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Contemporary Language Motivation Theory: 60 Years Since Gardner and Lambert (1959)
Ali H. Al-Hoorie
hoorie_a@jic.edu.sa
Peter D. MacIntyre
Peter_MacIntyre@cbu.ca
This symposium celebrates the legacy and continuing influence of Robert C. Gardner, the father
of the second language (L2) motivation field, at the 60th anniversary of the seminal paper by
Gardner and Lambert (1959). Gardner’s contributions go beyond the one-dimensional
integrative–instrumental dichotomy. A group of distinguished scholars were invited to contribute
to this symposium, each addressing a dimension of Gardner’s contributions that links directly to
contemporary developments in second language acquisition (SLA) theory and research. The
topics come from diverse disciplinary perspectives, instantiating the extensive influence of
Gardner’s work. The presentations feature issues spanning macro-level processes of intergroup
relations and social harmony to micro-level processes of intra-individual development and
emotional reactions. Few SLA theorists have had such far-reaching influence.
Each presentation takes Gardner’s work in a new direction. Taylor discusses the role of language
in collective identity as opposed to the popular individual difference approach. Clément and
Rubenfeld explore the motivation to learn a second language and how it can become a cultural
mediator in conflict situations. Noels and colleagues offer an update on the Language Learning
Orientations Scale, while Dewaele discusses his research findings in relation to willingness to
communicate. Finally, MacIntyre and Ross discuss the relationship between Gardner’s model
and the important question of emotions. This inspiring collection of papers will be a unique
experience for the audience, taking the field toward exciting new directions, even as we celebrate
the first 60 years of Gardner’s contributions.
Social Psychology and Second-Language Learning:
How I tried to convince my supervisor to change the question
Donald M Taylor
donald.taylor@mcgill.ca
McGill University
My supervisor (Gardner) along with a cadre of his extremely bright graduate students were
immersed in successfully building models of second language learning. I couldn’t escape
concepts such as instrumental and integrative motivation, the rigours of their measurement and
how they interacted in complex statistical models. As the junior student at the time, and a quiet
one at that, my argument was that all these models focussed on individual differences when we
should be focussed on the crucial role that language plays for collective identity, especially for
disadvantaged groups. I may not have convinced my colleagues, but a gracious supervisor at
least allowed me to thrive.
An early influence on the social psychology of language: The socio-educational model of
second language acquisition
Richard Clément
School of Psychology, University of Ottawa
rclement@uottawa.ca
Sara Rubenfeld
Department of National Defence, Government of Canada
Sara.Rubenfeld@forces.gc.ca
Abstract:
Gardner’s research was articulated around a conjecture of motivation to acquire a second
language (L2) stemming from intergroup attitudes and identification, thus laying the field for the
introduction of social psychological constructs to issues of language acquisition. This paper will
explore aspects of the legacy of his model. Among the many ramifications, some have dealt with
societal contexts showing, for example, that the status of the language learner and of the target
language group impact the outcome of L2 acquisition. Further studies have sought to delineate
its impact on the social adaptation of the learners. More recent studies have pushed the social
agenda further by studying aspects under which the L2 speaker is likely to become a cultural
mediator in conflict situations. These findings are discussed within the context of current
approaches to L2 motivation.
Assessment of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation for Learning Another Language:
Updating the Language Learning Orientations Scale (LLOS)
Kimberly A. Noels, Nigel Mantou Lou, Dayuma Vargas Lascano, Kathryn E. Chaffee, and Doris
Zhang
Department of Psychology, P217 Biological Sciences Building, University of Alberta, Edmonton
AB, Canada T6G 1X6
knoels@ualberta.ca
Abstract
For almost 20 years, Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; 2017) has been used as a
theoretical lens to understand students’ motivation for learning another language. An often
examined component of the theory is how different forms of regulation are supported by the
social context and their implications for engagement, academic achievement, and well-being.
One of the first instruments to assess these regulations, the Language Learning Orientation Scale
(LLOS), was developed in Canada almost 20 years ago (Noels et al., 2000). Since then it has
been useful for understanding motivation across learners of foreign and heritage languages, as
well as learners of English. Despite its demonstrated utility, the LLOS has some limitations,
including some Canadian-centred items and the lack of a subscale to assess integrated regulation.
Accordingly, this study examined the psychometric characteristic of the revised LLOS in 1899
current (n = 360) and past (n = 1539) learners of diverse languages. Across both groups, the
results of exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) supported equivalent models, with
six dimensions representing amotivation; external, introjected, identified and integrated
regulation (i.e., extrinsic motivation); and intrinsic motivation. Consistent with expectation,
amotivation was related to less effort, desire, intention to continue, ideal L2 self, autonomy,
competence, and greater anxiety directed to learning the language, whereas the converse was true
with regards to intrinsic motivation. Introjection was very modestly associated with greater
desire and intention to learn the language, an idealized L2 self, and autonomy, competence, and
relatedness, but also with greater anxiety. In contrast, identified and integrated regulations
showed stronger positive relations and less anxiety. More advanced learners reported greater
integrated regulation than less advanced learners, consistent with the hypothesis that over time
they internalized the language into their self-concept. In sum, the results attest to the reliability
and validity of the revised LLOS.
Summary
The psychometric characteristics of the revised Language Learning Orientations Scale are
examined in 1899 current and past learners of diverse languages. The results suggest strong
support for the instrument’s validity and reliability in assessing amotivation; external,
introjected, identified and integrated regulation (i.e., extrinsic motivation); and intrinsic
motivation.
Attitude towards the FL as the main predictor of Willingness to Communicate in the FL
Classroom
Dewaele, Jean-Marc
Birkbeck College, University of London, UK
j.dewaele@bbk.ac.uk
Research on Willingness to Communicate (WTC) in SLA has been shaped by MacIntyre,
Dörnyei, Clément & Noels’ (1998) highly influential pyramid model. They described WTC as a
state influenced by the interplay of linguistic, communicative and social psychological factors.
The present paper identifies the strongest predictors of WTC in the French FL of 189 British
pupils from two London secondary schools. Regression analyses showed that WTC was most
strongly predicted by attitude to the FL, followed by both Foreign Language Enjoyment and
Anxiety in the FL classroom, the linguistic-communicative factor of FL mastery, and the socio-
biographical factor of age. The findings confirm MacIntyre et al (1998) and Gardner (1985) on
the crucial role of learners’ attitude towards the FL.
How emotional is the socio-educational model?
Peter D. MacIntyre
Peter_MacIntyre@cbu.ca
Jessica Ross
cbu12gmc@CBU.CA
Cape Breton University, Canada
In Gardner’s Socio-Educational Model, motivation for language learning is supported by
attitudes toward the language, the learning situation, and joining a valued community. Gardner
used the term ‘affective’ factors to describe the interrelations among the multiple interacting
motivational processes involved, with particular emphasis on attitudes as the key support for
motivation. The study of emotions in mainstream psychology was not a prominent concern
during the development of the SE Model, and the role of various emotions in the model has not
been explored in detail. Over the past 10 years, however, developments in emotion theory have
generated potentially exciting new directions for research. Arguably the most relevant findings
involve distinguishing the different functions of positive and negative emotions; they do not
work in a see saw relationship, showing instead somewhat independent contributions to
motivation. In this presentation we will review key theoretical, measurement, and empirical
implications of developments in the study of emotions for the SE Model. First, theoretically, we
will argue that the relevant processes are so intertwined that emotion is motivation. Second,
although measurement of concepts has been a particular strength of the SE Model over time,
developments in emotion theory suggest additional interpretation is needed for the measurement
strategy of using balanced item keying. Finally, to solidify the augment that emotions are central
to the SE model, data from three studies will be presented to show the breadth and strength of the
empirical relationships between various emotions and elements of the SE Model.