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Metabolic Brain Disease
ISSN 0885-7490
Volume 33
Number 4
Metab Brain Dis (2018) 33:1203-1210
DOI 10.1007/s11011-018-0230-6
Comparative effect of coffee robusta and
coffee arabica (Qahwa) on memory and
attention
Waheeb D.M.Alharbi, Aisha Azmat &
Muhammad Ahmed
1 23
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Comparative effect of coffee robusta and coffee arabica (Qahwa)
on memory and attention
Waheeb D. M. Alharbi
1
&Aisha Azmat
1
&Muhammad Ahmed
2
Received: 14 November 2017 /Accepted: 6 April 2018 /Published online: 13 April 2018
#Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018
Abstract
The comparative effects of coffee robusta and coffee arabica (Qahwa) on different attention and memory related assignments
were measured in a double-blind study of 300 healthy young adult women who were randomly assigned to one of three different
drinks: Group I (coffee robusta sachet dissolved in 100 ml of hot water): Group II (coffee arabica): and group III (100 ml water
only). Cognitive function was assessed by standardized tests. Several monitoring cognitive tests and tasks were specifically
chosen and performed to investigatethe comparative effects ofcoffee robusta (CR) and coffee arabica (Qahwa; AC) on sleepiness
(sleep and clear headed scale), attention (trail A & B, symbol digit, letter cancellation), general cognitive ability (stroop test) and
memory (card test). Data was interpreted by analysis of variance (ANOVA). The present study revealed that coffee robusta has
beneficial effects on attention, general cognitive ability and memory. Higher though non-significant cognitive scores were
associated with coffee robusta consumption. Although, consumption of coffee arabica (Qahwa) has significant effects
(P< 0.05) on sleepiness, attention, general cognitive ability and memory and it significantly improve reaction time and correct
responses. Since differenttasks were related to the sustained attention and working memory processes, results would suggest that
coffee arabica (qahwa) could increase the memory and efficiency of the attentional system might be due to the presence of
chlorogenic acids (CGA) which are found in less quantity in coffee robusta. However, more studies using larger samples and
different tasks are necessary to better understand the effects of coffee robusta and arabica (Qahwa) on attention and memory.
Keywords Coffee robusta (CR) .Coffee arabica (Qahwa) .Cognition .Memory .Attention .Psychomotor performance
Introduction
Attention is the process for enhanced processing and integra-
tion, and memory is the ability to store, retain, and recall
information and experiences (Winkler and Cowan 2005).
Recent research has concentrated on the formation of new
plant based medicine that boosts cognitive skills, as medicinal
plants are claimed to possess antioxidant and cognitive en-
hancing effects (Saenghong et al. 2012). Caffeine is one of
the widely consumed throughout the world in beverages,
foods, and as a drug for a variety of reasons, including its
stimulant-like effects on mood and cognitive performance
(Fredholm et al. 1999; Lieberman et al. 2002).
Different beverages have been used as attention and mem-
ory enhancers (having caffeine) in Asian, Indian, and Arabic
folklore like coffee arabica (Qahwa) and coffee robusta.
Arabic coffee is a traditional drink prepared in many Arab
countries throughout the Middle East by using coffee arabica
green beans (without/slight roasted) which contain 12 mg of
caffeine per gram of dry mass (Silvarolla et al. 2004). Coffee
robusta is prepared by boiling finely powdered roasted beans
(either coffee robusta or coffee arabica) possibly with sugar
(Jamieson 2001) while coffee arabica (Qahwa) is made from
coffee beans (without/slight roasted) and cardamom.
Traditionally, green coffee beans are roasted at home slightly
Key points •Coffee arabica (Qahwa) is a more effective cognition en-
hancer than coffee robusta.
•This difference between coffee robusta and coffee arabica (Qahwa)
might be due to the presence of chlorogenic acids (CGA) that act on brain
function, which has having beneficial effects on psychological
performance.
*Aisha Azmat
aishaazmatkhan@hotmail.com
1
Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Umm-Al-Qura
University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
2
Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Umm-Al-Qura
University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
Metabolic Brain Disease (2018) 33:1203–1210
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11011-018-0230-6
Author's personal copy
andground(Mahmoudetal.2013). Coffee robusta bean ex-
cessively roasted (250 °C) to produce more bitterness than
arabica (Qahwa) due to their pyrazine content (Wintgens
2009).
Previously, the effects of coffee have been assessed sci-
entifically (Mesas et al. 2011;Nehlig2016). Coffee has
both good and bad effects, both of which may impact on
cognitive performance. Coffee is found to increase neuron
activity in the frontal lobe, the site of working memory
which regulates the ability to pay attention (Ryan et al.
2002). There are multiple theories that the presence of caf-
feine in coffee affects short-term memory, due to an in-
crease in concentration. In addition, caffeine has a direct
effect on brain functions. It stimulates brain areas that cover
short-term memory and attention. Caffeine causes the
blood vessels in the brain to constrict, and boosts metabo-
lism. The neurons in the brain work faster when affected by
caffeine. This causes a chain reaction that leads to mental
alertness that allows for better concentration and conse-
quently, better recall of information (Hameleers et al.
2000). In conclusion, different studies revealed that coffee
robusta enhanced attention and cognitive performance un-
der the condition of stress and sleep deprivation (Patat et al.
2000; Reyner and Horne 2000).
Qahwa is a cultural drink believed to have anti-
atherosclerotic (Alsaif et al. 2007) and anti-
inflammatory effects and markers of inflammation were
significantly lowered by intake of Arabian Qahwa (Habib
et al. 2012). Coffee arabica (Qahwa) is flavor-rich
with cardamom. Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)
contained αterpineol, myrcene, limonene, menthone, β-
phellandrene, 1,8-cineol, sabinene and heptane and bor-
neol (Farooq et al. 2015) found to possess anxiolytic
(Masoumi-Ardakani et al. 2017) and it enhance learning
and memory retention as compared to control (Abu-
Taweel 2018).
However, coffee arabica (Qahwa) has still not been inves-
tigated for its described effects, although it is traditionally
consumed in many Arab countries throughout the Middle
East. The present study, therefore, aims to observe the effect
of coffee arabica (Qahwa) on memory and compare the effect
of coffee arabica (Qahwa) and coffee robusta on psychomotor
performance.
Materials and methods
For the estimation of cholorogenic acid (CGA) in coffee
robusta and coffee arabica (Qahwa), a thin layer chroma-
tography (TLC) was performed. Isolation solvent
Isopropanol–formic acid (10:0.5 v/v) was used in TLC
(Wen et al. 2012).
Subjects
This study was carried out on 300 young adult women aged
18–26 years old. The participants were students at Umm Al-
Qura University (UQU). They were informed about the pos-
sibility of receiving water, coffee robusta and coffee arabica
(Qahwa), when they signed up. Prior to the day of research
activity, subjects were requested to have their normal night’s
sleep, to abstain from any type of beverage (caffeinated
/uncaffeinated) or any medicine for 24 h prior to testing, and
to abstain from food three hours prior to testing. A self-
reported absence of any physical or neurological conditions
that affect visual, tactile, or auditory performance, using stim-
uli criterion designed according to the National Drug Strategy,
1998 (Reid et al. 2000), was also required to meet the eligi-
bility criteria for the study. Some participants were excluded
on these latter criteria.
Materials
The participant were randomly divided into three groups.
Group I 12 g of 2 in 1 City Cafe coffee (Coffee robusta)
instant coffee + One sugar sachet of 4.6 g + 100 ml of water
added to each cup.
Group II 3.02 g of coffee arabica (Qahwa) and 2.04 g of
ground cardamom were used to make 100 ml cup without
sugar.
Group III 100 ml of drinking water.
Procedure
The research was approved by the Umm Al Qura University.
The participants filled out and signed a consent form before
the start of experiment. Task sessions were conducted between
10 a.m. and 3 p.m. on weekdays. The participants came to a
designated room and received general instruction. Before
drinking, questionnaires were given out including a nine-
question survey about their normal sleep and caffeine con-
sumption. The participants were told to choose any one cup
(100 ml of water or Coffee robusta or coffee arabica/Qahwa).
After sixty minutes, the participants were instructed that they
had started the further tests. They were also told not to write
anything until told to do so.
Sleepiness assessment scales (Karolinska sleepiness
scale KSS)
The Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS; Reyner and Horne
1998), is a 9-point Likert-type self-report scale used to sub-
jectively assess sleepiness.
1204 Metab Brain Dis (2018) 33:1203–1210
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Clear headedness rating scale (CH)
The Clear Headedness Rating Scale (CH), developed by
Bruck and Pisani (1999) is a 5-point Likert-type scale used
to subjectively assess clear headedness, or the grogginess as-
sociated with sleep inertia (Bruck and Pisani 1999).
Trail making test A and B
This test (Tombaugh 2004) was done to assess attention and
explore the ability of coordination (visuomotor) and process-
ing speed during the arrangement of both numbers and letters
(Lezak et al. 2004).
Part A
In part A, the participant should connect the numbers (1–25)
in ascending order (Tombaugh 2004).
Part B
In part B, participants were instructed to connect the circles in
an alternating pattern between the numbers and letters (i.e., 1-
A-2-B-3-C, etc.) in 30 s. Errors affected the participant’s
scores and were considered as negative scores, deducted from
positive scores (Corrigan 1987).
The symbol digit and digit symbol substitution task
(SDST)
This is a screening tool for the detection of cerebral dysfunc-
tion (Strauss et al. 2006) and divided attention (Ponsford and
Kinsella 1992). In this pencil-and-paper task, participants
were presented with a coding key in which the numbers 1 to
9 correspond to different arbitrary abstract symbols (Tietzel
and Lack 2001). During test participants are required accurate-
ly to fill in as many boxes as possible within a 30 s time
period. Scores are calculated by summing the number of cor-
rectly completed items, but points are not deducted for errors.
Letter cancellation test (LCT)
The Letter Cancellation Test (LCT) assesses selective atten-
tion and requires visual scanning and motor speed skills.
Participants were presented with a large 32 × 45 matrix of
random capital letters and asked to search for two particular
stimuli, e.g., ‘L’and ‘U’line by line from left to right in a 30 s
time period (Lezak et al. 2004; Tietzel and Lack 2001).
Stroop effect
In psychology, the Stroop effect demonstrates the reaction
time of a task. During the task, the name of a color (e.g., Bred^
Bblue^or Bgreen^) was printed in a different color (e.g., the
word Bgreen^was printed in blue ink instead of green ink).
The participant was instructed to read the name of the color,
not the word (Stroop 1935). In the second experiment, partic-
ipants were asked to read the color of the letters instead of the
written word (Porges and Furman 2011).
Card recall test (CRT)
The participants were instructed that they would be shown
twenty different pictures for 30 s. After the two minutes were
up, the participants were given another set of pictures and
instructed to separate those pictures that were also present in
first set. This test measures prefrontal functions, assessing
different dimensions: cognitive processing speed, concept for-
mation, inhibition capacity and cognitive flexibility (Adan and
Serra-Grabulosa 2010).
Talland letter cancellation (TLC)
Talland Letter Cancellation (Bittner et al. 1985) is a test to
measure the ability to Bfocus^attention and screen out distrac-
tion. In each trial, the participants were asked to examine rows
to cross out target in 30 s.
In Trails 1 and 2 (capitals), participants drew a line on
capital letters.
In Trials 3 and 4 (spaces), participants drew a line before
and after each double space.
In Trials 5 and 6 (both), participants performed both types
of assigned targets (i.e. capitals and spaces).
Statistical analysis
A power analysis suggested that the sample size be set at N=
159 (53 per group) to achieve a power of 0.8, given a medium
effect size (Cohen’sd= 0.25) and an alpha of 0.05 calculated by
G*Power (Erdfelder et al. 1996). However, in the present study
number of volunteers per group N= 100 were enrolled. Result
of this analysis indicated that 100 subjects per group yielded a
statistical power of 0.97 if inputs were, 3 groups, α= 0.05, total
sample size = 300, critical F= 3.026 (d.f. = 2, 297).
All hypotheses were tested using analysis of variance
(ANOVA) tests. Alpha was set at (0.05). Significant effects
were subjected to Tukey’s multiple-range tests for comparison
of treatment means with a control.
Results
The results of TLC are shown in Fig. 1. The isolation time was
10 min for separation of CGA with isopropanol:formic acid
(10:0.5 v/v) as the solvent (RF = 0.29), and both of the isola-
tions were performed at the temperature of 25 °C.
Metab Brain Dis (2018) 33:1203–1210 1205
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Clear headedness chart and sleep chart
The Clear headedness chart test, used to assess the focus com-
ponent of attention, did not find any significant differences in
water (P= 0.96, non-significant) and coffee robusta (P=0.88,
non-significant) groups, when compared with each respective
control (before ingestion Table 1). However, the increase in
score regarding attention after coffee arabica (Qahwa) inges-
tion were statistically significant (F
(5,594)
= 3.28 P=0.03,
P< 0.05) when compared to control (before ingestion of
coffee arabica, Table 1).
A Sleep chart is used to assess sleep criteria. For the pooled
data for all treatment groups, showed a significant decrease in
response and decrease in sleepiness (F
(5,594)
=7.203 P=
0.0001, P< 0.05). Statistical analysis for the Sleep chart
shows that the mean scores decreased after ingestion of coffee
robusta (P= 0.2 non-significant) and coffee arabica (Qahwa),
and after ingestion of coffee arabica this decrease approached
significance (P < 0.05).
Trail making test part A and B
The Trail Making test Awas used to assess the focus compo-
nent of attention. There were non-significant differences in
scores, (F
2,297
=1.6, P=0.2, P> 0.05). The results (Table 2)
show that that the mean correct responses increased after the
ingestion of coffee robusta and coffee arabica (Qahwa) but
non-significantly (P > 0.05) as compared to control. For the
pooled data for Trail Making B, showed a significant increase
in correct response (F
2,297
= 6.537, P= 0.0001, P<0.05).
Statistical analysis for the Trail Making B showed that the
mean correct answer increased after the ingestion of coffee
robusta (P< 0.05) and coffee arabica (Qahwa) and this in-
crease was statistically significant (P < 0.05) when compared
with control.
Symbol digit and digit symbol substitution task
(SDST) and letter cancellation
The score results of Symbol digit and letter cancellation tests
used to assess attention, revealed significance (F
2,297
=5.63,
P= 0.005, P< 0.05). Results of Tukey HSD Post-hoc Test
showed that consumption of coffee arabica (Qahwa) increases
the score significantly (P = 0.005, P < 0.05) when compared to
water (P< 0.05) as shown in Table 2. A non-significant dif-
ference between water and coffee robusta (p> 0.05) was ob-
served in both tests.
Talland test
A Talland test was used to assess attention, speed and accura-
cy. The results showed that significant differences were ob-
served between beverage groups (F
2,297
=5.39, P=0.006,
Fig. 1 TLC chromatograms of isolation solvent Isopropanol–formic acid
(10:0.5 v/v), lanes 1: Coffee robusta, lane 2: CGA standard and 3: Coffee
Arabica (Qahwa)
Table 1 Comparative effect of coffee robusta and coffee arabica on memory and attention tested by Clear Headedness chart
Parameters Sleep chart scores Clear headedness chart scores
Water Before ingestion 3.04 ± 0.10 F
5594
=7.203
Effect size = 0.25
*P= 0.001
Power = 0.99
3.01 ± 0.12 F
5594
=3.28
Effect size = 0.18
*P=0.03
Power = 0.95
After ingestion 3.44 ± 0.14 3.14 ± 0.11
Coffee robusta Before ingestion 3.65 ± 0.11 3.22 ± 0.11
After ingestion 3.29 ± 0.12 3.40 ± 0.13
Coffee Arabica Before ingestion 3.66 ± 0.09 3.07 ± 0.09
After ingestion 2.96 ± 0.10*3.54 ± 0.11
*
*Indicate significant(p < 0.05) in coffee arabica before and after. Power (P) and effect size (f) was calculated by G*Power (Erdfelder et al. 1996). N = 100
subjects in each group
1206 Metab Brain Dis (2018) 33:1203–1210
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P< 0.05) when compared with control. Statistical analysis for
the Talland test showed that the mean correct answer/score
increased after ingestion of coffee arabica (Qahwa) signifi-
cantly (P< 0.05) when compared with water (P=0.006) and
coffee robusta (P=0.02, Table2).
Stroop test
The present study indicated that different drinks consumed
had a significant effect on reaction times (F
2,297
=5.55, P=
0.006, P < 0.05) and errors (F
2,297
= 3.115, P= 0.04, P < 0.05).
Statistical analysis for the Stroop test showed that the mean
reaction time increased significantly after the ingestion of cof-
fee arabica/Qahwa (p< 0.05), and this increase in mean cor-
rect answer was being greater compared to the coffee robusta
(P= 0.02, p < 0.05) group, as shown in Table 2. The ANOVA
performed for the errors/mistake in reaction revealed a signif-
icant decrease in error was observed between water and coffee
arabica (p < 0.05). After coffee robusta ingestion performance
also showed impairments with more incorrect responses al-
though statistically nonsignificant (P=0.9),
Card recall test
The score results of card recall tests, revealed significance
(F
2,297
= 10.70, P= 0.007, P< 0.05). Tukey HSD Post-hoc
Statistical analysis for the card test showed that the mean cor-
rect answer increased after ingestion of coffee arabica (Qahwa),
and this increase approached significance (P < 0.05). Card test
was used to assess memory. The result showed significant dif-
ferences between water and Arabic coffee (P < 0.05).
Consumption of coffee decreased the mean score (4.36 ±
0.09), though non-significantly (P < 0.05) as shown in Table 2.
Discussion
The results of the present study are presented in Tables 1-2.
The results confirm that coffee robusta and coffee arabica
(Qahwa) are associated with memory and cognitive functions.
During the present study, coffee robusta and coffee arabica
(Qahwa) was ingested and different tasks were performed af-
ter thirty minutes, as it is rapidly absorbed in 30–40 min and
has a half-life of between 3 and 6 h (Rogers et al. 2003).All
psychological tasks were performed on subjects between
8:00 am and 12:00 noon because short-term memory (STM)
is thought to be influenced differently throughout the day
(Mitchell and Redman 1992). In other work, when coffee
robusta has been ingested in the morning, STM performance
will be different than at the end of the day (Mitchell and
Redman 1992). Foreman et al. 1989 reported that there were
non-significant effects of coffee robusta on response times or
recall tasks. In the present results after coffee robusta
Table 2 Comparative effect of coffee and Arabic coffee on memory and attention
Parameters Scores in trail making
Tes t A
Scores in trail making
Tes t B
Symbol digit Test
scores
letter cancellation
Tes t sco re
Talland test Stroop test reaction
scores
Stroop test mistakes
score
Card recall test
scores
Water 21.85 ± 0.45 17.06 ± 0.35 18.19 ± 0.57 12.42 ± 0.35 84.73 ± 1.92 22.86 ± 0.51 1.18 ± 0.22 4.43 ± 0.12
Coffee robusta 22.14 ± 0.43 17.90 ± 0.13* 18.51 ± 0.52 13.21 ± 0.53 86.23 ± 2.00 23.42 ± 1.62 1.23 ± 0.14 4.36 ± 0.09
Coffee arabica 22.84 ± 0.31 18.36 ± 0.40
#
20.44 ± 0.44
#
16.53 ± 0.31
#$
93.88 ± 2.39
#$
27.22 ± 0.39
#
0.72 ± 0.09
#
4.92 ± 0.06
#$
F
2,297
=1.6 F
2,297
= 6.537 F
2,297
=5.63 F
2,297
= 28.56 F
2,297
= 5.392 F
2,297
=5.55 F
2,297
=3.115 F
2,297
= 10.70
Effect size = 0.41 Effect size =0.53 Effect size = 0.99 Effect size = 0.77 Effect size = 1.00 Effect size = 0.48 Effect size = 0.22 Effect size = 0.286
P=0.2 *P=0.05
#
P = 0.005
#
P = 0.0001
#
P = 0.006
#
P = 0.006
#
P = 0.04
#
P = 0.007
Power = 0.99
#
P = 0.001
Power = 0.95
Power = 0.97
$
P = 0.0001
Power = 0.97
$
P = 0.02
Power = 0.97
$
P=0.02
Power = 0.95
Power = 0.95
$
P= 0.001
Power = 0.95
#indicates significant between water and coffee arabica
*indicates significant between water and coffee robusta
$
indicates significant between coffee robusta and coffee arabica
Power (P) and effect size (f) was calculated by G*Power (Erdfelder et al. 1996). N= 100 subjects in each group. N= 100 subjects in each group
Metab Brain Dis (2018) 33:1203–1210 1207
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consumption, the subjects have slower response than the cof-
fee arabica (Qahwa) group. The current results were in accor-
dance of (Foreman et al. 1989), who suggested that subjects
who were given coffee robusta were weak and showed slow
responses during the Stroop test. The researchers suggest that
coffee robusta may have a detrimental effect on the rapid
processing of ambiguous or confusing stimuli. Coffee robusta
administered in subjects recalled fewer words than control
subjects in the card test (Table 2), and also behind the control
subjects in recalling the lists (Terry and Phifer 1986).
However, other studies have shown that coffee robusta intake
has no effect (Herz 1999). Coffee robusta has been shown to
have beneficial effects on cognitive performance when indi-
viduals are sleep-deprived (Patat et al. 2000; Reyner and
Horne 2000) it increase subjective alertness and reduce fatigue
(Adan et al. 2008;Hewlett and Smith 2007) and reduce the
adverse effects of sleep deprivation and exposure to severe
environmental and operational stress on cognitive perfor-
mance (Lieberman et al. 2002). The same was observed in
the present study, after coffee robusta intake subjects felt alert
and clearheaded, although the difference was non-significant
(Table 1). This result was also obtained by (Hameleers et al.
2000) who found a correlation between caffeine consumption
and improved mental alertness. Caffeine helped attention to
remain sharper.
Coffee robusta has beneficial effects on reaction times and
sustained attention tasks. Studies have found it improves
motor-skill performance (driving task; Brice and Smith
2001: and handwriting;Tucha et al. 2006). These findings
are in accordance with our results, confirming that drinking
coffee robusta improves the psychological performance as
tested by Talland, digit symbol and LCT (Table 2) but non
significantly. Another source suggests that coffee robusta al-
ters the levels of CNS neurotransmitters and metabolism of
circulating free fatty acids. The end result is an increase in
blood sugar indirectly by metabolism (Williams 1991).
Sugar (glucose) is used in the present study in coffee robusta
while coffee arabica (Qahwa) was served without sugar.
Previously Serra-Grabulosa et al. (2010) quoted that com-
bined caffeine (coffee robusta) and glucose could increase
the efficiency of the attentional system studies. Serra-
Grabulosa (Serra-Grabulosa et al. 2010) used 75 g sugar that
is far higher than the levels found in sweetened coffee robusta.
It is also higher than the 5 g used in present studies that’swhy
during the present study coffee robusta was not found to in-
crease the efficiency of the attentional system studies signifi-
cantly compared to coffee arabica (qahwa), it only improves
the attention (Table 2).
Compared to water (control) and coffee robusta, the con-
sumption of coffee arabica (Qahwa) had significant beneficial
effects on the execution of simple reaction-time tasks and
sequential reaction time, alertness and memory tests (talland
test, digit symbol test, symbol digit test, card test, stroop test
and trail making test) as shown in Table 2. This current study
suggesting that coffee arabica (Qahwa) is a more effective
cognition enhancer. Coffee robusta and coffee arabica
(Qahwa) come from same plant. Green coffee beans are used
for the preparation of coffee arabica, while coffee robusta is
prepared by brewing roasted, ground beans (Vincent 1987).
Roasting cause degradation of many contents (polysaccha-
rides, sugars, amino acids and chlorogenic acids), and an in-
crease in organic acids and lipids (Cuong et al. 2014). In
coffee arabica (green seeds) the Chlorogenic acids CGA are
intact, as shown in the present TLC from this study (Fig. 1).
Chlorogenic acids (CGA) in coffee seeds completely convert
into phenol and quinolactones due to excessive roasting
(Clifford 2000; Farah et al. 2005).This CGA compounds
present in green coffee are highly absorbed and metabolized
in humans (Farah et al. 2008). Chlorogenic acids (CGA),
which are present in high concentrations in Coffee arabica/
qahwa (Fig. 1) have exhibited their action in the brain function
(Farah et al. 2005) and exert anti-amnesic activity via inhibi-
tion of an enzyme (acetylcholinesterase) and malondialdehyde
in the hippocampus and frontal cortex, so increasing memory
process (Kwon et al. 2010). Not only the CGA, Another con-
stituent of coffee arabica (Qahwa) is cardamom (Elettaria
cardamomum), previously reported to enhance learning and
memory retention as compared to control (Abu-Taweel 2018).
Another study revealed that significant attention and mem-
ory (Trail B, Digit Symbol Test and Stroop) scores were asso-
ciated with cardiac output (Putzke et al. 1998). Cardamom in
coffee arabica (Qahwa)increased the cardiac output
(Bhaswant et al. 2015). Thus the presence of CGA in coffee
arabica and cardamom both has promising beneficial effects
on attention, memory and psychological performance.
Limitation of study
Finally, it is important to emphasize that there are some limi-
tations to our study. It should be stressed that our results must
be considered as preliminary, as we only used 100 subjects (on
a voluntary basis aged between 18 and 26 years young adult
womens’) per group, although statistically significant, were
found in the coffee arabica groups. The sample size used in
present study correlates medium effect size with 0.97 power,
For that reason, there is no assurance that present results could
be applicable to other populations and conditions.
Conclusion
It is concluded that coffee arabica (Qahwa) is a more effective
cognition enhancer, having intact polysaccharides, sugars
(glucose), amino acids and chlorogenic acids (CGA) while it
burns in coffee robusta due to excessive roasting. Second,
cardamom in coffee arabica (Qahwa) increases cardiac output,
1208 Metab Brain Dis (2018) 33:1203–1210
Author's personal copy
which has having beneficial effects on psychological perfor-
mance (attention and memory).
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Miss Lujain Kuwair,
Miss Lama Farsi, Miss Kholud Sannan, Miss Sheren Farsi, Miss
Omneya Sannan, Miss Eman Monef Faculty of Applied Medical
Sciences, Umm-Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia, for provid-
ing their assistance in collecting data.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interests The authors have no conflict of interest.
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