved by establishing enrichment cultures using a lignocellulosic substrate. We established enrichment cultures from contents of the midgut and hindgut of the beetle larva using wheat straw in an alkaline medium at mesophilic conditions. Two different inoculation preparations were used: procedure 1 (P1) was performed in a sterile bench under oxic conditions using 0.4% inoculum and small gauge needles. Procedure 2 (P2) was carried out under anoxic conditions using more inoculum (4%) and bigger gauge needles. Higher methane production was achieved with P2, while the highest acetic acid concentrations were observed with P1. In the enrichment cultures, the most abundant bacterial families were Dysgonomonadaceae, Heliobacteriaceae, Ruminococcaceae, and Marinilabiliaceae. Further, the most abundant methanogenic genera were Methanobrevibacter, Methanoculleus, and Methanosarcina. Our observations suggest that in samples processed with P1, the volatile fatty acids were not completely converted to methane. This is supported by the finding that enrichment cultures obtained with P2 included acetoclastic methanogens, which might have prevented the accumulation of acetic acid. We conclude that differences in the inoculum preparation may have a major influence on the outcome of enrichment cultures from the P. marginata larvae gut.
... Two basic variations are present among the industrial composting and anaerobic digestion, which means the industrial composting occurs in the existences of oxygen, while the anaerobic process occurs without oxygen; in the earlier organic waste changed into methane, which is done by an electrical process [20], while subsequently the organic wastes changed to mature compost, like that of the horizon (top of soil). At the end of the reaction (complete decomposition), the remained material can be used as fertilizer for agriculture or home gardening, then these organic materials return to natural cycles [26,27]. It is priceless that PLA (polylactic acid), considered as the most significant polymers which are compostable by the industrial method are available in the market, but it is not biologically degraded in marine and soil ecosystems [20]. ...
Nowadays, the ubiquitous things in modern society are electronic devices and have become dominant in every aspect of human affairs. The smaller and shorter life span of electronic devices (e-devices) can induce stress on the management system of electronic wastes which continue to rising with no-abate-in-sight. It has been estimated that the photovoltaic waste would increase to 60 million tons in 2050 from 35,000 tons in 2020. Biodegradable electronic devices can reduce the environmental impacts of the electronic devices as these biodegradable e-devices can degrade easily and cause no environmental pollution as such to the electronic devices. The objective of this study is to highlight the importance and need of biodegradable electronic devices, to highlight it as a green solution for the management of electronic waste in the whole world. Hence these natural-based materials have the benefits of abundance in availability, low price, low immunoreaction, and most importantly its biodegradability. Generation of new solar cells having multiple biodegradable layers made up of silicon or any other biodegradable materials. Cellulose can be used as a transparent and elastic surfactant in organic solar cells due to high optical haze which can spread out the transmitted light and in this way enhance the solar cell efficiency. External quantum efficiency is 42% in solar cells which are made up of organic biodegradable materials. From this fact, we conclude that we can use easily available biodegradable transparent materials replacing the conventional glass and polyethylene terephthalate substrate like cellulose which is economically effective as well, it is nontoxic and has polymeric properties. Soil bacteria can easily degrade cellulose.
... Production parameters like temperature, hydraulic retention time, pH, total solid, volatile fatty acids, volatile solid, organic loading rate, shear stress, mixing, and inhibitors (NH 3 , hydroxymethyl furfural, furfural, etc.) can alter the process adversely and affect the effectiveness of the process if not well managed. Therefore, a proper range of these parameters must be set during the biogas production process to have a favorable biogas production process and yield [25]. Mesophilic (35-40 °C) and thermophilic (55-60 °C) are the two optimum temperature ranges for anaerobic digestion. ...
Population increase and industrialization has resulted in high energy demand and consumptions, and presently, fossil fuels are the major source of staple energy, supplying 80% of the entire consumption. This has contributed immensely to the greenhouse gas emission and leading to global warming, and as a result of this, there is a tremendous urgency to investigate and improve fresh and renewable energy sources worldwide. One of such renewable energy sources is biogas that is generated by anaerobic fermentation that uses different wastes such as agricultural residues, animal manure, and other organic wastes. During anaerobic digestion, hydrolysis of substrates is regarded as the most crucial stage in the process of biogas generation. However, this process is not always efficient because of the domineering stableness of substrates to enzymatic or bacteria assaults, but substrates’ pretreatment before biogas production will enhance biogas production. The principal objective of pretreatments is to ease the accessibility of the enzymes to the lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose which leads to degradation of the substrates. Hence, the use of pretreatment for catalysis of lignocellulose substrates is beneficial for the production of cost-efficient and eco-friendly process. In this review, we discussed different pretreatment technologies of hydrolysis and their restrictions. The review has shown that different pretreatments have varying effects on lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose degradation and biogas yield of different substrate and the choice of pretreatment technique will devolve on the intending final products of the process.
... Composting offers many advantages. It successfully diverts organic wastes from disposal in landfills 10 and converts them into simple components such as CO 2 , H 2 O, minerals, and humic-like compost. This bioprocess is driven by a community of living organisms, i.e., compost microbiota, whose rate of activity is influenced by environmental parameters, such as oxygen level, pH, temperature, water activity (a w ), C/N ratio, compost granulometry, and water content 11,12 . ...
Ubiquitous use of electronic devices has led to an unprecedented increase in related waste as well as the worldwide depletion of reserves of key chemical elements required in their manufacturing. The use of biodegradable and abundant organic (carbon-based) electronic materials can contribute to alleviate the environmental impact of the electronic industry. The pigment eumelanin is a bio-sourced candidate for environmentally benign (green) organic electronics. The biodegradation of eumelanin extracted from cuttlefish ink is studied both at 25 °C (mesophilic conditions) and 58 °C (thermophilic conditions) following ASTM D5338 and comparatively evaluated with the biodegradation of two synthetic organic electronic materials, namely copper (II) phthalocyanine (Cu–Pc) and polyphenylene sulfide (PPS). Eumelanin biodegradation reaches 4.1% (25 °C) in 97 days and 37% (58 °C) in 98 days, and residual material is found to be without phytotoxic effects. The two synthetic materials, Cu–Pc and PPS, do not biodegrade; Cu–Pc brings about the inhibition of microbial respiration in the compost. PPS appears to be potentially phytotoxic. Finally, some considerations regarding the biodegradation test as well as the disambiguation of “biodegradability” and “bioresorbability” are highlighted.
... While LFs are the most cost-efficient method of disposing waste materials, they are associated with environmental risks. Soil, water, and predominantly air are dirtied by the deposition of waste materials in the LFs [37]. In addition, decomposition of organic materials in the oxygen-free environment is slow which in long-term has negative effects on the next generations. ...
Biogas is a sustainable energy vector with diverse input sources (e.g. landfills and anaerobic digestion of waste materials, wastewater treatment sludge, manure from animal production, or energy crops) and diverse applications. The nature of the substrate and the design of the biogas production process determines the composition of raw biogas. All types of biogas must be cleaned and upgraded before delivering to the consumers and in practice, the key challenge of the biogas supply chain is its cleaning and upgrading to consumers quality. The physicochemical technologies used to clean and upgrade the raw biogas are reliable, mature and at high technology readiness levels.
This paper critically reviews the biogas supply chain including feedstock supply, biogas production and upgrading/cleaning processes, potential hazards of biogas contaminants, product specification based on applications, and biogas/biomethane uses. The biogas cleaning and upgrading technologies with emphasis on cost comparison are assessed. In summary, the upgrading technology alternatives and their associated costs are found substantially affected by the project-specific circumstances. For instance, upgrading with chemical scrubbing might be preferred in the availability of cheap on-site thermal energy. If the biomethane is planned to be injected into high-pressure natural gas pipelines, those upgrading methods operating at relatively high pressures (e.g. membranes) would be preferred. If the biomethane injection point to the gas grid is located distant from the production site, the distribution cost will also play a determinative role in the overall biogas supply chain economics. Among all these factors, plant capacity seems to be a pivotal element in the economics of biogas supply chain. Amendments to national and sub-national support schemes are also an important factor affecting investment decisions.
... Edible fiber films are difficult to make because they have poor film-forming properties. To improve this, Wan [205] performed a dynamic high-pressure micro-fluidization treatment. The final films have excellent solubility and mechanical properties and can be used for packaging noodles, spices, biscuits, and candies. ...
The food industry generates a large amount of waste every year, which opens up a research field aimed at minimizing and efficiently managing this issue to support the concept of zero waste. From the extraction process of oilseeds results oil cakes. These residues are a source of bioactive compounds (protein, dietary fiber, antioxidants) with beneficial properties for health, that can be used in foods, cosmetics, textile, and pharmaceutical industries. They can also serve as substrates for the production of enzymes, antibiotics, biosurfactants, and mushrooms. Other applications are in animal feedstuff and for composites, bio-fuel, and films production. This review discusses the importance of oilseed and possible valorization methods for the residues obtained in the oil industry.
... The whole world is going through an energy crisis, a crisis that can be reduced by producing energy from the BSG due to its high availability and low cost [12]. Biogas refers to a mixture of gases produced by anaerobic decomposition of organic matter through a complex process that occurs naturally in an oxygen-free environment and that is considered an effective method of converting biomass into methane [62]. Biogas is composed of methane (40-75%), water (0-10%), carbon dioxide (25-55%), hydrogen sulfide (1-3%), ammonia 0-1%, nitrogen 0-5%, oxygen 0-1, and hydrogen 0-1%. ...
This review was based on updated research on how to use brewer’s spent grains (BSG). The use of BSG was considered both in food, as an ingredient or using value-added components derived from brewer’s spent grain, or in non-food products such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, construction, or food packaging. BSG is a valuable source of individual components due to its high nutritional value and low cost that is worth exploiting more to reduce food waste but also to improve human health and the environment. From the bioeconomy point of view, biological resources are transformed into bioenergetically viable and economically valuable products. The pretreatment stage of BSG biomass plays an important role in the efficiency of the extraction process and the yield obtained. The pretreatments presented in this review are both conventional and modern extraction methods, such as solvent extractions or microwave-assisted extractions, ultrasonic-assisted extractions, etc.
... The overall recovery scheme of PGMs from spent auto-catalysts by pyro/hydrometallurgical methods have been reviewed from the perspective of steady demand and market challenges of PGMs (Hagelüken, 2012;Jha et al., 2013;Dong et al., 2015, Saguru et al., 2018Ghodrat et al., 2018). However, recycling PGMs from spent auto-catalysts has accounted for merely~25% of the total supply in past few years, despite the high value of the PGM contents (Fig. S2), and the value of spent auto-catalysts may not be the only source for reclaiming PGMs, but also other materials. ...
Spent auto-catalysts are considered as promising platinum group metals (PGMs) resources based on their rapidly increasing demand along with the underlying uncertainty of the sustainability and long-term availability of PGMs. Recycling spent auto-catalysts presents attractive advantages, particularly for the conservation of primary resources reserves, and for the reduction of negative environmental impact due to exploitation. PGM reclamation is the major aim of recycling operations despite their minor concentration in spent auto-catalysts, which implies that the remaining materials are disposed of as unwanted solid waste after the extraction process. This poses a genuine challenge, as well as a motivation to develop recycling processes for spent auto-catalysts capable of recovering all components/valuable metals, while moderating environmental pollution and global warming. The focus herein involves the description of the available technologies, including pyro- and hydro-metallurgical processes, to recover PGMs from spent auto-catalysts, and specifically an analysis of the developmental trends in recycling methods to ensure “sustainable metallurgy”.
... At completion (full decomposition), should it be used as a fertilizer (home gardening or agriculture), the organic waste's chemical elements are to reenter their natural cycles. 51,52 It is worth noting that polylactic acid (PLA), one of the most important industrially compostable polymers on the market, is not biodegradable in soil nor in a marine environment. 45 Composting constitutes an important way to mitigate climate change through its multiple benefits: (i) constrained growth in GHG emissions by an increased assimilation of carbon by agricultural soils (i.e., soil as sequestrating agent); (ii) improved soil quality by adding organic matter and nutrients (i.e., enhancing soil properties that allow moisture to be retained and erosion prevented, in turn replacing chemical fertilizers and avoiding the emission of GHGs related to their production); (iii) reducing pesticide use by lowering GHGs associated with their production; (iv) improved tilth and workability of soil by using less machinery and lowering emissions; (v) replacing the use of peat; (vi) reducing N 2 O emissions by avoiding N 2 O emissions from nitrogenous fertilizers; and (vii) keeping CO 2 concentrations at their historical background level or restoring these concentrations in impoverished soils with carbon-rich compost. ...
Consumer electronics have caused an unsustainable amount of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Organic electronics, by means of eco-design, represent an opportunity to manufacture compostable electronic devices.
Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), or e-waste, is defined as the waste of any device that uses a power source and that has reached its end of life. Disposing of WEEE at landfill sites has been identified as an inefficient solid waste processing strategy as well as a threat to human health and the environment. In the effort to mitigate the problem, practices such as (i) designing products for durability, reparability, and safe recycling, and (ii) promoting closed-loop systems based on systematic collection and reuse/refurbishment have been identified. In this perspective, we introduce a complementary route to making electronics more sustainable: organic electronics based on biodegradable materials and devices. Biodegradable organic electronics lie at the intersection of research in chemistry, materials science, device engineering, bioelectronics, microbiology, and toxicology. The design of organic electronics for standardized biodegradability will allow composting to be an end-of-life option.
The full text is Open access and can be found here: https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/B53A5E3F30B77905A2F7DEECB571E691/S2329222920000161a.pdf/en_route_toward_sustainable_organic_electronics.pdf
... This distinction is further exemplified in studies emphasising the philosophy of the "waste management hierarchy" (Sakai et al., 1996). Ghodrat, Tabatabaei, Aghbashlo, and Mussatto (2018) classified MSW technologies into two major categories; mechanical and biological treatment, and thermal treatment, with further sub-categories. These categories are essential in MSWM from a technology perspective but have to be appropriate and suitable for the local condition. ...
A B S T R A C T
Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) is a challenging issue for low-income countries, impacting on the environment, socio-economic, health, aesthetics and infrastructure, due to the generated volume of wastes, treatment and disposal methods. This challenge is often impacted by the transitioning of MSWM from mostly unsustainable methods to a sustainable level. A meaningful MSWM transition requires an understanding and consideration of historical developments and common themes. This paper reviews the common themes limiting
MSWM sustainability in the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China) countries as well as the historical transition of MSWM to a sustainable level in some high-income countries (United States, Japan, Denmark, and Australia). The study focuses on the interaction of MSWM with technology systems, related environmental issues, socioeconomic
factors, influence on policy and decision making. The objective of the paper is to develop a holistic MSWM framework to address the prevailing issues, by systematic analysis of related and relevant literatures. The
key MSWM findings drawn from the BRIC countries in this study is used to develop a thematic framework, underpinned by the different interacting factors of policy; environmental; socio-economic; and technology (PEST). The PEST thematic framework presents an adaptable systematic tool to policy and decision makers towards
improving MSWM in low-income countries.
... This distinction is further exemplified in studies emphasising the philosophy of the "waste management hierarchy" (Sakai et al., 1996). Ghodrat, Tabatabaei, Aghbashlo, and Mussatto (2018) classified MSW technologies into two major categories; mechanical and biological treatment, and thermal treatment, with further sub-categories. These categories are essential in MSWM from a technology perspective but have to be appropriate and suitable for the local condition. ...
Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) is a challenging issue for low-income countries, impacting on the environment, socio-economic, health, aesthetics and infrastructure, due to the generated volume of wastes, treatment and disposal methods. This challenge is often impacted by the transitioning of MSWM from mostly unsustainable methods to a sustainable level. A meaningful MSWM transition requires an understanding and consideration of historical developments and common themes. This paper reviews the common themes limiting MSWM sustainability in the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China) countries as well as the historical transition of MSWM to a sustainable level in some high-income countries (United States, Japan, Denmark, and Australia). The study focuses on the interaction of MSWM with technology systems, related environmental issues, socio-economic factors, influence on policy and decision making. The objective of the paper is to develop a holistic MSWM framework to address the prevailing issues, by systematic analysis of related and relevant literatures. The key MSWM findings drawn from the BRIC countries in this study is used to develop a thematic framework, underpinned by the different interacting factors of policy; environmental; socio-economic; and technology (PEST). The PEST thematic framework presents an adaptable systematic tool to policy and decision makers towards improving MSWM in low-income countries.
... This step requires low partial hydrogen pressures to support the growth and metabolism of acetogenic bacteria. The last step is methanogenesis in which acetic acid, CO 2 , and H 2 are converted into methane by the aid of acetoclastic and hydrogenotrophic methanogens, belonging to archaea (Angelidaki et al., 2018;Ghodrat et al., 2018;Tabatabaei et al., 2019b). Indeed, acetic acid and H 2 are two of the most significant intermediates acting as substrates for methanogenic archaea during the methanogenic assimilation of organic matters (Conrad, 1999). ...
Anaerobic digestion (AD) of organic wastes is among the most promising approaches used for the simultaneous treatment of various waste streams, environment conservation, and renewable bioenergy generation (biomethane). Among the latest innovations investigated to enhance the overall performance of this process both qualitatively and quantitatively, the application of some nanoparticles (NPs) has attracted a great deal of attention.Typically, the NPs of potential benefit to the AD process could be divided into three groups: (i) zerovalentiron (ZVI) NPs, (ii) metallic and metal oxides NPs, and (iii) carbon-based NPs. The present review focuses on the latest findings reported on the application of these NPs in AD process and presents their various mechanisms of action leading to higher or lower biogas production rates. Among the NPs studies, ZVI NPs could be regarded as the most promising nanomaterials for enhancing biogas production through stabilizing the AD process as well as by stimulating the growth of beneficial microorganisms to the AD process and the enzymes involved. Future research should focus on various attributes of NPs when used as additives in biogas production,
including facilitating mixing and pumping operations, enriching the population and diversity of beneficial microorganisms for AD, improving biogas release, and inducing the production and activity of AD-related enzymes. The higher volume of methane-enriched biogas would be translated into higher returns on investment and could therefore, result in further growth of the biogas production industry. Nevertheless, efforts should be devoted to decreasing the price of NPs so that the enhanced biogas and methane production (by over 90%, compared to control) would be more economically justified, facilitating the large-scale application of these compounds. In addition to economic considerations, environmental issues are also regarded as major constraints which should be addressed prior to widespread implementation of NP-augmented AD processes. More specifically, the fate of NPs augmented in AD process should be scrutinized to ensure maximal beneficial impacts while adverse environmental/health consequences are minimized.
... The synthesized organic acids from these monomers (i.e., through the acidogenesis step) are consumed by acetogenic bacteria for production of CO 2 , acetic acid, and H 2 in the third step (i.e., acetogenesis). In the last step, archaea, i.e., acetoclastic and hydrogenotrophic methanogens convert the product of the previous step into methane [101,102]. Upon the completion of these steps, biogas containing up to 60-70% methane, 30-40% carbon dioxide, and low concentrations of other gases (such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and water vapors) and digestate (i.e., a mixture of liquid and solid substances) are produced as the main products [103][104][105][106][107][108]. Whilst the purified biogas could be applied for electricity generation using gas generators, digestate that is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus has found applications as high-quality agricultural fertilizer [109,110]. ...
Agricultural and livestock/slaughterhouse wastes are produced in huge quantities and could be promising sources for electricity generation to partially reduce dependence on fossil-oriented electricity. In light of that, the state of the production for these wastes in different parts of the globe was first presented. Subsequently, various waste-to-energy technologies and their electricity generation feasibility from both environmental and economic perspectives were reviewed. Finally, electricity generation and greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction potentials through anaerobic digestion of the above-mentioned wastes generated in each province of Iran in 2016 were investigated as a case study. Accordingly, Khuzestan province with the highest amount of agro-wastes (7.61 million tons) and Sistan and Baluchestan province with the highest amount of livestock/slaughterhouse wastes (10.69 million tons) had the maximum electricity generation potentials of 82.83MW and 164.23 MW, respectively. Moreover, the country's total potentials for electricity generation from these wastes was determined at 2848.26 MW. Based on the life cycle assessment (LCA) results, a minimum of 10,693.5 thousand tons CO2eq/yr could be avoided by valorizing these wastes into electricity in Iran. This would be translated into 1.5% reduction
of Iran's annual GHG emissions; a promising achievement given Iran's international GHGs reduction commitment. Moreover, if a short-term time horizon would be considered for electricity generation from these wastes, the reduction rate could reach 24,153 thousand tons CO2eq/yr, i.e., 3.39% reduction of Iran's annual GHG emissions. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report scrutinizing electricity generation potentials from both agricultural and livestock or slaughterhouse wastes in Iran while assessing the consequent GHG emission reduction potentials. The outcomes of the study could assist policy makers with decisions aimed at taking advantage of these resources while the platform introduced pave the way for other researchers to conduct similar studies in different parts of the world.
... A C C E P T E D M A N U S C R I P T 5 As shown in Fig. 2, biogas is produced under anaerobic conditions by several complex biochemical reactions through four different stages, including hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis (Ghodrat et al., 2018). The overall bioconversion reaction of food wastes into biogas is presented in Eq. ...
Food wastes have a high biomethane production potential because of their high organic matter contents. This review paper presents an overview on the fundamentals of anaerobic digestion (AD) of food wastes. The most important influential parameters on the biomethane production, including feedstock characteristics (nutrient contents, particle size, and inhibitory compounds) and process parameters (process configuration, pH, temperature, retention time, organic loading rate, agitation, hydrogen concentration, moisture content, and inoculum), are discussed in full. Moreover, recent developments aimed at improving the AD of food wastes are classified and discussed as operational parameters optimization, additives application, digestate recirculation, frequent feeding, and feedstock pretreatment. Finally, future challenges and prospects of biogas production from food wastes are presented.
Beer and spirits are two of the most consumed alcoholic beverages in the world, and their production generates enormous amounts of by-product materials. This ranges from spent grain, spent yeast, spent kieselguhr, trub, carbon dioxide, pot ale, and distilled gin spent botanicals. The present circular economy dynamics and increased awareness on resource use for enhanced sustainable production practices have driven changes and innovations in the management practices and utilization of these by-products. These include food product development, functional food applications, biotechnological applications, and bioactive compounds extraction. As a result, the brewing and distilling sector of the food and drinks industry is beginning to see a shift from conventional uses of by-products such as animal feed to more innovative applications. This review paper therefore explored some of these valorization initiatives and the current state of the art.
This study reviews the innovations and optimizations in biogas production from the biological perspective reported by recently published patents and research works. The proposed biological strategies can be categorized into three different groups, i.e., upstream, mainstream, and downstream approaches. In the first part of this review, upstream strategies, including pretreatments by fungal,
microbial consortium, and enzymatic as well as some other biological methods including microaeration, composting, ensiling, and genetic and metabolic engineering are discussed in detail. The impacts of
upstream strategies on biogas production as well as their potentials in further improving the biogas industry are comprehensively scrutinized. Despite their promising impacts on biogas production, such biological innovations are time-consuming and require extra equipment and facilities that should be addressed in future studies. Overall, most information on biogas production has been generated through
lab-scale investigations and not by commercial plants, undermining the commercial value of these data for the right decision-making. Pilot data would be necessary for techno-economic analyses with acceptable accuracies. Therefore, the future efforts should be directed toward providing the missing data for re-engineering designs, calculations, and life cycle assessment (LCA) of the newly designed biogas plants.
Biogas is produced during anaerobic digestion (AD) of biodegradable organic materials. AD is a series of biochemical reactions in which microorganisms degrade organic matter under anaerobic conditions. There are many biomass resources that can be degraded by AD to produce biogas. Biogas consists of methane, carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other gases. The gamut of feedstocks used in AD includes animal manure, municipal solid waste, sewage sludge, and various crops.Several factors affect the potential of feedstocks for biomethane production. The factors include nutrient content, total and volatile solids (VS) content, chemical and biological oxygen demand, carbon/nitrogen ratio, and the presence of inhibitory substances. The biochemical methane potential (BMP), often defined as the maximum volume of methane produced per g of VS substrate provides an indication of the biodegradability of a substrate and its potential to produce methane via AD. The BMP test is a method of establishing a baseline for performance of AD. BMP data are useful for designing AD parameters in order to optimise methane production. Several methods which include experimental and theoretical methods can be used to determine BMP. The objective of this paper is to review several methods with a special focus on their advantages and disadvantages. The review shows that experimental methods, mainly the BMP test are widely used. The BMP test is credited for its reliability and validity. There are variants of BMP assays as well. Theoretical models are alternative methods to estimate BMP. They are credited for being fast and easy to use. Spectroscopy has emerged as a new experimental tool to determine BMP. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages with reference to efficacy, time, and ease of use. Choosing a method to use depends on various exigencies. More work needs to be continuously done in order to improve the various methods used to determine BMP.
Waste management and declining soil fertility are the two main issues experienced by all developing nations, like India. Nowadays, agricultural utilization of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is one of the most promising and cost effective options for managing solid waste. It is helpful in solving two current burning issues viz. soil fertility and MSW management. However, there is always a potential threat because MSW may contain pathogens and toxic pollutants. Therefore, much emphasis has been paid to composting of MSW in recent years. Application of compost from MSW in agricultural land helps in ameliorating the soil’s physico-chemical properties. Apart from that it also assists in improving biological response of cultivated land. Keeping the present situation in mind, this review critially discusses the current scenario, agricultural utilization of MSW compost, role of soil microbes and soil microbial response on municipal solid waste compost application.
Even though landfilling of waste is the least favourable option in the waste management hierarchy, the majority of municipal solid waste (MSW) in many countries is still landfilled. This represents waste of valuable resources and could lead to higher environmental impacts compared to energy recovered by incineration, even if the landfill gas is recovered. Using life cycle assessment (LCA) as a tool, this paper aims to find out which of the following two options for MSW disposal is more environmentally sustainable: incineration or recovery of biogas from landfills, each producing either electricity or co-generating heat and electricity. The systems are compared on a life cycle basis for two functional units: ‘disposal of 1 tonne of MSW’ and ‘generation of 1kWh of electricity’. The results indicate that, if both systems are credited for their respective recovered energy and recyclable materials, energy from incineration has much lower impacts than from landfill biogas across all impact categories, except for human toxicity. The impacts of incineration co-generating heat and electricity are negative for nine out of 11 categories as the avoided impacts for the recovered energy and materials are higher than those caused by incineration. By improving the recovery rate of biogas, some impacts of landfilling, such as global warming, depletion of fossil resources, acidification and photochemical smog, would be significantly reduced. However, most impacts of the landfill gas would still be higher than the impacts of incineration, except for global warming and human toxicity. The analysis on the basis of net electricity produced shows that the LCA impacts of electricity from incineration are several times lower in comparison to the impacts of electricity from landfill biogas. Electricity from incineration has significantly lower global warming and several other impacts than electricity from coal and oil but has higher impacts than electricity from natural gas or UK grid. At the UK level, diverting all MSW currently landfilled to incineration with energy recovery would not only avoid the environmental impacts associated with landfilling but, under the current assumptions, would also meet 2.3% of UK’s electricity demand and save 2–2.6million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions per year.
Solid waste management is a global concern, and landfilling remains the predominant management method in most areas of the world. This book provides a comprehensive view of state-of-the-art methods to manage landfills more sustainably, drawing upon more than two decades of research, design, and operational experiences at operating sites across the world. Sustainable landfills implement one or multiple technologies to control and enhance the degradation of waste materials to realize a multitude of potential benefits during or shortly after the landfill’s operating phase. This book presents detailed approaches in the development, design, operation, and monitoring of sustainable landfills. Case studies showcasing the benefits and challenges of sustainable landfill technologies are also provided to give the reader additional context. The intent of the book is to serve as a reference guide for regulatory personnel, a practical tool for designers and engineers to build on for site-specific applications of sustainable landfill technologies, and a comprehensive resource for researchers who are continuing to explore new and better ways to more sustainably manage waste materials.
In Europe the mechanical/biological treatment (MBT) is an increasing option as a pre-treatment either before landfilling or before combustion. In this paper, taking into account the new EU directives and in particular the Italian situation, differences between fuel derived from MSW (RDF) and Solid Recovery Fuel (SRF) are presented. In agreement with the new EU directives, RDF/SRF can be produced from approaches based both on the one-stream plant concept and on the conventional two-streams process. The first option refers to bio-drying. The effect of different strategies of selective collection of MSW are analyzed in term of characteristics of the residual MSW and its suitability to be converted into RDF/SRF. The role of respirometry is discussed too.
Recovery of energy from MSW by combustion in Waste-to-Energy (WTE) plants reduces landfilling and air/water emissions, and also lessens dependence on fossil fuels for power generation. The objective of this study was to assess the potential of gasification processes as an alternative to the combustion of MSW. Gasification uses a relatively small amount of oxygen or water vapor to convert the organic compounds into a combustible gas. Its advantages are a much lower volume of process gas per unit of MSW and thus smaller volume of gas control equipment; also, gasification generates a fuel gas that can be integrated with combined cycle turbines or reciprocating engines, thus converting fuel energy to electricity more efficiently than the steam boilers used in combustion of MSW. The disadvantages are the need to pre-process the MSW to a Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) and the formation of heavy organic compounds (tars), that may foul the downstream gas cleaning and energy conversion systems. This paper presents two prominent gasification processes and compares their energy characteristics with a mass burn WTE and a suspension firing WTE that uses shredded WTE. The results showed potential energy and capital cost advantages for gasification. However, the operational difficulties experienced at several pilot and demonstration plants indicate that long-term operating results from a large industrial plant are needed before gasification can be considered a reliable alternative to combustion. The Gasification Process
The Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) sector has developed considerably during the past century, paving the way for maximum resource (materials and energy) recovery and minimising environmental impacts such as global warming associated with it. The current study is assessing the historical development of MSWM in the municipality of Aalborg, Denmark throughout the period of 1970 to 2010, and its implications regarding Global Warming Potential (GWP100), using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach. Historical data regarding MSW composition, and different treatment technologies such as incineration, recycling and composting has been used in order to perform the analysis. The LCA results show a continuous improvement in environmental performance of MSWM from 1970 to 2010 mainly due to the changes in treatment options, improved efficiency of various treatment technologies and increasing focus on recycling, resulting in a shift from net emission of 618kg CO2-eq.tonne(-1) to net saving of 670kg CO2-eq.tonne(-1) of MSWM.
Urban sustainability has been envisaged as a process, not as a situation. Landfill diversion of household waste and construction and demolition debris has also been treated as a process that moves towards a target. The diversion requires a management effort, which in turn also is a process with a final target in mind. The management talent of the municipal administration has been incorporated into the sustainability indicator.
The ultimate in recycling, composting has been in use in some form since ancient times. A well-managed composting facility should exist as a good neighbor contributing to ecology. However, since local populations often perceive risks if a composting facility is built nearby, composting facilities must be designed and operated with minimal odor, dust, and noise emissions. Industrial Composting examines the key operational aspects and problems associated with composting, with strong emphasis on odor mitigation, pathogens, and aerosols. Designed for composting professionals and supported by extensive quality references, this book covers: • Facilities Planning and Design • Odor Management • Design, Material, Energy, and Water Balances • Economics of Product Marketing and Sales • Public Relations, Participation, and Communication Regulations • Pathogen Concentrations as Related to Feedstocks • Bioaerosols Associated with Composting and Their Potential Diseases While many books cover composting, most of those currently available are either out of date or contain only a few chapters on the subject. With interest growing in the use of composting for biosolids, food wastes, and other specialty areas, the need for an up-to-date, focused resource is also increasing. To assist composting practitioners, community decision makers, and advocates, Industrial Composting brings recent advances and best practices in composting together in an accessible, professional volume.
Landfilling has been and still remains an important means of municipal solid waste management but it poses a threat to the purity of the environment, especially air. In the coming years, a radical decline in the share of landfilling in waste disposal practices should not be expected. However, this is not to say that people are powerless in the face of the emission of harmful gases into the atmosphere, the spread of bioaerosols and odors. There are many ways of preventing the negative impact of landfills or protecting the environment against such an impact. Some of these preventive and protective measures are described in Mitigation of Landfill Gas Emissions. Special attention is given to the application of anaerobic, aerobic and semi-aerobic bioreactor landfills for control of landfill gas emission. Different types of biotic systems for the oxidation of methane and trace gases, such as biocovers, biofilters, and biowindows, are also presented.
Biogas upgrading is a widely studied and discussed topic and its utilisation as a natural gas substitute has gained
a significant attention in recent years. The production of biomethane provides a versatile application in both
heat and power generation and as a vehicular fuel. This paper systematically reviews the state of the art of biogas
upgrading technologies with upgrading efficiency, methane (CH
) loss, environmental effect, development and
commercialisation, and challenges in terms of energy consumption and economic assessment. The market situation
for biogas upgrading has changed rapidly in recent years, making the membrane separation gets significant
market share with traditional biogas upgrading technologies. In addition, the potential utilisation of
biogas, efficient conversion into bio-compressed natural gas (bio-CNG), and storage systems are investigated in
depth. Two storing systems for bio-CNG at filling stations, namely buffer and cascade storage systems are used.
The best storage system should be selected on the basis of the advantages of both systems. Also, the fuel economy
and mass emissions for bio-CNG and CNG filled vehicles are studied. There is the same fuel economy and less
carbon dioxide (CO2) emission for bio-CNG. Based on the results of comparisons between the technical features
of upgrading technologies, various specific requirements for biogas utilisation and the relevant investment, and
operating and maintenance costs, future recommendations are made for biogas upgrading.
This study proposes a multi-step approach to evaluating the environmental and economic aspects of a thermal treatment plant with an energy-recovery configuration. In order to validate the proposed approach, the Turin incineration plant was analyzed, and the potential of the incinerator and several different possible connections to the district heating network were then considered. Both local and global environmental balances were defined. The global-scale results provided information on carbon dioxide emissions, while the local-scale results were used as reference values for the implementation of a Gaussian model that could evaluate the actual concentrations of pollutants released into the atmosphere. The economic aspects were then analyzed, and a correspondence between the environmental and economic advantages defined.
The results showed a high energy efficiency for the combined production of heat and electricity, and the opportunity to minimize environmental impacts by including cogeneration in a district heating scheme. This scheme showed an environmental advantage, whereas the electricity-only configuration showed an economic advantage. A change in the thermal energy price (specifically, to 40 €/MWh), however, would make it possible to obtain both environmental and economic advantages.
Sponsored by the Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Engineering Committee of the Environmental Council of the Environmental and Water Resources Institute of ASCE Sustainable Solid Waste Management describes basic principles and recent advances for handling solid waste in an environmentally sustainable way. Solid waste poses problems of quantity-the sheer amount is increasing around the world-but also of environmental impact, especially with the introduction of materials harmful to ecosystems. This volume uses a global lens to examine all aspects of the solid waste, including waste minimization, waste as a resource, appropriate disposal, and efficient systems fostered by effective public policy. Written by leading experts, the 22 chapters analyze the critical issues to be considered during the various stages of a waste management program. Topics include: public policies focusing on reducing waste at its source, recycling, and minimizing disposal amounts; technologies for treating and recycling solid waste; safe, efficient treatment and disposal of hazardous and other special wastes; development and maintenance of engineered landfills and landfill mining; and legal frameworks and the use of life-cycle assessment as a tool for the waste management industry. Municipal engineers, environmental managers, researchers, students, policy makers, and planners will find this book to be an essential guide to social and technological issues related to sustainable solid waste management.
The increasing trend in the consumption of various materials has also led to a huge increase in the final waste streams especially in the form of municipal solid waste (MSW) and the consequent environmental pollutions in particular greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These have made MSW management a significant environmental issue for governments and policy-makers. To address these challenges, developed countries have implemented sustainable material management (SMM) strategies which have been comprehensively reviewed herein. Moreover, waste generation statistics reported for most of the developed and developing countries as well as the existing gaps in MSW management among these countries have been fully discussed. The present paper was also aimed at comprehensively assessing electricity generation potentials from MSW using an integrated solid waste management system (including three different technologies of anaerobic digestion (AD), incineration, and pyrolysis-gasification) while the consequent GHG emission reduction potentials as a result of their implementation were also explored. To facilitate the understanding of the potential impacts of these treatment strategies, Iran's data were used as a case study. More specifically, the theoretical and technical potentials of electricity generation were calculated and the GHG emission reduction potentials were estimated using a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach. Overall, it was found that 5005.4–5545.8 GW h of electricity could be generated from MSW in Iran annually which could lead to approximately 3561–4844 thousand tons of avoided CO2eq. Such GHG reductions would be translated into approximately 0.5% of Iran's annual GHG emissions and would be considered a promising achievement given Iran's international GHGs reduction commitment, i.e., 4% reduction of anthropogenic GHGs emissions by 2030 below the business as usual scenario. Such findings could also be modeled for the other developing countries around the world where efficient MSW management is yet to be implemented.
Although less well-developed compared to anaerobic sustainable landfilling technologies, the addition of air as an extensive or just a portion of sustainable landfilling operations provides a series of distinct potential benefits compared to anaerobic systems. The fundamental system configuration and design approaches for aerobic systems are provided, along with operation, monitoring, and control techniques. Given the unique nature and relatively limited experience with full-scale aerobic systems (compared to anaerobic), a special series of case studies from Asia, Europe, and North America are provided to provide examples of how aerobic technologies can be incorporated into sustainable landfilling operations.
This study analyses the municipal solid waste management system of 172 countries from all over the globe with a population of 3.37 billion. This study indicates that we generate around 1.47 billion tonnes (436 kg/cap/year) of municipal solid waste each year and waste generation is increasing over time. This study also found that there is a positive correlation (r = 0.539, p < 0.05) between per capita income gross domestic product(GDP/capita/year) and per capita waste generation (kg/capita/year) and a similar correlation is also observed (r = 0.653, p < 0.05) between per capita income (GDP/year) and per capita resource recovery (kg/year). The findings of this study show that globally, about 84% of the waste is collected and only 15% of the waste is recycled and most of the global waste was still managed by landfills. This study tries to measure the environmental benefits of global waste management systems by applying a tool called the Zero Waste Index (ZWI). The ZWI measures the waste management performance by accounting for the potential amount of virgin material that can be offset by recovering resources from waste. In addition, the ZWI tool also considers the energy, greenhouse gas (GHG) and water savings by offsetting virgin materials and recovering energy from waste. The ZWI of the world in this study is measured to be 0.12, which means that the current waste management system potentially offsets only 12% of the total virgin material substitution potential from waste. Annually, an average person saves around 219 kWh of energy, emits about 48 kg of GHG and saves around 38 l of water. The global municipal solid waste management systems potentially contributed around 60 per person of economic benefits annually.
In this paper an effort is made to analyse the requirements of green buildings. The conflict between the building industry and the concern for the environment are discussed. The various steps followed in making life cycle assessment of the buildings are discussed. It is focussed on how LCA is used to evaluate the environmental impact assessment of the Buildings.
Landfill mining permits recovering secondary raw materials from landfills. Whether this purpose is economically feasible, however, is a matter of various aspects. One is the amount of recoverable secondary raw material (like metals) that can be exploited with a profit. Other influences are the costs for excavation, for processing the waste at the landfill site and for paying charges on the secondary disposal of waste. Depending on the objectives of a landfill mining project (like the recovery of a ferrous and/or a calorific fraction) these expenses and revenues are difficult to assess in advance. This situation complicates any previous assessment of the economic feasibility and is the reason why many landfills that might be suitable for landfill mining are continuingly operated as active landfills, generating aftercare costs and leaving potential hazards to later generations. This article presents a newly developed simulation model for landfill mining projects. It permits identifying the quantities and qualities of output flows that can be recovered by mining and by mobile on-site processing of the waste based on treatment equipment selected by the landfill operator. Thus, charges for disposal and expected revenues from secondary raw materials can be assessed. Furthermore, investment, personnel, operation, servicing and insurance costs are assessed and displayed, based on the selected mobile processing procedure and its throughput, among other things. For clarity, the simulation model is described in this article using the example of a real Austrian sanitary landfill.
he collection, transportation and subsequent processing of waste materials is a vast field of study which incorporates technical, social, legal, economic, environmental and regulatory issues. Common waste management practices include landfilling, biological treatment, incineration, and recycling - all boasting advantages and disadvantages. Waste management has changed significantly over the past ten years, with an increased focus on integrated waste management and life-cycle assessment (LCA), with the aim of reducing the reliance on landfill with its obvious environmental concerns in favour of greener solutions. With contributions from more than seventy internationally known experts presented in two volumes and backed by the International Waste Working Group and the International Solid Waste Association, detailed chapters cover: Waste Generation and Characterization. Life Cycle Assessment of Waste Management Systems. Waste Minimization. Material Recycling. Waste Collection. Mechanical Treatment and Separation. Thermal Treatment. Biological Treatment. Landfilling. Special and Hazardous Waste. Solid Waste Technology & Management is a balanced and detailed account of all aspects of municipal solid waste management, treatment and disposal, covering both engineering and management aspects with an overarching emphasis on the life-cycle approach.
Pyrolysis has been examined as an attractive alternative to incineration for municipal solid waste (MSW) disposal that allows energy and resource recovery; however, it has seldom been applied independently with the output of pyrolysis products as end products. This review addresses the state-of-the-art of MSW pyrolysis in regards to its technologies and reactors, products and environmental impacts. In this review, first, the influence of important operating parameters such as final temperature, heating rate (HR) and residence time in the reaction zone on the pyrolysis behaviours and products is reviewed; then the pyrolysis technologies and reactors adopted in literatures and scale-up plants are evaluated. Third, the yields and main properties of the pyrolytic products from individual MSW components, refuse-derived fuel (RDF) made from MSW, and MSW are summarised. In the fourth section, in addition to emissions from pyrolysis processes, such as HCl, SO2 and NH3, contaminants in the products, including PCDD/F and heavy metals, are also reviewed, and available measures for improving the environmental impacts of pyrolysis are surveyed. It can be concluded that the single pyrolysis process is an effective waste-to-energy convertor but is not a guaranteed clean solution for MSW disposal. Based on this information, the prospects of applying pyrolysis technologies to dealing with MSW are evaluated and suggested.
Production of RDF/SRFRDF Characterization and Quality AssuranceUtilization of RDF/SRFReferences
The generation of municipal solid waste is further increasing in China with urbanization and improvement of living standards. The "12th five-year plan" period (2011-2015) promotes waste-to-energy technologies for the harmless disposal and recycling of municipal solid waste. Waste-to-energy plant plays an important role for reaching China's energy conservation and emission reduction targets. Industrial policies and market prospect of waste-to-energy industry are described. Technology, cost and benefit of waste-to-energy plant are also discussed. Based on an economic analysis of a waste-to-energy project in China (Return on Investment, Net Present Value, Internal Rate of Return, and Sensitivity Analysis) the paper makes the conclusions.
The novel concepts Enhanced Waste Management (EWM) and Enhanced Landfill Mining (ELFM) intend to place landfilling of waste in a sustainable context. The state of the technology is an important factor in determining the most suitable moment to valorize – either as materials (Waste-to-Product, WtP) or as energy (Waste-to-Energy, WtE) – certain landfill waste streams. The present paper reviews thermochemical technologies (incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, plasma technologies, combinations) for energetic valorization of calorific waste streams, with focus on municipal solid waste (MSW), possibly processed into refuse derived fuel (RDF). The potential and suitability of these thermochemical technologies for ELFM applications are discussed. From this review it is clear that process and waste have to be closely matched, and that some thermochemical processes succeed in recovering both materials and energy from waste. Plasma gasification/vitrification is a viable candidate for combined energy and material valorization, its technical feasibility for MSW/RDF applications (including excavated waste) has been proven on installations ranging from pilot to full scale. The continued advances that are being made in process control and process efficiency are expected to improve the commercial viability of these advanced thermochemical conversion technologies in the near future.
Anaerobic Digestion (AD) of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is used in several regions worldwide and systems span a range of design options including wet, dry, thermophilic, mesophilic, batch, continuous, single-stage, and multi-stage configurations. This paper reviews a number of commercial and emerging solid waste digestion systems discussing performance and costs. Systems yield 250–710 m³ of biogas per tonne of VS at rates of 1–6 m³/m³/d with methane content of 55–65%, depending on MSW composition. Economies of scale have been shown for system costs. Economic viability depends heavily on capital and operating costs, tipping fees and product/co-product revenues.
Electronic waste (e-waste) is one of the fastest-growing pollution problems worldwide given the presence if a variety of toxic substances which can contaminate the environment and threaten human health, if disposal protocols are not meticulously managed. This paper presents an overview of toxic substances present in e-waste, their potential environmental and human health impacts together with management strategies currently being used in certain countries. Several tools including Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Material Flow Analysis (MFA), Multi Criteria Analysis (MCA) and Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) have been developed to manage e-wastes especially in developed countries. The key to success in terms of e-waste management is to develop eco-design devices, properly collect e-waste, recover and recycle material by safe methods, dispose of e-waste by suitable techniques, forbid the transfer of used electronic devices to developing countries, and raise awareness of the impact of e-waste. No single tool is adequate but together they can complement each other to solve this issue. A national scheme such as EPR is a good policy in solving the growing e-waste problems.
The creation of sustainable landfills is a fundamental goal in waste management worldwide. In this connection landfill aeration contributes towards an accelerated, controlled and sustainable conversion of conventional anaerobic landfills into a biological stabilized state associated with a minimised emission potential. The technology has been successfully applied to landfills in Europe, North America and Asia, following different strategies depending on the geographical region, the specific legislation and the available financial resources. Furthermore, methodologies for the incorporation of landfill aeration into the carbon trade mechanisms have been developed in recent years. This manuscript gives an overview on existing concepts for landfill aeration; their application ranges and specifications. For all of the described concepts examples from different countries worldwide are provided, including details regarding their potentials and limitations. Some of the most important findings from these aeration projects are summarised and future research needs have been identified. It becomes apparent that there is a great demand for a systematisation of the available results and implications in order to further develop and optimise this very promising technology. The IWWG (International Waste Working Group) Task Group "Landfill Aeration" contributes towards the achievement of this goal.
Landfills have historically been seen as the ultimate solution for storing waste at minimum cost. It is now a well-known fact that such deposits have related implications such as long-term methane emissions, local pollution concerns, settling issues and limitations on urban development. Landfill mining has been suggested as a strategy to address such problems, and in principle means the excavation, processing, treatment and/or recycling of deposited materials. This study involves a literature review on landfill mining covering a meta-analysis of the main trends, objectives, topics and findings in 39 research papers published during the period 1988-2008. The results show that, so far, landfill mining has primarily been seen as a way to solve traditional management issues related to landfills such as lack of landfill space and local pollution concerns. Although most initiatives have involved some recovery of deposited resources, mainly cover soil and in some cases waste fuel, recycling efforts have often been largely secondary. Typically, simple soil excavation and screening equipment have therefore been applied, often demonstrating moderate performance in obtaining marketable recyclables. Several worldwide changes and recent research findings indicate the emergence of a new perspective on landfills as reservoirs for resource extraction. Although the potential of this approach appears significant, it is argued that facilitating implementation involves a number of research challenges in terms of technology innovation, clarifying the conditions for realization and developing standardized frameworks for evaluating economic and environmental performance from a systems perspective. In order to address these challenges, a combination of applied and theoretical research is required.
European Union (EU) member states are adopting the mechanical-biological treatment (MBT) of municipal solid waste (MSW) to comply with EU Landfill Directive (LD) targets on landfill diversion. We review the policy framework for MSW-derived solid recovered fuel (SRF), composed of paper, plastic, and textiles, in the energy-intensive industries. A comparatively high calorific value (15-18 MJ/ kg) fuel, SRF has the potential to partially replace fossil fuel in energy-intensive industries, alongside MSW in dedicated combustion facilities. Attempts by the European standards organization (CEN) to classify fuel properties consider net calorific value (CV) and chlorine and mercury content. However, the particle size, moisture content, and fuel composition also require attention and future studies must address these parameters. We critically review the implications of using SRF as a co-fuel in thermal processes. A thermodynamic analysis provides insight into the technical and environmental feasibility of co-combusting SRF in coal-fired power plants and cement kilns. Results indicate the use of SRF as co-fuel can reduce global warming and acidification potential significantly. This policy analysis is of value to waste managers, policy specialists, regulators, and the waste management research community.
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