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Raising the voices of Pacific Island women to inform climate adaptation policies

Authors:
Elizabeth Mcleod at The Nature Conservancy
Elizabeth Mcleod
Seema Arora-Jonsson at Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
Seema Arora-Jonsson
Yuta J. Masuda at The Paul G. Allen Family Foundation
Yuta J. Masuda
  • The Paul G. Allen Family Foundation
Mae Bruton-Adams
Mae Bruton-Adams
Mae Bruton-Adams
  • This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.
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Abstract and Figures

Policymakers and natural resource managers are increasingly recognizing the importance of broader geographic and gender participation in assessing climate vulnerability and developing effective adaptation policies. When such participation is limited, climate mitigation and adaptation polices may miss key opportunities to support vulnerable communities, and thus inadvertently reinforce the vulnerability of marginalized groups. This paper reports rich qualitative data from women leaders in conservation, development and climate adaptation projects to support local communities across seven Pacific Island nations. The results indicate the following priorities to support climate adaptation policies in the Pacific: (1) increased recognition for the importance of traditional knowledge; (2) greater support for local women's groups, including strategic planning and training to access climate finance mechanisms; and (3) climate policies that consider alternative metrics for women's empowerment and inclusion, formalize women's land rights, and provide land for climate refugees. Existing evidence is discussed which supports the importance of these priorities in the Pacific. Their input identifies research gaps in climate adaptation and provides important guidance for governments, non-governmental organizations, and development agencies leading climate adaptation efforts.
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?D:?=;DEKI F7HJ?9?F7J?ED ?D 7:7FJ7J?ED 7H; >?=>B?=>J;:
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=?D7B?P;: F;EFB; 8O KD:;HC?D?D= J;DKH; H?=>JI :?I;CFEM;H?D= BE97B
:;9?I?ED C7A?D= 7D: B?C?J?D= BE97B B?L;B?>EE:I ?D J>; D7C; E< 9EDI;H
L7J?ED 7D: :;L;BEFC;DJ 45 ,;9;DJ MEHA ?D 7=H7H?7D I;JJ?D=I >?=>
B?=>JI >EM =;D:;H;: F7JJ;HDI E< B78EH 7D: H;IFEDI?8?B?JO FHE:K9; :?<<;H
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IFED: JE J>; ?CF79JI E< J>; I7C; ;L;DJ :?<<;H;DJBO EH 7H; ;NFEI;: JE
:?<<;H;DJ ;L;DJI 45 EH ;N7CFB; H;I;7H9> ?D J>; H9J?9 7D: #D:?7
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I;B<;IJ;;C 9EDJH?8KJ?D= JE 7B9E>EB?IC 7D: >?=>;H IK?9?:; H7J;I ?D IEC;
9ECCKD?J?;I 45 ,;I;7H9> ?D '7B? :;CEDIJH7J;I >EM MEC;DI MEHA
BE7: ?D9H;7I;: 7I B?L;B?>EE:I I>?<J;: <HEC M7J;H JE <EH;IJ87I;: IOIJ;CI
45 B?C7J;?D:K9;: :HEK=>JI ?D J>?EF?7 7D: -EKJ> I?7 >7L; B;: JE
MEC;D 7D: 9>?B:H;D >7L?D= JE M7BA <7HJ>;H JE =;J SH;MEE: 7D: M7J;H
45 BEI?D= J?C; J>7J 9EKB: 8; IF;DJ ED ;:K97J?ED ?D9EC; =;D;H7J?ED
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M>E IJ7O;: ?D J>;?H 9ECCKD?J?;I 45 -?C?B7HBO H7:I>7M 7D: EH:
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JE ?D9H;7I;I ?D L?EB;D9; BEII EH H;:K9J?ED ?D ;:K97J?ED EFFEHJKD?J?;I
7D: 7D ?D9H;7I; ?D J>;?H MEHABE7: .>KI :?<<;H;D9;I ?D LKBD;H78?B?J?;I JE
9B?C7J; 9>7D=; 97D :H?L; ?D9H;7I;: L?EB;D9; 7=7?DIJ IEC; MEC;D 7D:
=?HBI H;:K9;: EFFEHJKD?J?;I <EH ;:K97J?ED 7D: ?D9H;7I?D= MEHABE7:I <EH
MEC;D ?CFEHJ7DJ 7IF;9JI J>7J 7H; 7BIE H;T;9J;: ?D J>; MEC;DI ;NF;H?
;D9;I 8;BEM ?D J>; *79?S9
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;II7HO <EH J>;?H 9KBJKH7B IKHL?L7B 45 #D:;;: H;I;7H9> >7I >?=>B?=>J;:
J>; ?CFEHJ7D9; E< ?D:?=;DEKI ADEMB;:=; <EH KD:;HIJ7D:?D= 9B?C7J;
9>7D=; 7D: ?D<EHC?D= 7:7FJ7J?ED ?D J>; H9J?9 –;= 45 <H?97 –
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ADEMB;:=; H;=7H:?D= >EM 9ECCKD?J?;I >7L; H;IFED:;: JE F7IJ D7JKH7B
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9KHH;DJ 7D: <KJKH; 9B?C7J; H?IAI 45 KHJ>;H JH7:?J?ED7B ADEMB;:=; ?D
LEBL;I 9EDIJ7DJ B;7HD?D=8O:E?D= ;NF;H?C;DJ?D= 7D: ADEMB;:=;8K?B:
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J?EDI 45
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E8I;HL7J?EDI JE 9ECFB;C;DJ B7H=;I97B; 9B?C7J; FHE@;9J?EDI 45 7D:
I>?<J?D= <HEC J>; 9EBED?7B L?;M E< ?D:?=;DEKI 9ECCKD?J?;I 7I “F7II?L;
L?9J?CI”E< 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; JE H;9E=D?P?D= J>;?H 79J?L; HEB; ?D B;7:?D=
7:7FJ7J?ED ;<<EHJI 45 ;IF?J; IK9> FHE=H;II IEC; ?D:?=;DEKI F;EFB;
IK==;IJ J>7J 9B?C7J; IEBKJ?EDI FHEFEI;: 8O =EL;HDC;DJI 7D: (!)I C7O
J>H;7J;D J>;?H ?D:?=;DEKI H?=>JI 45 *H;L7?B?D= 8?7I;I ?D ;DL?HED
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?D<EH9; J>; FH;;C?D;D9; E< I9?;D9; 7D: M;IJ;HD L?;MI E< :;L;BEFC;DJ
M>?9> :E DEJ 7:;GK7J;BO 799EKDJ <EH :?<<;H;DJ F;H9;FJ?EDI E< M>7J IK9
9;II BEEAI B?A; <EH :?<<;H;DJ IJ7A;>EB:;HI ?D J;HCI E< IKIJ7?D78B; :;L;B
EFC;DJ 45
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FB7O?D= EKJ ?D J>; *79?S9 H;IKBJI <HEC 7 MEHAI>EF ?D *7B7K ?D  7H;
FH;I;DJ;: .>; MEHAI>EF 8HEK=>J JE=;J>;H MEC;D <HEC *79?S9 ?IB7D:
D7J?EDI JE :?I9KII >EM J>;O 7H; 8;?D= 7<<;9J;: 8O 7D: H;IFED:?D= JE
9B?C7J; 9>7D=; .>; F7F;H ;NFBEH;I J>;?H HEB; ?D 9B?C7J; 7:7FJ7J?ED 79
J?L?J?;I 9EDIJH7?DJI JE J>;?H 7:7FJ7J?ED 7D: J>;?H H;9ECC;D:7J?EDI <EH
:;L;BEF?D= 7:7FJ7J?ED FEB?9?;I 7D: FHE@;9JI J>7J 8;JJ;H H;FH;I;DJ J>;?H
:?L;HI?JO E< LE?9;I D;;:I 7D: FH?EH?J?;I HEEJ;: ?D J>;?H 9KBJKH7B 9ED
J;NJI #J 7::H;II;I 7 A;O :7J7 =7F DEJ;: ?D J>; *79?S9 /(#-, 
45 8O FHEL?:?D= H?9> GK7B?J7J?L; :7J7 ED 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; ?CF79JI 7D:
7:7FJ7J?ED <HEC *79?S9 #IB7D: MEC;D 7D: >?=>B?=>JI J>; ?DJ;HI;9J?EDI
8;JM;;D ?D:?=;DEKI F;EFB;I JH7:?J?ED7B ADEMB;:=; 7D: =;D:;H 7I ?J H;
B7J;I JE 9B?C7J; LKBD;H78?B?JO 7D: 7:7FJ7J?ED
2. Methods
.>; (7JKH; EDI;HL7D9O 9ED:K9J;: 7 MEHAI>EF <HEC '7H9>
–IJ  ?D *7B7K 8H?D=?D= JE=;J>;H D?D;J;;D MEC;D <HEC I;L;D
*79?S9 #IB7D: D7J?EDI '7HI>7BB #IB7D:I *7B7K 27F %EIH7; >KKA
*E>D
UNCORRECTED PROOF
 /81;01?-8 -=5:1#;85/D CCC  CCCCCC
F;? 7D: *7FK7 (;M !K?D;7 ?=  .>; (7JKH; EDI;HL7D9O ?I 7D ?DJ;H
D7J?ED7B 9EDI;HL7J?ED (!) J>7J >7I 8;;D MEHA?D= M?J> BE97B F7HJD;HI JE
B;7: 9EDI;HL7J?ED FHE@;9JI ?D J>; H;=?ED <EH EL;H  O;7HI 1EC;D M;H;
I;B;9J;: KI?D= DEDFHE878?B?JO I7CFB?D= J;9>D?GK;I ?D9BK:?D= FKHFEI?L;
I7CFB?D= 7D: IDEM87BB I7CFB?D= 45 .>; '?9HED;I?7 EDI;HL7
J?ED .HKIJ 7D: (7JKH; EDI;HL7D9O IJ7U <HEC '?9HED;I?7 7D: ';B7D;I?7
?:;DJ?S;: MEC;D M>E 7H; B;7:?D= 9EDI;HL7J?ED :;L;BEFC;DJ 7D: 9B?
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J>;D 7IA;: JE ?:;DJ?<O MEC;D ?D J>;?H 9ECCKD?J?;I 87I;: ED I;B;9
J?ED 9H?J;H?7 *7HJ?9?F7DJI M;H; I;B;9J;: JE ;DIKH; =;E=H7F>?9 H;FH;I;D
J7J?ED 7D: :?<<;H;D9;I ?D ;J>D?9?JO ;= '7HI>7BB;I; *7B7K7D 27F;I;
%EIH7;7DI >KKA;I; *E>DF;?7DI '7DKI ;J9 IE9?E;9EDEC?9 IJ7JKI
B7D:EMD;HI 7D: DEDB7D: EMD;HI ;:K97J?ED H7D=?D= <HEC DE >?=>
I9>EEB ;:K97J?ED JE 9EBB;=; =H7:K7J;I 7D: 7=; ;7HBO  I JE C?:I
*7HJ?9?F7DJI ?D9BK:;: IK8I?IJ;D9; <7HC;HI F7HJ?9?F7DJI E< BE97B MEC;DI
=HEKFI <7HC?D= 7IIE9?7J?EDI 7D: =EL;HDC;DJ JH7:?J?ED7B 7D: 9ECCK
D?JO B;7:;HI 7D: IJ7U E< BE97B 9EDI;HL7J?ED 7D: :;L;BEFC;DJ (!)I ?D
9BK:?D= J>EI; B;7:?D= 9B?C7J; 7:7FJ7J?ED 79J?L?J?;I
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FHEL?:;: 8O D7J?L; IF;7A;HI <EH 7BB H;FH;I;DJ;: ?IB7D:I .>; MEHAI>EF
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?:;DJ?<O A;O 9>7BB;D=;I FEI;: 8O 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; .>;I; M;H; =HEKF;:
?DJE 8HE7: 97J;=EH?;I <EE: I;9KH?JO M7J;H I;9KH?JO 9E7IJ7B FHEJ;9J?ED
7D: >KC7D C?=H7J?ED 7D: 8H;7AEKJ =HEKFI :?I9KII;: ;N7CFB;I E< >EM
J>;O 7H; 7::H;II?D= J>;I; ?IIK;I BE97BBO .>; MEHAI>EF 9EDJ;DJ M7I
H;9EH:;: 7D: JH7DI9H?8;: 8O BE97B IJ7U <HEC ;79> ?IB7D: 0?:;E ?DJ;H
L?;MI M;H; 9ED:K9J;: ?D *7B7K M?J> 7BB F7HJ?9?F7DJI ?D D=B?I> EH BE
97B B7D=K7=;I 7D: J>;D JH7DIB7J;: ?DJE D=B?I> 8O D7J?L; IF;7A;HI .>;
?DJ;HL?;MI M;H; I;C?IJHK9JKH;: *7HJ?9?F7DJI M;H; 7IA;: >EM J>;O 7H;
8;?D= 7<<;9J;: 8O 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; 7D: >EM J>;O 7H; H;IFED:?D= JE J>;I;
?CF79JI .>; L?:;E <EEJ7=; M7I H;GK;IJ;: 8O J>; F7HJ?9?F7DJI FH?EH JE
J>; MEHAI>EF JE I>7H; J>; H;IKBJI M?J> J>;?H 9ECCKD?J?;I ;<EH; F7H
J?9?F7J?D= ?D ?DJ;HL?;MI MH?JJ;D 9EDI;DJ M7I E8J7?D;: <HEC 7BB F7HJ?9?
F7DJI 7D: J>;O M;H; ?D<EHC;: >EM J>; L?:;E <EEJ7=; MEKB: 8; KJ?B?P;:
EF?;I E< 7BB ?DJ;HL?;MI 7D: L?:;EI M;H; I>7H;: M?J> 7BB F7HJ?9?F7DJI <EB
BEM?D= J>; MEHAI>EF .>?HJ;;D E< J>; 7KJ>EHI F7HJ?9?F7J;: ?D J>; MEHA
I>EF 7D: J;D 7H; <HEC J>; *79?S9 #IB7D:I
3. Results
 1:01=10 59<-/?> ;2 /859-?1 /4-:31 5: ?41 #-/5E/
'7DO E< J>; =;D:;H;: ?CF79JI E< 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; DEJ;: 78EL; ;=
?D9H;7I;: L?EB;D9; 7=7?DIJ MEC;D 7D: =?HBI H;:K9;: 799;II JE ;:K97
J?ED ?D9H;7I?D= MEHABE7:I <EH MEC;D M;H; I>7H;: ?D J>; *7B7K 1EHA
I>EF 1EC;D C;DJ?ED;: J>7J ?D >KKA 7D: ?D J>; '7HI>7BBI L?EB;D9;
M7I H;FEHJ;: 8O IEC; MEC;D 7D: =?HBI 7I 7 H;IKBJ E< :HEK=>JI #D J>;
'7HI>7BBI J>; >;7: E< BE97B MEC;DI =HEKF IJ7J;: J>7J :KH?D= :HEK=>J
“M>;D J>;O :ED’J >7L; ;DEK=> M7J;H J>; MEC7D ?I DEJ 78B; JE 9EEA
J>; <EE: EH :E J>; B7KD:HO EH FH;F7H; J>; >KI87D:I 9BEJ>;I 7D: I>;
97D ;D: KF ;NF;H?;D9?D= L?EB;D9; <HEC >;H F7HJD;H”->; 7BIE C;DJ?ED;:
J>7J :KH?D= :HEK=>JI J>; I9>EEBI E<J;D 9BEI; 8;97KI; J>;H; ?I DE M7
J;H JE FH;F7H; J>; <EE: EH JE TKI> J>; JE?B;JI J>KI ?D9H;7I?D= 9B?C7J;
9>7D=; ?CF79JI ED 9>?B:H;D .>; *H;I?:;DJ E< J>; >KKA 1EC;DI EKD
9?B I>7H;: J>7J :KH?D= :HEK=>JI ?D >KKA OEKD= =?HBI M>E CKIJ M7BA
<7HJ>;H JE M7J;H M;BBI 97D 8;9EC; L?9J?CI E< 7II7KBJ
1EC;D <HEC J>; '7HI>7BBI 7D: *7FK7 (;M !K?D;7 C;DJ?ED;: J>7J
M>?B; C7DO *79?S9 9EKDJH?;I >7L; FEB?9?;I JE ;B?C?D7J; :EC;IJ?9 L?E
B;D9; =;D:;H :;F7HJC;DJI 7H; E<J;D KD:;HH;IEKH9;: 7D: >7L; B?C?J;:
97F79?JO J>KI J>;O >?=>B?=>J;: J>; D;;: JE H7?I; J>; FHESB; E< J>;I; ?I
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J>; MEC;D M>E MEHA M?J> J>; D7J?ED7B =EL;HDC;DJI ?D *7FK7 (;M
!K?D;7 *7B7K 7D: *E>DF;? :?I9KII;: J>; D;;: <EH 7D 7D7BOI?I E< ;N?IJ
Fig. 1. '7F E< *79?S9 #IB7D: D7J?EDI H;FH;I;DJ;: ?D J>; 1EC;DI 1EHAI>EF ?D *7B7K 
UNCORRECTED PROOF
 /81;01?-8 -=5:1#;85/D CCC  CCCCCC
?D= 9B?C7J; 7D: =;D:;H FEB?9?;I <HEC BE97B JE =BE87B B;L;BI JE :;J;H
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I>?F M?J> J>; *7B7K ECCKD?JO EBB;=; EEF;H7J?L; ,;I;7H9> 7D: N
J;DI?ED 7H; ;NF;H?C;DJ?D= M?J> I7BJJEB;H7DJ L7H?;J?;I E< J7HE 7 JH7:?
J?ED7B <EE: 9HEF ?D H;IFEDI; JE 9E7IJ7B TEE:?D= 7D: I7BJM7J;H ?DJHKI?ED
7D: 7H; CEL?D= J7HE F7J9>;I ?DB7D: JE B;II LKBD;H78B; 7H;7I  MEC7D
B;7:?D= 7 9B?C7J;<E9KI;: J7HE H;IJEH7J?ED FHE@;9J ?D *7B7K I>7H;: >EM
IK9> FHE@;9JI 97D FHEL?:; 9KBJKH7B 8;D;SJI 7I M;BB
“#D J>; J7HE F7J9> M; JH7DI<;H J>; IA?BBI 7BIE J>; M7O E< B?<; <EH
MEC;D ?D *7B7K…ED; E< J>; HEB;I E< MEC;D ?D *7B7K I>EKB:
8; JE JHO 7D: FHEL?:; 7 JH7?D?D= JE J;79> J>; OEKD= MEC;D >EM
J7HE 9KBJKH; ?I IE ?CFEHJ7DJ J>7J ?JI DEJ EDBO 7 <EE: ED J>; J78B;
EH J>7J ?JI >;7BJ>O 8KJ ?JI 7BIE 7 M7O JE 9EDD;9J M?J> OEKH :7K=>
J;HI JE J;79> J>;C J>; M7O E< B?<; ?D *7B7K”
#D 27F MEC;D 7H; FB7DJ?D= F7BCI ?D TEE:;: J7HE F7J9>;I JE FHEL?:;
C7J;H?7B <EH M;7L?D= 7D: >EC; 8K?B:?D= 7D: 7BIE <EH FHEJ;9J?ED <HEC
9E7IJ7B TEE:?D= .>;O 7H; 7BIE :;L;BEF?D= 7 DKHI;HO E< D7J?L; FB7DJI JE
FHEL?:; I;;:I <EH <EE: 7D: C;:?9?D; 7D: JE >;BF H;FEFKB7J; 7H;7I :7C
7=;: 8O TEE:?D=  MEC7D MEHA?D= <EH 7 9EDI;HL7J?ED EH=7D?P7J?ED ?D
*7FK7 (;M !K?D;7 I>7H;: J>7J
“<EH KI MEC;D M; 7H; JHO?D= D;M M7OI JE =HEM 9HEFI IE ?DIJ;7:
E< @KIJ >7L?D= =7H:;DI M; 7H; =HEM?D= 9HEFI B?A; J7HE 7D: 97I
I7L7 7D: O7CI ?D H;9O9B;: H?9; 87=I”
.>;O I>7H;: J>7J FB7DJ?D= L;=;J78B;I ?D FB7IJ?9 87=I 7D: H7?I;: 8;:I
>;BFI JE FH;L;DJ I7BJM7J;H ?DJHKI?ED 7D: FHEL?:;I FB7DJ?D= IF79; M>;H;
<;HJ?B; B7D: ?I B?C?J;: .E >7HL;IJ H7?DM7J;H :KH?D= :HEK=>J MEC;D ?D
J>; '7HI>7BBI 7H; 8H7?:?D= *7D:7DKI B;7L;I JE =K?:; H7?DM7J;H ?DJE IJEH
7=; 9EDJ7?D;HI .>;O 7H; 7BIE FB7DJ?D= D7J?L; FB7DJI 7BED= J>; I>EH;B?D;I
JE H;:K9; 9E7IJ7B ;HEI?ED 7D: TEE:?D=
1>7J ?I ;L?:;DJ <HEC J>; DKC;HEKI ;N7CFB;I 78EL; ?I J>7J MEC;D
79HEII J>; *79?S9 7H; FB7O?D= 7D 79J?L; HEB; ?D 7:7FJ7J?ED JE >;BF J>;?H
9ECCKD?J?;I 9EF; M?J> J>; ?CF79JI E< 9B?C7J; 9>7D=;  A;O B;IIED ?I
J>7J M>?B; JH7:?J?ED7B FH79J?9;I D;;: JE 8; IKFFEHJ;: MEC;D 7H; J;IJ
?D= ?DDEL7J?L; IJH7J;=?;I 8K?B:?D= ED J>;?H JH7:?J?EDI 7D: A;;F?D= J>;C
7B?L; 8O CE:?<O?D= J>;C JE 7:7FJ JE 9KHH;DJ 9B?C7J; 9ED:?J?EDI 1EC;D
C;DJ?ED;: J>; D;;: <EH H;FB?978B; BE97BI97B; FHE@;9JI J>7J 97D 8; ?C
FB;C;DJ;: 7J J>; 9ECCKD?JO B;L;B “1; MEC;D >7L; J>; H;IFEDI?8?B?JO
JE ;DIKH; J>;H;I <EE: ED J>; J78B;…M; D;;: J;9>D?GK;I J>7J 7H; ;7IO JE
KI;”*7HJ?9?F7DJI 7BIE H;9ECC;D:;: J>7J 9B?C7J; FHE@;9JI B;: 8O (!)I
7D: :;L;BEFC;DJ EH=7D?P7J?EDI I>EKB: 8K?B: ED ;N?IJ?D= 7:7FJ7J?ED FHE
@;9JI B;: 8O BE97B MEC;D
 =1-?1= >@<<;=? 2;= 8;/-8 B;91:> 3=;@<>
1EHAI>EF F7HJ?9?F7DJI C;DJ?ED;: J>; D;;: <EH =H;7J;H 9EBB78EH7
J?ED M?J> 7D: IKFFEHJ <EH BE97B MEC;DI =HEKFI ;= >KKA 1EC;DI
EKD9?B 1EC;D /D?J;: .E=;J>;H '7HI>7BB #IB7D:I 1/.'# ?D 7:7FJ7
J?ED FHE@;9JI .>;O C;DJ?ED;: J>7J MEC;DI =HEKFI ?D J>; *79?S9 7H; 7B
H;7:O ;D=7=;: ?D 9B?C7J; 7:7FJ7J?ED ;<<EHJI 7D: IK==;IJ;: J>7J (!)I
D;;: JE FHEL?:; JH7?D?D= <EH MEC;DI =HEKFI JE >;BF J>;C JE :;L;BEF
IJH7J;=?9 79J?ED FB7DI ;IJ78B?I> 8OB7MI 7D: C?II?ED 7D: 9ED:K9J 8E7H:
JH7?D?D= 1EC;D 7BIE C;DJ?ED;: J>; D;;: <EH ?D9H;7I;: 799;II JE 9B?
C7J; <KD:?D= IK9> 7I J>; !H;;D B?C7J; KD: 7D: IKFFEHJ JE C;;J J>;
<KD:?D= H;GK?H;C;DJI E< 9B?C7J; =H7DJI ;= H;GK?H;C;DJI <EH 7 =;D
:;H FEB?9O 7D: =;D:;H 79J?ED FB7D .>?I D;;: M7I ;9>E;: CEH; 8HE7:BO
8O *79?S9 #IB7D: &;7:;HI M>E :;9B7H;: J>7J “J>;H; ?I 7 D;;: <EH :EDEHI
7D: ?DJ;HD7J?ED7B EH=7D?P7J?EDI JE =H;7JBO I?CFB?<O 9H?J;H?7 7D: FHE9;II;I
<EH 799;II?D= 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; SD7D9?D= M>?9> ?I F7HJ?9KB7HBO :?I7:L7D
J7=;EKI JE IC7BB IJ7J;I”#DJ;HD7J?ED7B ED<;H;D9; ED J>; *EIJ ;
L;BEFC;DJ =;D:7  F
*7HJ?9?F7J?ED ?D MEC;DI =HEKFI 97D 7BBEM MEC;D J>; EFFEHJKD?JO
JE IF;7A <H;;BO ?D 7D 7BB<;C7B; I;JJ?D=  MEC7D <HEC 7 27F 9ECCK
D?JO87I;: EH=7D?P7J?ED I>7H;: “#’C IJ?BB OEKD= ….>?I ?I J>; SHIJ J?C;
J>7J #’L; 8;;D 7J 7 C;;J?D= J>7J ?I EDBO MEC;D # <;;B # 97D 8; EF;D M?J>
;L;HOED; 8;97KI; ?JI 7BB MEC;D ?D J>; HEEC”DEJ>;H MEC7D <HEC 27F
I>7H;: J>7J ?D L?BB7=; C;;J?D=I J>; OEKD=;H =;D;H7J?ED C7O DEJ 8; <H;;
JE IF;7A KDB;II 97BB;: ED 8O J>; ;B:;HI
“?D I;JJ?D=I B?A; J>?I M>;H; OEK 8H?D= MEC;D <HEC 79HEII J>; H;
=?ED…?J FHEL?:;I 7 :?<<;H;DJ 7JCEIF>;H; M>;H; M; ;D9EKH7=;
J>; MEC;D H;=7H:B;II E< M>;H; OEK 97C; <HEC 7D: M>7J 7=; OEK
7H; J>7J OEK 97D IF;7A 7D: I>7H; OEKH F;HIF;9J?L; .>7J MEKB:
8; IEC;J>?D= J>7J MEKB: 8; :?<S9KBJ ?< OEK M;H; JE :E ?J ?DI?:;
OEKH EMD 9ECCKD?JO”
UNCORRECTED PROOF
 /81;01?-8 -=5:1#;85/D CCC  CCCCCC
.>; ?H;9JEH E< 7 MEC7DI =HEKF ?D J>; '7HI>7BBI I7?: J>7J I>;
>7I 8;;D JE I;L;H7B MEC;DI MEHAI>EFI ?D J>; -EKJ> *79?S9 ED 9B?C7J;
9>7D=; 7D: I>; DEJ?9;: J>7J
“'?9HED;I?7DI J;D: JE 8; I?B;DJ M>;D M; =E JE J>EI; IF79;I…
M;H; D7JKH7BBO GK?;J .>;H; C?=>J 8; IEC; ?DJ?C?:7J?ED JE IF;7A
EKJ ?D MEHAI>EFI ?D EJ>;H *79?S9 #IB7D:I IE # :;<?D?J;BO MEKB:
B?A; JE I;; CEH; E< J>?I M?J> '?9HED;I?7D MEC;D 8;97KI; # J>?DA
J>;H;I 7 BEJ J>7J M; 97D B;7HD <HEC ;79> EJ>;H”
.>;I; IJ7J;C;DJI >?=>B?=>J J>; 9H?J?97B D;;: <EH EFFEHJKD?J?;I <EH
MEC;D JE 9EC; JE=;J>;H 7D: I>7H; J>;?H LE?9;I ADEMB;:=; 7D: ;NF;H?
;D9;I 7D: J>;O >?=>B?=>J >EM 7=; 97D 7<<;9J EFFEHJKD?J?;I JE 9EDJH?8KJ;
J>;?H L?;MI
4. Discussion
 1:01= 5:?13=-?5;: 5:?; 5:?1=:-?5;:-8 /859-?1 <;85/51> -:0 E:-:/5:3
.>; 97BB JE >7HCED?P; 9B?C7J; 7D: =;D:;H FEB?9?;I DEJ;: ?D J>; *7B7K
MEHAI>EF ?I DEJ D;M ;= 45 BJED  45 #D:;;: 7 H;9;DJ
H;FEHJ H;?D<EH9;: J>; D;;: JE ?DJ;=H7J; D7J?ED7B =;D:;H C;9>7D?ICI 7D:
MEC;DI :;F7HJC;DJI ?DJE =EL;HDC;DJ7B ?DIJ?JKJ?EDI 7::H;II?D= 9B?C7J;
9>7D=; ;= J>HEK=> 7FFE?DJ?D= =;D:;H <E97B FE?DJI ?D H;B;L7DJ C?D
?IJH?;I 7D: =EL;HDC;DJ7B 8E:?;I :;L;BEFC;DJ E< 7 =;D:;H 7D: 9B?C7J;
9>7D=; C7?DIJH;7C?D= IJH7J;=O EH 79J?ED FB7D JE =K?:; =EL;HDC;DJ7B 79
J?ED ?DJ;=H7J?D= =;D:;H ;GK7B?JO ?DJE FEB?9O C;9>7D?ICI J>HEK=> =;D
:;H 8K:=;J?D= 45
)L;H J>; B7IJ JME :;97:;I =;D:;H >7I 8;;D ?D9H;7I?D=BO H;9E=
D?P;: 7I 7 A;O 9EDI?:;H7J?ED ?D 9B?C7J; FEB?9?;I 7D: FHE=H7CI #D 
J>; /D?J;: (7J?EDI H7C;MEHA EDL;DJ?ED ED B?C7J; >7D=; /(
 C7D:7J;: J>7J D7J?ED7B 7:7FJ7J?ED FHE=H7CI I>EKB: 8; =K?:;:
8O =;D:;H ;GK?JO .>; "OE=E H7C;MEHA <EH 9J?ED – <EB
BEM;: 8O J>; -;D:7? H7C;MEHA <EH ?I7IJ;H ,?IA ,;:K9J?ED –
;NFB?9?JBO C;DJ?ED J>; D;;: <EH =;D:;H F;HIF;9J?L;I JE 8; ?DJ;=H7J;:
?DJE 7BB ?I7IJ;H ,?IA '7D7=;C;DJ FEB?9?;I FB7DI 7D: :;9?I?EDC7A?D=
FHE9;II;I #D  J>; /(  97BB;: <EH 7D 79J?ED FB7D JE :;L;BEF 7
FHE=H7C ED =;D:;H &?C7 1EHA *HE=H7CC; ED !;D:;H 7I;: ED J>?I
J>; *7H?I =H;;C;DJ <EHC7BBO H;9E=D?P;: J>; B?DA7=; 8;JM;;D 9B?C7J;
9>7D=; 7D: =;D:;H ;GK?JO ?D9BK:?D= J>; H?=>JI E< MEC;D ?D:?=;DEKI
F;EFB;I BE97B 9ECCKD?J?;I 7CED= EJ>;HI ?D LKBD;H78B; I?JK7J?EDI 7D:
H;GK?H;: J>; ?D9BKI?ED E< =;D:;HH;IFEDI?L; 7:7FJ7J?ED 79J?EDI
BJ>EK=> H;<;H;D9; JE =;D:;H ?D9H;7I?D=BO 7FF;7HI ?D J>;I; FEB?9O
<H7C;MEHAI 7 I?=D?<?97DJ =7F H;C7?DI H;=7H:?D= J>; ?CFB;C;DJ7J?ED E<
J>;I; FEB?9?;I 45 EH ;N7CFB; 7 H;L?;M E< J>; "OE=E H7C;MEHA
<EH 9J?ED – I>EM;: 7 9ECFB;J; 78I;D9; E< =;D:;H :?I7=
=H;=7J;: :7J7 ?D CEIJ *79?S9 9EKDJH?;I /(#-,   IK8I;GK;DJ
H;L?;M H;L;7B;: IBEM FHE=H;II 8O *79?S9 #IB7D: EKDJH?;I ?D ?CFHEL;
C;DJI JE IE9?7B ?D9BKI?ED 7D: =;D:;H ?IIK;I ?D FH79J?9; 45 '7DO H;
FEHJI IK8C?JJ;: 8O *79?S9 #IB7D: D7J?EDI JE J>; /(  C;DJ?ED =;D
:;H 8KJ J>;O H7H;BO :?I9KII EFFEHJKD?J?;I <EH ;D>7D9?D= MEC;DI B;7:
;HI>?F ?D 7:7FJ7J?ED FB7DD?D= EH J>;?H 799;II JE H;IEKH9;I IK9> 7I
B7D: SD7D9;I 7D: J;9>DEBE=?;I 45 .>;I; EFFEHJKD?J?;I 7H; D;9;II7HO
<EH =;D:;H ;GK7B?JO MEC;DI ;CFEM;HC;DJ 7D: H;I?B?;D9; JE 9B?C7J;
9>7D=; .>;I; EFFEHJKD?J?;I M;H; 7BIE 79ADEMB;:=;: 7I FH?EH?J?;I 8O
F7HJ?9?F7DJI <HEC *E>DF;? *7B7K 7D: *7FK7 (;M !K?D;7 ?D J>; *7B7K
MEHAI>EF
?D7D9?7B C;9>7D?ICI KD:;H J>; /(  ?; !H;;D B?C7J; KD:
!  J>; !BE87B DL?HEDC;DJ 79?B?JO !  7D: J>; :7FJ7J?ED
KD: >7L; =;D:;H FEB?9?;I 7D: 79J?ED FB7DI J>7J I;;A JE C7?DIJH;7C
=;D:;H 79HEII ?CFB;C;DJ?D= 7D: F7HJD;H EH=7D?P7J?EDI -K9> ;<<EHJI
>7L; B;: JE ?D9H;7I;: ?DJ;=H7J?ED E< =;D:;H ?DJE 9B?C7J; FHE@;9JI ;=
<EBBEM?D= J>; ! I 7:EFJ?ED E< 7 =;D:;H FEB?9O ?D  J>; FHEFEHJ?ED
E< =;D:;HH;IFEDI?L; FHE@;9JI CEH; J>7D :EK8B;: 45 "EM;L;H 7
 H;L?;M E< 9B?C7J;<E9KI;: ! FHE@;9JI =BE87BBO I>EM;: J>7J EDBO
 M;H; H7J;: 7I =;D:;H C7?DIJH;7C;: ?; J>; FHE@;9J :?: DEJ 7II;II
J>; ?CFB?97J?EDI E< FHE@;9J 79J?L?J?;I <EH MEC;D 7D: C;D 7D: “=;D:;H
F;HIF;9J?L;I 7D: 7JJ;DJ?ED JE J>; =E7B E< =;D:;H ;GK7B?JO”M;H; DEJ 9;D
JH7B JE FHE@;9J 79J?L?J?;I 45  H;9;DJ H;L?;M E< ! I !;D:;H *EB
?9O 7D: 9J?ED *B7D >?=>B?=>J;: J>; D;;: <EH J>; FEB?9O JE CEL; <HEC
7“=;D:;HI;DI?J?L; 7FFHE79>”JE 7 “=;D:;HH;IFEDI?L;”7FFHE79> ?;
CEL?D= <HEC C?D:<KBD;II E< =;D:;H :?<<;H;D9;I 7D: ‘:E?D= DE >7HC’
JE =;D:;HH;IFEDI?L; 9B?C7J; 79J?EDI J>7J 7::H;II =;D:;H =7FI 7D: >;BF
JE EL;H9EC; >?IJEH?97B =;D:;H 8?7I;I 45 ::?J?ED7BBO H;I;7H9>;HI
DEJ; 7 B79A E< =;D:;HI;DI?J?L; 9B?C7J; <KD:?D= B;II J>7D  E< =BE87B
=H7DJI IKFFEHJ FHE@;9JI J>7J 7::H;II 8EJ> 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; 7D: MEC
;DI H?=>JI 45 :;IF?J; H;I;7H9> IK==;IJ?D= J>7J SD7D9?7B FEB?9?;I
M?J> =;D:;H ;GK?JO E8@;9J?L;I 97D 9EDJH?8KJ; JE ?CFHEL;: ;9EDEC?9 EKJ
9EC;I 7D: >?=>;H IE9?7B 8;D;SJI 45
 *;91: 81-05:3 -0-<?-?5;: .@5805:3 ;: ?=-05?5;:-8 7:;B81031
,;9;DJ H;I;7H9> ;CF>7I?P;I J>; 97F79?JO E< MEC;D =BE87BBO JE :;
I?=D D;M J;9>DEBE=?;I 7D: 7:7FJ ;N?IJ?D= ED;I JE C;;J J>;?H D;;:I 45
7D: ?D J>; *79?S9 45 .>; MEHAI>EF H;IKBJI H;?D<EH9; J>?I SD:?D= 7D:
:;CEDIJH7J; >EM MEC;D 7H; B;7:?D= 7 :?L;HI?JO E< 7:7FJ7J?ED 79J?L
?J?;I ?D J>; *79?S9 J>7J ?D9EHFEH7J; ?DDEL7J?L; J;9>D?GK;I 7D: 8K?B:
ED JH7:?J?ED7B ADEMB;:=; .>; ?CFB;C;DJ7J?ED E< BE97B I97B; 7:7FJ7
J?ED IEBKJ?EDI DEJ;: 8O MEHAI>EF F7HJ?9?F7DJI ?I ;IF;9?7BBO ?CFEHJ7DJ
?D B?=>J E< J>; EL;H;CF>7I?I ED 9ECFB;N J;9>DEBE=?97B IEBKJ?EDI JE 9B?
C7J; 9>7D=; ?D 9B?C7J; H;I;7H9> 45 .>; MEHAI>EF SD:?D=I 7BIE H;?D
<EH9; J>; ?CFEHJ7DJ HEB; E< BE97B MEC;D ?D IKFFEHJ?D= J;79>?D= 7D:
7:7FJ?D= JH7:?J?ED7B ADEMB;:=; JE 7:7FJ JE 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; H;?D<EH9;:
8O 45 "EM;L;H B?C?J7J?EDI E< JH7:?J?ED7B ADEMB;:=; ;=
J>; F;H9;FJ?ED J>7J JH7:?J?ED7B IOIJ;CI <EH FB7DJ?D= 7H; 8;9EC?D= B;II
;<<;9J?L; 7I 7 H;IKBJ E< 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; M;H; DEJ;: 7J J>; MEHAI>EF 7D:
7BIE >7L; 8;;D C;DJ?ED;: ?D H;I;7H9> ?D J>; *79?S9 45 &;8;B 
1EC;D ?D J>; MEHAI>EF H;FEHJ;: =HEM?D= KF ?D 9KBJKH7B 7D: IE
9?7B ;DL?HEDC;DJI J>7J H;?D<EH9; =;D:;H;: ?DJ;H=;D;H7J?ED7B ?D<EHC7J?ED
TEMI 7D: H;T;9J J>; D;;: JE 8H?D= MEC;D JE=;J>;H 79HEII 7=; =HEKFI
JE IKFFEHJ ADEMB;:=; JH7DI<;H .>; ?CFEHJ7D9; E< MEC;DI HEB;I ?D IKF
FEHJ?D= 7D: F7II?D= ED JH7:?J?ED7B ADEMB;:=; JE J>; OEKD=;H =;D;H
7J?ED >7I 8;;D L?HJK7BBO KD;NFBEH;: ?D 9B?C7J; H;I;7H9> F7HJ?9KB7HBO
J>; HEB; E< MEC;DI =HEKFI ?D >;BF?D= JE :E9KC;DJ 7D: FH;I;HL; BE
97B ADEMB;:=; -K9> ;<<EHJI 7H; B?A;BO JE ?D9H;7I; ?D ?CFEHJ7D9; 7I
C7DO E< J>; MEC;D H;FEHJ;: J>7J JH7:?J?ED7B ADEMB;:=; ?I 8;?D= BEIJ
7 F7JJ;HD DEJ;: ?D J>; ;:;H7J;: -J7J;I E< '?9HED;I?7 45 -F;9?S9
H;9ECC;D:7J?EDI <EH ?D9H;7I?D= IKFFEHJ <EH BE97B MEC;DI =HEKFI ?D
9BK:;: ?D9H;7I?D= J>;?H 799;II JE 9B?C7J; SD7D9; EFFEHJKD?J?;I >;BF
?D= J>;C JE C;;J =;D:;H<E9KI;: <KD:?D= H;GK?H;C;DJI 7D: IKFFEHJ?D=
J>;?H IJH7J;=?9 FB7DD?D= .>; H;IEKH9?D= E< BE97B MEC;DI EH=7D?P7J?EDI
?I A;O JE IKFFEHJ?D= MEC;DI ;CFEM;HC;DJ 7D: FHEL?:?D= 7 C;9>7
D?IC <EH J>;C JE ;NFH;II J>;?H D;;:I 7D: L?;MI ED 9B?C7J; 79J?EDI 45
'EL?D= JEM7H:I =;D:;HH;IFEDI?L; 9B?C7J; 79J?EDI H;GK?H;I 8HE7:;H =;
E=H7F>?9 7D: =;D:;H F7HJ?9?F7J?ED ?D 9B?C7J; H;I;7H9> 7D: FHE@;9JI 7D:
=H;7J;H 9EDI?:;H7J?ED E< L7BK;I 7D: 9KBJKH7B KD:;HIJ7D:?D=I H;B;L7DJ JE
7:7FJ7J?ED JE 8;JJ;H 7::H;II D;;:I FEJ;DJ?7B 9EDT?9JI 7D: 7:7FJ7J?ED
9>E?9;I 45
 1D >?1<> ?; >@<<;=? -: 1:-.85:3 1:A5=;:91:?
D 7D7BOI?I E< J>; 97F79?JO E< =EL;HDC;DJI JE C7?DIJH;7C =;D:;H
79HEII FEB?9?;I 7D: FHE=H7CI ?D S<J;;D *79?S9 #IB7D: 9EKDJH?;I 7D: J;HH?
JEH?;I <EKD: J>7J :;IF?J; FEB?9O 9ECC?JC;DJ ?DIJ?JKJ?ED7B H;IFEDI?8?B?
J?;I 7D: =;D:;H H;IFEDI?L; FHE@;9J :;I?=D =;D:;H ;GK7B?JO 7D: ;CFEM
;HC;DJ E< MEC;D E<J;D ?I DEJ 79>?;L;: 45 .>; 7D7BOI?I ?:;DJ?S;:
A;O ;D78B?D= 9ED:?J?EDI JE IKFFEHJ =;D:;H C7?DIJH;7C?D= ?D J>; *79?S9
IKFFEHJ?L; B;=?IB7J?L; 7D: FEB?9O <H7C;MEHAI FEB?J?97B M?BB JE IKFFEHJ
=;D:;H ;GK7B?JO 799EKDJ78?B?JO <EH CED?JEH?D= =;D:;H C7?DIJH;7C?D=
7D: J;9>D?97B 97F79?JO 7D: 7:;GK7J; H;IEKH9;I JE IKFFEHJ =;D:;H C7?D
IJH;7C?D=
UNCORRECTED PROOF
 /81;01?-8 -=5:1#;85/D CCC  CCCCCC
#DJ;H;IJ?D=BO F7HJ?9?F7DJI <HEC J>; MEHAI>EF ?:;DJ?S;: 7 :?<<;H;DJ
I;J E< ;D78B?D= 9ED:?J?EDI H;?D<EH9?D= JH7:?J?ED7B ADEMB;:=; 7D: B;7:;H
I>?F IKFFEHJ?D= MEC;DI =HEKFI 7D: FEB?9?;I J>7J 8;JJ;H 7::H;II J>;?H
D;;:I 7D: IKFFEHJ J>;?H 7:7FJ7J?ED ;<<EHJI ;= J>EI; J>7J 7::H;II J>;
FEJ;DJ?7B <EH L?EB;D9; 7=7?DIJ MEC;D 7D: =?HBI <EBBEM?D= :?I7IJ;HI B?C
?J;: ?D<H7IJHK9JKH; 7D: IKFFEHJ I;HL?9;I <EH ;DL?HEDC;DJ7B C?=H7DJI 7D:
?D;GK?J?;I E< B7D: EMD;HI>?F 1>?B; J>;I; ;D78B?D= 9ED:?J?EDI E<J;D 7H;
DEJ >?=>B?=>J;: ?D J>; B?J;H7JKH; IKFFEHJ?D= ;L?:;D9; <EH J>;?H ?CFEH
J7D9; ;N?IJI 7D: ?I :?I9KII;: 8;BEM
.>; B?DA7=;I 8;JM;;D 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; 7D: =;D:;H87I;: L?EB;D9; 7H;
H7H;BO 7::H;II;: ?D C7?DIJH;7C 9B?C7J; :?I9EKHI; O;J M;H; DEJ;: 7I 7
FH?EH?JO ?D J>; *7B7K MEHAI>EF 7D: H;?D<EH9;: 8O :7J7 <HEC 07DK7JK
7D: -7CE7 45 "?=>B?=>J?D= J>; FEJ;DJ?7B <EH 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; JE
;N79;H87J; =;D:;H87I;: L?EB;D9; ?I J>;H;<EH; D;9;II7HO JE ;DIKH; J>7J
FEB?9?;I :;I?=D;: JE FHEJ;9J MEC;D 7H; H;?D<EH9;: 7D: 97D 8; ;<<;9J?L;BO
?CFB;C;DJ;: ::H;II?D= J>;I; B?DA7=;I ?I F7HJ?9KB7HBO ?CFEHJ7DJ ?D J>;
*79?S9 M>;H; CEIJ =;D:;H :;F7HJC;DJI 7H; KD:;H H;IEKH9;: >7L; B?C
?J;: 97F79?JO 7D: 7H; DEJ M;BB ?DJ;=H7J;: M?J> =EL;HDC;DJ 7=;D9?;I H;
IFEDI?8B; <EH J>; ;DL?HEDC;DJ 7D: 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; ?IIK;I 45
-KFFEHJ I;HL?9;I <EH ;DL?HEDC;DJ7B C?=H7DJI M7I 7DEJ>;H D;;: ?:;D
J?S;: ?D J>; *7B7K MEHAI>EF .>; H;7B?JO E< 9B?C7J;?D:K9;: C?=H7J?ED
?D J>; *79?S9 >7I 8;;D :E9KC;DJ;: ;NJ;DI?L;BO 45 &E9A;  45
8KJ J>; D;;: <EH IKFFEHJ I;HL?9;I <EH C?=H7DJI ?I H7H;BO 79ADEMB;:=;:
(EJ78B; ;N9;FJ?EDI ?D9BK:; 7CF8;BB 45 7D: (KDD  M>E >?=>
B?=>J J>; 9ECFB;N B7D:J;DKH; IOIJ;CI E< *79?S9 #IB7D:I 7D: J>; 9>7B
B;D=;I E< SD:?D= B7D: JE H;I;JJB; ED <EBBEM?D= 9B?C7J;?D:K9;: C?=H7
J?ED M>;H; B7D:I 7H; KD:;H 9KIJEC7HO J;DKH; .>; 9EDTK;D9; E< ;DL?
HEDC;DJ7B C?=H7DJI B7D: J;DKH; I;9KH?JO 7D: =;D:;H 7D: ?D:?=;DEKI
H?=>JI H;C7?DI 7D 7H;7 E< ?DJ;DI; :;87J; ?D FEB?9O :?I9KII?EDI EH ?D
IJ7D9; M>?B; J>; 97BB <EH =EL;HDC;DJ FEB?9?;I J>7J 7::H;II B7D: EMD;H
I>?F ?D;GK?JO ?I 7 FEI?J?L; IJ;F IEC; >7L; M7HD;: J>7J ?D9H;7I;: B7D:
EMD;HI>?F <EH MEC;D C7O ?D9H;7I; J>;?H MEHA 8KH:;D 7D: C7O ;L;D
@;EF7H:?P; MEC;DI 9KBJKH7B H?=>JI JE B7D: 45 .>;H; ?I 7 9B;7H D;;: JE
<KHJ>;H IJK:O 7D: :;L;BEF ;GK?J78B; FEB?9O FHEFEI7BI
.>; ?CFEHJ7D9; E< 7::H;II?D= <7C?BO FB7DD?D= ?D F7H7BB;B M?J> 9B?
C7J; 7:7FJ7J?ED DEJ;: 8O JME F7HJ?9?F7DJI <HEC *7FK7 (;M !K?D;7
?I 7BIE ?I H7H;BO 79ADEMB;:=;: ?D 9B?C7J; H;I;7H9> "EM;L;H J>; D;;:
<EH ?CFHEL;: H;FHE:K9J?L; >;7BJ> I;HL?9;I 7D: EKJH;79> 8O =EL;HDC;DJ
7D: (!)I JE FHEL?:; C7J;HD7B >;7BJ><7C?BO FB7DD?D= M7I DEJ;: ?D JME
FEIJ:?I7IJ;H D;;:I 7II;IIC;DJI 9ED:K9J;: ?D J>; H;=?ED  ?D -7CE7 <EB
BEM?D= O9BED; L7D 45 7D: ?D 07DK7JK <EBBEM?D= O9BED; L7D 45
EJ> 7II;IIC;DJI ?D9BK:;: ?DFKJ <HEC =;D:;H IF;9?7B?IJI M>E ?D9EHFE
H7J;: =;D:;H 7D7BOI?I H;IKBJI ?DJE J>; 7II;IIC;DJ H;9ECC;D:7J?EDI 45
1>;D J>; B?DA 8;JM;;D H7F?: FEFKB7J?ED =HEMJ> 7D: 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; ?I
:?I9KII;: ?D F;;HH;L?;M;: B?J;H7JKH; ?J ?I KIK7BBO ?D FK8B?9 >;7BJ> @EKH
D7BI 7D: 7J J>; =BE87B I97B; ;= 45 -K9> SD:?D=I H;?D<EH9; J>;
D;;: JE 9EDI?:;H <7C?BO FB7DD?D= 7FFHE79>;I ?D 9B?C7J; 7:7FJ7J?ED FHE
@;9JI 7D: FEB?9?;I ;IF;9?7BBO M>;H; H7F?:BO ?D9H;7I?D= FEFKB7J?EDI 7H;
?D9H;7I?D= :;C7D: <EH I97H9; H;IEKH9;I 7D: 87I?9 I;HL?9;I 7D: M;7A;D
?D= J>; 97F79?JO JE 7:7FJ JE 9B?C7J; 9>7D=;
5. Conclusion
D=7=?D= MEC;D <HEC 79HEII J>; *79?S9 JE I>7H; =K?:7D9; <EH ?C
FHEL?D= 9B?C7J; 7:7FJ7J?ED FEB?9?;I 7D: FHE@;9JI 8O 8;JJ;H 7::H;II?D=
J>; D;;:I E< MEC;D ?I 7D ?CFEHJ7DJ SHIJ IJ;F .>?I H;I;7H9> 7::H;II;I
A;O H;I;7H9> =7FI ?D9BK:?D= J>; B79A E< ;CF?H?97B :7J7 ED J>; =;D:;H
?CF79JI E< 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; J>; ?CFEHJ7D9; E< JH7:?J?ED7B ADEMB;:=; ?D
9B?C7J; 9>7D=; 7:7FJ7J?ED 7D: J>; B79A E< 7:7FJ7J?ED H;I;7H9> J>7J ?D
9EHFEH7J;I F;HIF;9J?L;I E< BE97B MEC;D .>; H;I;7H9> 7BIE >;BFI JE 7:
:H;II J>; 9KHH;DJ 8?7I;I ?D 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; FEB?9?;I 7D: FHE@;9JI M>?9>
FH?EH?J?P; M;IJ;HD C;7IKH;I E< =;D:;H ;GK?JO ;= DKC8;H E< MEC;D
?D =EL;HDC;DJ 7D: I9?;DJ?S9 ADEMB;:=; EL;H JH7:?J?ED7B ADEMB;:=; #J
8H?D=I JE B?=>J J>; D;;: <EH 8HE7:;H ;D=7=;C;DJ <HEC DEDM;IJ;HD 9KB
JKH;I JE :;L;BEF 7D: I>7F; FEB?9?;I JE IKFFEHJ =;D:;H ;GK?JO 7D: 9B?
C7J; 7:7FJ7J?ED J>7J 7BIE H;9E=D?P; MEC;DI JH7:?J?ED7B B;7:;HI>?F
HEB;I .>;?H H;9ECC;D:7J?EDI 7BIE >?=>B?=>J J>; :?L;HI?JO E< F;HIF;9
J?L;I IKHHEKD:?D= MEC;DI ;CFEM;HC;DJ 7D: ;D=7=;C;DJ ?D :;9?
I?EDC7A?D= 7D: H;?D<EH9; J>; ?CFEHJ7D9; E< 9EDI?:;H?D= CKBJ?FB; M7OI
E< 79>?;L?D= ?DTK;D9; J>7J 7H; HEEJ;: ?D ED;I 9KBJKH7B L7BK;I 7D: JH7:?
J?ED7B HEB;I .>?I D;;: ?I H;?D<EH9;: 8O <;C?D?IJ I9>EB7HI M>E >?=>B?=>J
J>; :7D=;HI E< 7IIKC?D= DED1;IJ;HD MEC;D 97D 7D: I>EKB: <EBBEM
J>; I7C; F7J> JE ;CFEM;HC;DJ 7I 1;IJ;HD MEC;D 45 ?D7BBO J>;
H;IKBJI 7BIE ?D:?97J; J>7J ;N7CFB;I E< 9B?C7J; FHE@;9JI <KHJ>;H C7H=?D7B
?P?D= LKBD;H78B; 9ECCKD?J?;I ?D I?7 <H?97 7D: &7J?D C;H?97 ;=
, 45 7H; FB7O?D= EKJ ?D J>; *79?S9 ;= ?D9H;7I;: LKBD;H78?B
?JO E< C?=H7DJI ?D *E>DF;? .>; ?DFKJ <HEC *79?S9 #IB7D: MEC;D FHE
L?:;I =K?:7D9; <EH ;D>7D9?D= MEC;DI ;D=7=;C;DJ 7D: B;7:;HI>?F ?D
7:7FJ7J?ED FB7DD?D= 7D: >?=>B?=>JI J>; ?CFEHJ7D9; E< I;9KH?D= J>;?H 79
9;II JE H;IEKH9;I IK9> 7I B7D: 9B?C7J; SD7D9?D= 7D: J;9>DEBE=?;I ;I
I;DJ?7B <EH =;D:;H ;GK7B?JO MEC;DI ;CFEM;HC;DJ 7D: H;I?B?;D9; JE 9B?
C7J; 9>7D=;
Uncited references
45 45
Acknowledgements
.>?I IJK:O ?I 7D EKJ9EC; E< 7 FHE@;9J J>7J ?I SD7D9?7BBO IKFFEHJ;: 8O
J>; (7JKH; EDI;HL7D9O 7D: J>; !;HC7D ;:;H7B '?D?IJHO <EH J>; DL?
HEDC;DJ (7JKH; EDI;HL7J?ED 7D: (K9B;7H -7<;JO '/ .>?I IJK:O ?I
F7HJ E< J>; #DJ;HD7J?ED7B B?C7J; #D?J?7J?L; #%# J>; '/ IKFFEHJI J>?I
?D?J?7J?L; ED J>; 87I?I E< 7 :;9?I?ED 7:EFJ;: 8O J>; !;HC7D KD:;IJ7=
References
45  ?F?H7  %?:: % 'EH?EA7 B?C7J; 9>7D=; 7:7FJ7J?ED ?D *79?S9 EKDJH?;I <EI
J;H?D= H;I?B?;D9; J>HEK=> =;D:;H ;GK7B?JO ?D 1 &;7B ?B>E : B?C7J; >7D=;
:7FJ7J?ED ?D *79?S9 EKDJH?;I B?C7J; >7D=; '7D7=;C;DJ -FH?D=;H >7C
 FF R
45 ' BIJED !;D:;H C7?DIJH;7C?D= 7D: 9B?C7J; 9>7D=; 1EC;DI -JK: #DJ EHKC
  R F7HJ 
45  HC?J7=; ;HA;I  7B;  %E9>E-9>;BB;D8;H=  *7JJED EC7D7=;C;DJ
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UNCORRECTED PROOF
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... Women in the Asia-Pacific area are notably underrepresented in studies on climate change and its effects, according to McLeod et al. (2018). In these research, gender-specific experiences and viewpoints are frequently disregarded. ...
... Furthermore, family systems may disintegrate as a result of partner and domestic abuse under such trying conditions. According to McLeod et al. (2018), the death of a child or loved one can intensify psychological stress, which has a detrimental impact on the victim's mental health. According to a 2019 study by Molyneaux et al., stress brought on by disasters can exacerbate violence against women. ...
... Similar responses were also discovered by McLeod et al. (2018), who found that women experienced domestic abuse from partners or family members during droughts brought on by climate change, especially when water scarcity disrupted everyday activities like drinking, cooking, and washing. According to Udas et al. (2019), the issue is made worse when male family members pass away or become incapacitated following a natural disaster, leaving women to shoulder the extra load. ...
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... Women in the Asia-Pacific area are notably underrepresented in studies on climate change and its effects, according to McLeod et al. (2018). In these research, gender-specific experiences and viewpoints are frequently disregarded. ...
... Furthermore, family systems may disintegrate as a result of partner and domestic abuse under such trying conditions. According to McLeod et al. (2018), the death of a child or loved one can intensify psychological stress, which has a detrimental impact on the victim's mental health. According to a 2019 study by Molyneaux et al., stress brought on by disasters can exacerbate violence against women. ...
... Similar responses were also discovered by McLeod et al. (2018), who found that women experienced domestic abuse from partners or family members during droughts brought on by climate change, especially when water scarcity disrupted everyday activities like drinking, cooking, and washing. According to Udas et al. (2019), the issue is made worse when male family members pass away or become incapacitated following a natural disaster, leaving women to shoulder the extra load. ...
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... When dealing with climate change issues, it is hard for local leaders to integrate local data with broad-scale information (McAllister et al., 2019). Including indigenous communities in disaster prevention mechanisms through crosssector collaborations and respecting their autonomy is important , but limiting decision-making power to certain genders, ethnic groups, or social statuses can harm these communities (McLeod et al., 2018). For example, men are more concerned about high temperatures and ocean management issues, while women are more concerned about storms and related dangers, pollution control and other issues (Alston, 2014). ...
Investigating climate change perceptions and behaviors from a microscopic perspective in four mountain villages in Taiwan
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2025
Formulating climate change adaptation strategies based on local perceptions and behaviors, especially in mountainous areas, is challenging for managers. This study aims to identify the risk perception, avoidance behaviors, and adjustment strategies of residents in different mountain villages within the same township. A census was conducted through questionnaire-based onsite surveys, collecting 302 responses from four mountain villages in the Shuilixi township of Nantou County. The results indicate that Han people perform significantly better than indigenous people in avoidance behavior and adaptation strategies due to better socio-economic conditions. Significant differences emerge among four groups: indigenous in high-risk areas, Han in high-risk areas, indigenous in low-risk areas, and Han in low-risk areas. Residents in low-risk areas, regardless of ethnicity, outperform those in high-risk areas in climate risk perception, avoidance behavior, and adaptation strategies. Respondents from different backgrounds (gender, age, income, occupation) in low-risk areas also fare better in these aspects. Notably, residents in high-risk areas exhibit lower actual avoidance behavior than their perceived behavior, possibly due to limitations in occupation, education, income, or available space. The study highlights significant differences in ethnic distribution and geographical features within small-scale villages in the upper Shuili stream area. It suggests that future research should compare towns and villages in different geographical locations for a broader understanding of population characteristics and that climate change disaster prevention planning should be considered on a village-by-village basis.
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... The Global Gender Gap Index places India 112th out of 153 countries, and the economic participation category is of concern at 149th (Asian Development Bank, 2014). The majority of Indian women are reliant on natural resourcesforests, fisheries, and agriculture to survive (Adebayo et al., 2012;McLeod et al., 2018;United States Agency for International Development, 2014). Droughts, heatwaves, floods, and inconsistent rainfall patterns contribute significantly to the erosion of women's income and the rise in their domestic workload, compromising their health and general well-being. ...
How is gender-specific vulnerability understood and assessed in SAPCC?
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2025
Climate action is only truly possible by incorporating gender-specific vulnerabilities and adaptation measures. National Action Plans for Climate Change (NAPCC) and State Action Plans for Climate Change (SAPCCs) seek to mainstream vulnerable communities, such as women, at the national and state levels. It is uncertain how these plans incorporate gender-specific vulnerabilities and equip women with adequate measures to deal with climate impacts. This paper employs content analysis method to analyze a total of 33 action plans for climate change (APCC); out of 33 APCCs, 28 are SAPCCs, five are union territories action plans for climate change mainly through three themes- gendered vulnerability, gender-disaggregated data, gender capacity-building policies, and adaptation measures. The research delves into the nexus of gender-focused climate action and adaptation policy within India’s climate policy. Based on the findings, the study classifies states as highly gender-responsive, moderately gender-responsive, and gender-blind. The gender responsiveness of the state is different due to differences in women’s agricultural participation, political commitment to gender equality, and cultural norms regarding gender roles. The research identifies a necessity of enhancing gender mainstreaming in climate policy to ensure that women’s vulnerability is effectively addressed.
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... Furthermore, efforts to mitigate the social and economic impacts of the transition must prioritize the needs and priorities of affected communities, particularly those facing systemic inequalities and marginalization. Indigenous knowledge and practice, when included in climate change adaptation planning, have been key to understanding sustainable climate solutions for wildfires, drought, flooding, and soil erosion (Billiot et al., 2019;Mcleod et al., 2018). Additionally, collaborative efforts should not dismiss residents who may be resistant to change due to past displacements of individuals and communities (Cha & Pastor, 2022). ...
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... Social injustices that could result from unconstrained growth in the blue economy include dispossession and displacement of communities through 'ocean grabbing' to secure resources; environmental justice issues related to pollution and waste; environmental degradation and damage to ecosystem services; negative livelihood impacts for artisanal fishers; loss of access to marine resources required for food security and well-being; the inequitable distribution of economic benefits; unintended social and cultural impacts; the marginalisation of women and other minority or disempowered groups; abuses of human and Indigenous rights; and exclusion from governance processes (Nathan James Bennett et al. 2021). Gender equity and agency for women are particularly critical to ensuring community welfare and genuine sustainable development; blue economy initiatives should address the needs and aspirations of local communities and involve women in their design, implementation, and governance (Nathan James Bennett et al. 2021;Arora-Jonsson et al. 2016;Mcleod et al. 2018;Thomas 2016;Thomas et al. 2018;Wabnitz et al. 2021;Rousseau et al. 2019). ...
Risk and resilience
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Feb 2025
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... This aligns with findings by Drolet et al (2015), who noted that "the integration of women into sustainable agricultural practices not only improves environmental outcomes but also fosters economic resilience in rural communities." A case in point is the Indonesian women-led community recycling initiatives, which not only reduced environmental pollution but also elevated women's selfesteem and social recognition within their communities (Mcleod et al., 2018). ...
Advancing Sustainability and Social Justice: Developing Sustainability Societies for Muslim Women
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2024
Research Problem: Muslim women in developing countries face unique challenges influenced by cultural, religious, and socioeconomic factors. These challenges impact their ability to participate in sustainable development initiatives, despite Islamic teachings emphasizing environmental stewardship, social justice, and equitable economic opportunities. Research Purposes: This paper explores the concept of "Sustainability Societies" tailored for Muslim women, integrating Islamic values with principles of environmental sustainability, social justice, and economic development. The study aims to demonstrate how empowering Muslim women can contribute to achieving global sustainability goals while promoting communal well-being and economic resilience. Research Methods: The research adopts a systematic and theoretically grounded approach, synthesizing Islamic moral teachings, empirical data, and sustainability frameworks. It evaluates the feasibility of intervention programs that empower Muslim women to lead sustainable enterprises and contribute to social and environmental change. Results and Discussion: Findings indicate that creating sustainability societies for Muslim women can significantly enhance social inclusion, environmental protection, and economic empowerment. These societies provide a practical model for addressing unsustainable practices, fostering leadership roles for women, and aligning sustainability goals with Islamic values. The research highlights the importance of culturally appropriate programs that integrate local traditions and global sustainability standards. Research Implications and Contributions: The study offers actionable recommendations for policymakers, educators, and community leaders to design effective and inclusive programs for Muslim women. These initiatives can address global environmental challenges, strengthen community resilience, and mobilize women as agents of sustainable change. The paper emphasizes the potential of these strategies to contribute to sustainability targets while preserving Islamic moral values and social justice.
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... Furthermore, efforts to mitigate the social and economic impacts of the transition must prioritize the needs and priorities of affected communities, particularly those facing systemic inequalities and marginalization. Indigenous knowledge and practice, when included in climate change adaptation planning, have been key to understanding sustainable climate solutions for wildfires, drought, flooding, and soil erosion (Billiot et al., 2019;Mcleod et al., 2018). Additionally, collaborative efforts should not dismiss residents who may be resistant to change due to past displacements of individuals and communities (Cha & Pastor, 2022). ...
Applying a Human Rights Framework to the Just Transition: Implications for Social Work
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2024
The transition toward a renewable energy future poses significant ethical challenges that demand careful consideration by social workers. We argue that the principles and goals of the just transition and human rights frameworks offer a helpful approach for social workers to focus their attention on the justice and equity dimensions of climate change, mitigation, and adaptation. Key priorities for a just transition include the need for ethical and inclusive decision-making processes that ensure equity in the distribution of the benefits and burdens and attention to systemic injustices. Proactive policies that prioritize social and economic justice, coupled with an intersectional approach, can mitigate the ethical challenges associated with the transition. A just transition must especially prioritize the inclusion of communities of color and vulnerable populations in decision-making processes to address historical disparities and prevent the perpetuation of environmental inequalities associated with fossil fuel extraction and production. The implementation of a just transition requires a delicate balance between environmental goals and the socioeconomic well-being of communities. By integrating ethical considerations, acknowledging cultural ties to industries, and fostering a transition that is both economically and socially equitable, we can aspire to a future that upholds the principles of justice and sustainability. A just transition away from fossil fuels unearths competing demands faced by individuals based on their positionality within communities. The role of social workers is more important than ever in navigating the ethical dilemmas that arise from the just transition. Social workers have the ability to guide community-centered decision-making processes, prioritize local perspectives in shaping the transition, and facilitate access to training opportunities, equipping community members with skills necessary for new employment opportunities in the evolving energy landscape.
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How is adaptation intention shaped in urban Pakistan? A multigroup gender analysis
Article
  • Mar 2025
Men and women's choice and ability to respond to climate change is shaped by multiple, intersecting factors, including gender roles, power dynamics, socio-economic variables, psychological processes, and systemic inequalities. This study is the first to examine gendered differences in climate change adaptation intentions in urban Pakistan, using survey data from 552 men and women in two urban towns. Using multigroup structural equation modeling and drawing on the analytical frameworks of Protection Motivation Theory and intersectionality, we explored different factors that influence individual adaptation decisions. Findings reveal distinct gender patterns: men's adaptation intentions are strongly influenced by a belief in climate change, perceptions of climate change impacts, and belief in governmental support, whereas women are less influenced by these factors and show negative responses to perceived government support. Furthermore, maladaptive beliefs hinder men's adaptation intentions, with minimal effect on women. Age and education positively correlate with men's adaptation intentions but not with women's. Gendered adaptation intentions are shaped by socio-economic factors, patriarchal norms, resource constraints, and psychological factors. Climate adaptation programs and strategies should not only engage women but also strategically address the broader power dynamics and systemic inequities that hinder adaptive capacities of marginalized groups. Recommendations include developing gender-responsive and transformative policies and programs, enhancing institutional trust through accountability mechanisms, promoting community-driven initiatives, and investing in women's everyday adaptation strategies. This approach is key to building stronger resilience and enabling inclusive, impactful climate solutions in Pakistan's rapidly growing urban centers.
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Gender perspectives in resilience, vulnerability and adaptation to global environmental change
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2016
The main goal of this special issue is to offer a room for interdisciplinary and engaged research in global environmental change (GEC), where gender plays a key role in building resilience and adaptation pathways. In this editorial paper, we explain the background setting, key questions and core approaches of gender and feminist research in vulnerability, resilience and adaptation to GEC. Highlighting the interlinkages between gender and GEC, we introduce the main contributions of the collection of 11 papers in this special issue. Nine empirical papers from around the globe allow to understand how gendered diversity in knowledge, institutions and everyday practices matters in producing barriers and options for achieving resilience and adaptive capacity in societies. Additionally, two papers contribute to the theoretical debate through a systematic review and an insight on the relevance of intersectional framings within GEC research and development programming.
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Social organization influences the exchange and species richness of medicinal plants in Amazonian homegardens
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2016
  • ECOL SOC
Medicinal plants provide indigenous and peasant communities worldwide with means to meet their healthcare needs. Homegardens often act as medicine cabinets, providing easily accessible medicinal plants for household needs. Social structure and social exchanges have been proposed as factors influencing the species diversity that people maintain in their homegardens. Here, we assess the association between the exchange of medicinal knowledge and plant material and medicinal plant richness in homegardens. Using Tsimane’ Amazonian homegardens as a case study, we explore whether social organization shapes exchanges of medicinal plant knowledge and medicinal plant material. We also use network centrality measures to evaluate people’s location and performance in medicinal plant knowledge and plant material exchange networks. Our results suggest that social organization, specifically kinship and gender relations, influences medicinal plant exchange patterns significantly. Homegardens total and medicinal plant species richness are related to gardeners’ centrality in the networks, whereby people with greater centrality maintain greater plant richness. Thus, together with agroecological conditions, social relations among gardeners and the culturally specific social structure seem to be important determinants of plant richness in homegardens. Understanding which factors pattern general species diversity in tropical homegardens, and medicinal plant diversity in particular, can help policy makers, health providers, and local communities to understand better how to promote and preserve medicinal plants in situ. Biocultural approaches that are also gender sensitive offer a culturally appropriate means to reduce the global and local loss of both biological and cultural diversity.
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Blind spots in environmental policy-making: How beliefs about science and development may jeopardize environmental solutions. https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1UcNC8jbZmAKtU
Article
  • Mar 2017
Engaging with knowledges outside of western science and questions of power is increasingly being acknowledged as an imperative for helping solve intractable environmental problems. What is unacknowledged is the difference in how this is reasoning is applied in relation to policy-making in the global North and South. While questions of power such as gender and people’s participation are integral to international policy-making in the Northern development policies for the South, there is often little on these perspectives in domestic environmental policy-making. Underlying this paradox are assumptions about science and development in policy-making that preclude a discussion of environmental alternatives. These assumptions generate blind spots in environmental policy-making that need to be addressed so that environmental policy in the global North too is able to respond to environmental problems on the basis of evidence and rather than assumptions about science and about the rest of the world.
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Gender Budgeting: Fiscal Context and Current Outcomes
Article
  • Jan 2016
Gender budgeting is an approach to budgeting that uses fiscal policy and administration to promote gender equality and girls and women’s development. This paper posits that, properly designed, gender budgeting improves budgeting, and it places budgeting for this purpose in the context of sound budgeting principles and practices. The paper provides an overview of the policies and practices associated with gender budgeting as they have emerged across the world, as well as examples of the most prominent initiatives in every region of the world. Finally, it suggests what can be learned from these initiatives.
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Including indigenous knowledge and experience in IPCC assessment reports
Article
  • Mar 2016
The IPCC is the leading international body for the assessment of climate change, forming the interface between science, policy and global politics. Indigenous issues have been under-represented in previous IPCC assessments. In this Perspective, we analyse how indigenous content is covered and framed in the Working Group II (WGII) portion of the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5). We find that although there is reference to indigenous content in WGII, which increased from the Fourth Assessment Report, the coverage is general in scope and limited in length, there is little critical engagement with indigenous knowledge systems, and the historical and contextual complexities of indigenous experiences are largely overlooked. The development of culturally relevant and appropriate adaptation policies requires more robust, nuanced and appropriate inclusion and framing of indigenous issues in future assessment reports, and we outline how this can be achieved.
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Climate Change and Small Island States: Power, Knowledge and the South Pacific
Article
  • Mar 2010
Small Island Developing States are often depicted as being among the most vulnerable of all places to the effects of climate change, and they are a cause c?l?bre of many involved in climate science, politics and the media. Yet while small island developing states are much talked about, the production of both scientific knowledge and policies to protect the rights of these nations and their people has been remarkably slow. This book is the first to apply a critical approach to climate change science and policy processes in the South Pacific region. It shows how groups within politically and scientifically powerful countries appropriate the issue of island vulnerability in ways that do not do justice to the lives of island people. It argues that the ways in which islands and their inhabitants are represented in climate science and politics seldom leads to meaningful responses to assist them to adapt to climate change. Throughout, the authors focus on the hitherto largely ignored social impacts of climate change, and demonstrate that adaptation and mitigation policies cannot be effective without understanding the social systems and values of island societies.
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Patterns of authorship in the IPCC Working Group III report
Article
  • Sep 2015
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has completed its Fifth Assessment Report (AR5). Here, we explore the social scientific networks informing Working Group III (WGIII) assessment of mitigation for the AR5. Identifying authors’ institutional pathways, we highlight the persistence and extent of North–South inequalities in the authorship of the report, revealing the dominance of US and UK institutions as training sites for WGIII authors. Examining patterns of co-authorship between WGIII authors, we identify the unevenness in co-authoring relations, with a small number of authors co-writing regularly and indicative of an epistemic community’s influence over the IPCC’s definition of mitigation. These co-authoring networks follow regional patterns, with significant EU–BRICS collaboration and authors from the US relatively insular. From a disciplinary perspective, economists, engineers, physicists and natural scientists remain central to the process, with insignificant participation of scholars from the humanities. The shared training and career paths made apparent through our analysis suggest that the idea that broader geographic participation may lead to a wider range of viewpoints and cultural understandings of climate change mitigation may not be as sound as previously thought.
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