Micronutrients in soils, plants, animals and humans

Abstract

Micronutrients play a key role in growth and development of plants, animals and humans. Micronutrients namely, zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl), nickel (Ni); cobalt (Co) for legumes only, essential for plants are also essential to human. Iodine (I), selenium (Si), fluorine (F) and chromium (Cr) are essential for human but not for plants, but absorbed by plant from soil and water and enter into the animals and humans through food chain. Micronutrient application has not only contributed in enhancing the food grain production but also helped in sustaining soil health and fortifying the country’s nutritional security. As per the GPS-aided analysis of more than 2 lakh soil samples, element-wise deficiency is as follows: Zn 36.5%, Fe 12.8%, Cu 4.2%, Mn 7.1%, B 23.4%. Scattered deficiency of Mo has been observed in acid soils. Food and fodder produced on these soils without supplementation of deficient micronutrient(s) have poor trace element concentration, causing micronutrient malnutrition in animals and humans alike. Even though the levels of trace elements like Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, Mo, Se and Co in crops are sometimes sufficient for optimum yields but
they are sub-optimal to meet the needs of livestock leading to their widespread deficiencies. Widespread nutritional deficiencies of vitamin A, Fe, Zn, and iodine affecting human health, disproportionately especially women and young children, have been reported. Soil-related deficiencies of trace elements such as Se, Cu, Fe and Zn are also implicated as causal factors for anemia. Toxic concentrations of some trace elements in soils also adversely affect the animal and human health. For correcting micronutrient malnutrition in animal and human, the strategies of micronutrient management should focus on enrichment of these elements in edible plant parts and making them bioavailable without compromising on the sustenance of crop production. Holistic approach is required to develop sustainable technologies to reduce micronutrient malnutrition by launching a mission mode programme on micronutrient research in soil-plant-animal/human continuum mode.

Full text

arvindshukla2k3@gmail.com
Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
30
Introduction
In rece nt times, soil degradation
du e to imp rope r soil reso urce
manage ment includin g intensive
cu ltiva t ion wi thou t prope r
replenishment of nutrients, limited
cr op ro t atio ns and n i l/le ss
addi tio n of orga nic matt er have
re sult e d in re duced yie ld an d
qu ality of cr ops alo ng with
em ergen ce of defi cien cy of
mi cron u trie nts in s oils, c rops ,
animals and human being world-
wi de. Ro le of mic ronutri ents in
gr owth and r e producti on of
plants, animals and humans is
sufficiently documented. Essential
micronutrients for plants are zinc
(Z n), cop per (C u), iron (F e),
ma nganes e ( Mn), bo ron (B) ,
molybden um (Mo), chlorine (Cl)
and nickel (Ni); for animals these
are Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu, selenium (Se),
iodine (I) and cobalt (Co) and for
human Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Co, I, Se,
F (f luor ide ), Cr (c hro mium ) are
essential. Boron is considered as
be nefi cial trac e e l emen t f or
an imals and huma ns bec ause it
prevents losses of Ca and Mg from
th e body. Ea ch mi c ronu trie nt
pl ays a speci f ic role i n p lant ,
an imal a n d huma n metabo lism
an d th eir defi cien c y c a nnot be
mitigated by substitution of other
elements.
Fe rtil ity of Indi a n soi ls is
genera lly poor exacerbat ed with
pr ogre ssiv ely e m ergi ng micro-
nutrient deficiencies due to their
catalyzed removal under agricul-
tural intensification. According to
latest estimates, out of about 188.4
th ousa n d tonn es (T t) of m i cro-
nutrients removed by 263 Mt of
food grains produced, individual
nutrient-wise removal is Zn - 23.9
Tt, Fe 110.6 Tt, Cu - 37.4 Tt, Mn -
63.3 Tt, B - 9.2 Tt and Mo - 0.99 Tt
(Ta kkar a nd Sh u kla, 2 0 15).
Enhanced removal has resulted in
36.5, 12.8, 7.1, 4.2 and 23.4% of more
than 2 lakh soil samples measuring
deficient in Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and B,
respect iv ely (Shukla and Behera,
2017).
Micronutrient deficiencies in soils
and crops adversely affect animal
an d human hea l th a nd t h eir
productivity (Takkar, 2005; Shukla,
20 1 4 ). In a n ima l s, leve l of
micronutrient deficiency affects the
physiological process differently as
th ese el e ments a re inv olved i n
me tabol ic a ctiv ities relat e d t o
growth, reproduction and health.
Sub-clinical deficiency of micro-
nutrients may not affect growth
and feed efficiency; this may cause
impairment in reprodu ction and
im mun ity.
Indian Journal of Fertilisers, Vol. 14 (4), pp.30-54 (25 pages)
Micronutrients in Soils, Plants, Animals and Humans
Arvind K. Shukla1, Sanjib K. Behera1, Abhijit Pakhre2 and S.K. Chaudhari3
1ICAR- Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
2All Indian Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
3Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi
Abstract
Micronutrients play a key role in growth and developmen t of plan ts, animals and humans. Micronutrients
namely, zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl), nickel (Ni);
cobalt (Co) for legumes only, essential for plants are also essential to human. Iodine (I), selenium (Si), fluorine
(F) and chromium (Cr) are essential for human but not for plants, but absorbed by plant from soil and water and
enter into the animals and humans through food chain. Micronutrient application has not only contributed in
enhancing the food grain production but also helped in sustainin g soil health and fortifying the country’s nutritional
security. As per the GPS-aided analysis of more than 2 lakh soil samples, el ement-wise deficiency is as follows:
Zn 36.5%, Fe 12.8%, Cu 4.2%, Mn 7.1%, B 23.4%. Scattered deficiency of Mo has been observed in acid soils. Food
and fodd er produced on these soils with ou t supplementa tion of de ficient micronu tr ient(s) have poor tra ce
element concentration, causing micronutrient malnutrition in animals and humans alike. Even though the levels
of trace elements like Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, Mo, Se and Co in crops are sometimes sufficient for optimum yields but
they are su b-optimal to meet the ne eds of li vesto ck lead ing to th ei r wid esp rea d defic ienci es. Widesprea d
nutritional deficien cies of vitamin A, Fe, Zn, and iodine affecti ng human health, disproportiona tely especially
women and young children, have been reported. Soil-related deficiencies of trace elements such as Se, Cu, Fe
and Zn are also impli cated as causal factors for anemia. Toxic concentrations of some trace elements in soils
also adversely affect the animal and human health. For correcting micr onutrient malnutrition in animal and
human, the strateg ies of micronu tr ient mana gement should focus on enri ch ment of these elements in edible
plant parts and making th em bioavailable without compromising on the sustenance of crop production. Holistic
approa ch is required to develop sustainable technologies to reduce micronutrient malnutrition by launching a
mission mode programme on micronutrient research in soil-plant-animal/human continuum mode.
Key words: Micronutrients, trace elements, micronutrient efficiency, biofortification, supplementation, soil-plant-
animal-human continuum

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
31
In I n dia, mic ronu trie n t-re lated
pr oble m s in human bein g ha ve
pa ssed thro u gh sever al st a ges.
Before onset of Green Revolution,
th e th reat of wides pre a d
ho useh old f ood i nsec u rity and
chronic mi cro nut rien t malnutri-
tion was very common triggered
by exte nsi ve po pu lati on growth
and insufficient food availability.
Du ring this p erio d, the maj or
nutritional diseases prevalent in
large sections of the population
were kwashiorkar (acute protein-
en ergy malnut riti on), kerato -
ma lacia (attr ibut a ble t o sev e re
vi t amin A def icien cy), b eri-b eri
(a risi ng fr om vi tamin B1
deficiency) and pellagra (nicotinic
ac id defi cien cy). These m a l-
nutrition-induced diseases nearly
disappeared over the years due to
sh ift in croppin g p atter n, crop
management practices, food grain
production, and modification in
di et pat t ern i n the G reen
Revolution era.
In dia rank ed 9 7 a mong 1 1 8
nations (with widespread hunger
levels) on the Global Hunger Index
ba sis in 2 0 16, m ainl y du e to
mi cro nutr ient -in duced deficien-
cies. Opti mum in take of cru cial
vita mins and mineral s such as
zinc, vitamin A and folate or
Vi tamin B9, is ess entia l for
children to grow up healthy, both
me ntall y a s well a s p hysi call y.
National Health Policy 2017 has
stressed on the need to address the
issue through a well-planned
st rate g y o n m icro nutri ent
in terv e ntio ns. Fighti ng micr o-
nu trient ma lnut rit ion has been
identified as an integral component
of three of the eight Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) of the
General Assembl y of the United
Nation s aimed at alleviatin g the
world’s gravest health and poverty
is sues (Un ited Nat ions Gen e ral
Assembly, 2000). In this context it
is essential to lay focus on reducing
micronutrient malnourishment by
co rrec ting mic ronut rient def i-
ci enci es in soil s and crop s and
enhancing micronutrient content
in the edible plant parts.
Sc enari o of Mi cron utrie nt
De f ici e ncie s in Soils, Pla nts,
Animals and Humans
Soil
Mi cron utri ent con tent in so il is
de pen dent on seve ral fact ors
such as geochemi cal composition
(total micronutrient contents of the
soil par ent mat erial ); soil type
(c lay miner a logy, p a rtic le si ze
distribution, soil horizon, soil age,
so il for matio n pro cess es);
intrinsic soil properties like pH,
redox potentia l (Eh), soluble salt
co ncer tatio n (E C); qual i ty and
quantity of soil organic matter and
calcium carbonate content); inputs
of tra ce eleme nts (su ppli ed
through atmospheric deposition,
pesticides, manures, fertilizers);
av a ilab l e conte nt of ma cro -
nu trie nts; micr onut rien t in ter-
actions; and vegetation (Fageria et
al., 2002; Alloway 2008; Shukla et
al . , 2 016). In ad d itio n t o t hese
fa ctor s, low le v els o f a vail a ble
micronutrients and their rampant
de fici encie s in Indi an soi ls are
at t rib u t ed to in t ensi fica t ion of
ag ricul ture w i thou t prop er
replenish ment of micron utrie nts
through fertilization. Further, loss
of mic ronu trie nts thro u gh
leaching, liming of soils, scant use
of manures and accelerated use of
mi cron u trie nt-p ure ch emic a l
fertiliz ers without micronutrient
ad diti o ns h a ve r esul ted in
accelerated exhaustion of available
micronutrients in the soils.
Total soil micronutrient content is
a com plex fu n ctio n of paren t
material and pedogenic processes.
Indian soils are fairly satisfactory
with respect to total micronutrient
co ntent . But in spit e of the
re lativ e ly h igh tot al conte n ts,
mi cron u trie nt defi cien cies ha ve
been frequently reported in many
crops due low levels of available
mi cron u trie nts in soi ls (Si ngh,
20 0 8 ; Be hera and Shu kla, 2014;
Shukla and Tiwari, 2016).
Ba sed on the cri tica l limit s
followed in diffe rent states of
India, status of the micronutrients
de fici encie s was as sess ed in
differen t soils during 20 11-20 17.
Analysis of more than 2.0 lakhs soil
samples during 2011-2017 revealed
that on an average, 36.5, 12.8, 4.2,
7.1 and 23.4% soils were deficient
in Zn, F e, Cu, Mn and B,
re spec tive ly (Tab le 1). Spati a l
di stri butio n of Z n defici e ncy
exhibit ed inter-stat e varia tions.
More than 50% soils of the states
like Tamil Nadu (63.3%), Rajasthan
(56.5%), Madhya Pradesh (57.1%)
an d G oa (55.3 % ) exhi bited Zn
deficien cy; states like Arun ac hal
Pr ades h, Him a chal Prade sh,
Meghalaya, Miz oram, Nagaland,
Tripura and Uttarakhand had Zn
deficiency in less than 10% of soils.
Mo re tha n 20% so ils had Fe
deficiency in states like Rajasthan
(34.4%), Gujarat (25.9%), Haryana
(21 .7%) and Maharashtra (23.1%)
while the states like Uttar Pradesh,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Goa, Tamil Nadu had deficiency in
10 to 20% of soils. In general, Cu
deficiency was not more than 5%
soils in any of the states, except
Haryana (5.1%), Rajasthan (9.2%)
and Tamil Nadu (12.0%).
Hi gher M n defi cien cy was
re port ed in lig ht te xture d ric e-
growing soils (especia lly in rice-
wheat systems) of the states like
Rajasthan (28.3%), Punjab (26.2%),
Goa (16.9%), Uttar Pradesh (15.8%)
an d C hhatt isga rh (14. 8%). The
so ils of the s tates like Bi h ar,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and
Telangana exhibited Mn deficiency
to the tune of 5 to 10%. The states
having acid soils like Jharkhand,
Od isha , Ka rnat aka, Jamm u an d
Ka shmi r, H imac h al Pr ades h,
Ma nipur, M egha laya, Mizo ram
an d West Benga l ex h ibit ed B
deficiency in 35 to 60% soils.
Plants
Id eal co ncen trati ons of

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
32
micronutrients in plants are 100,
100, 50, 20, 20, 6, 0.1 and 0.1 mg
kg-1 of dry matter for Cl, Fe, Mn, B,
Zn, Cu, Mo and Ni respectively.
Plants show deficiency symptoms
or enter into the hidden hunger
condition when the concentrations
of micronutrients fall below their
respective critical con centrations
(Table 2) . Visual diagn osis of
mi cron u trie nt diso rder s is a
po werf ul tool fo r ra pid
identification of plant health linked
to fe rtil ity, mi cron utrie nt
availa bilit y, up take and
ve rifica tio n of soil or fol iar test
results. Careful observations of
the growth of plants can furnish
direct evidence of their nutritional
conditions. Metabolic disruptions
re sult ing fr o m m icro nutr ient
de fici encie s p rov i de l inks
between the function of an element
and the appearance of a specific
de velopment of m i cron utri ents
deficiency in plant:
Stage 1: Depletion of micronutrients
stored in the body – diminishing
degree of saturation of the carriers
and enzymes,
St age 2 : Im p airm e nt of m icro -
nutrients dependent bio chemical
fun ctions,
St age 3 : Me asura ble chang es in
ce llu lar and physiologica l func-
tions, and
Stage 4: Appearance of structural
and functional lesions.
Wh en a pla nt is depri ved of
particular nutrient, it reflects into
im pairm ent of bi olog ical and
physiological functions (up to stage
3) befo re showing def ici ency as
lesions or clinical symptoms (stage
4) . Th e first th r ee s t ages are
ma nife sted in hidd en hunge r,
which may cause significant loss
in plant growth and development
and ultimately reduction in yield,
if not diag nose d thr ough plan t
ti ssue a naly s is i n time . V isua l
mi cron u trie nt defic ienc y sy mp-
toms of variou s crops have been
ch aract eriz e d and some a re
presented in Plate 1 for brevity.
Table 1. State-wise per cent distribution of micronutrient deficiencies in India
State Zinc Iron Copper Manganese Boron
Andhra Pradesh 22.9 2 17.2 4 1.33 1.63 4.08
Arunachal Pradesh 4.63 1.44 1.40 3.01 39.1 5
Assam 28.11 0.00 2.80 0.01 32.75
Bihar 45.25 12.00 3.19 8.77 39.39
Chhattisgarh 25.59 7.06 3.22 14.7 7 20.59
Goa 55.29 12.21 3.09 16.91 12.94
Gujarat 36.56 25.87 0.38 0.46 18.72
Haryana 15.42 21.72 5.13 6.16 3.27
Himachal Pradesh 8.62 0.51 1.43 6.68 27.02
Jammu & Kashmir 10.91 0.41 0.34 4.60 43.0 3
Jharkhand 17.47 0.06 0.78 0.26 60.00
Karnataka 30.70 7.68 2.28 0.13 36.79
Kerala 18.34 1.23 0.45 3.58 31.21
Madhya Pradesh 57.0 5 8.3 4 0.47 2.25 4.30
Maharashtra 38. 60 23.12 0.14 3.02 20.69
Manipur 11.50 2.13 2.46 2.06 37.17
Meghalaya 3.84 1. 33 1 .03 2.95 47.93
Mizoram 1.96 0.49 0.98 1.22 32.76
Nagaland 4.62 2.00 0.53 3.05 54.31
Odisha 32.12 6.42 7.11 2.12 51.88
Punjab 19.24 13.04 4.67 26.20 18.99
Rajasthan 56.51 34.38 9.15 28.28 2.99
Tamil Nadu 63.30 12.62 12.01 7.37 20.65
Telangana 26.77 16.65 1.36 3.54 16.49
Tripura 5.51 1.57 2.36 0.00 23.62
Uttar Pradesh 27.27 15.56 2.84 15.82 20.61
Uttarakhand 9.59 1 .3 6 1. 51 4. 82 1 3.44
West Bengal 14.42 0.03 1.76 0.98 37.05
All India average 3 6. 50 12.8 4 .20 7 .10 23.4
Table 2. Critical concentration of micronutrients in crop plants
Micronutrients Crops Critical concentration (mg kg-1)
for deficiency
Zn Cereals 15
Millets 15 - 20
Legumes 7 - 20
Vegetables (French bean) 36
Oilseeds 12 - 25
B Cere als 4 – 10
Millets 7 – 15
Legumes 3 – 15
Vegetab le s 3 – 5
Oilseeds 5 - 10
Mn Cereals 25
Millets 1 0
Legumes 10-35
Vegetab le s 30 – 40
Oilseeds 5 - 18
Cu Cereals 2 – 4
Millets 2 – 3.5
Legumes 4 – 8
Vegetab le s 2 – 6
Oilseeds 2 - 10
vi sibl e ab norm a lity. In gener a l,
th ere are fou r s tages in

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
33
Zinc deficie ncy in wheat
Plate 1. Visual micronutrient deficiency symptoms in different crops
Zinc deficiency in maize Zinc deficiency in potato
Iron deficiency in rice Iron deficiency in maiz e Iron defici ency in lima bean
Man gan ese deficiency in wheat Manganese de ficiency in potato M ang ane se defic iency in radish
Mol ybden um deficie ncy in cab bage M oly bde num deficien cy in potat o Mol ybdenum def iciency
in sponge gour d
Boron defic iency in ca ulifl ower B or on def ic ienc y in ca bb ag e B or on d eficie ncy in se sa me
Cop per defi ciency in wheat Copper deficiency in potato Cop per defic iency in radis h

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
34
Animals
Up take of min e ral nutr ient s by
cr ops and pa sture s from soi l is
influenced by several factors such
as soil types and their properties
li ke s oil acid ity, so il m o ist u re
co ntent , tempe ratu r e, cli m atic
condition , crop type and variety,
cr op manage ment pra c tice s,
application of fertilizer and organic
ma tter an d micro bia l activity of
soil etc. Amo ng t he factors , soil
acidity pl a y s pivotal ro le in
influencing tra ce mineral uptake
by the crops and pastures. Higher
soil p H leads t o a n enhanced
biol o g i c a l ava ilability of some
trace elements such as Se and Mo,
whereas with l o w e r so i l p H ,
availability of Se is less. But the
uptake o f some cationic t r a c e
elements li k e C u i s i n c r e a s e d .
Somet ime s, th e lev el of Cu, Zn,
Mn, Fe a n d Co i n c r o p s is
sufficient for optimum yields but
is not adequate to meet the needs
of l i v e s t ock animals. F o r
impro ving a nima l nutrition,
state a n d zone-wise m i n e r a l
nutrient defic iencies have been
iden tified b y NIANP, B engal uru
(Table 3).
Table 3. State- and zone- wise mineral nutrient deficiencies for animal nutrition
State Zone Mineral State Zone Mineral
deficiency deficiency
Arunachal Hilly and mountainous Na, K, Mg, Cu, Rajasthan Semi-arid zone Ca, P, Zn
Pradesh zone Mn
Assam Lower Brahmaputra valley P Arid zone Zn, Cu
Upper Brahmaputra valley P, Ca, Cu Haryana Irrigated Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn
Barak valley, hilly zone Ca, P, Mg, Cu Himachal Shivalik hill zone Ca, Zn, K
Pradesh
Central Brahmaputra valley Ca, P, Cu Mid hill zone, Ca
high hill zone
North bank plain Ca P, Cu Cold dry zone Ca, P, Zn, Cu
West Bengal Northern hill zone Ca, P, Cu Maharashtra North Konkan Ca, P, Mg, Fe
coastal
Tarai zone Ca, P, Zn, Mn Western ghat Cu, Zn
New alluvial zone Ca, P, Cu, Zn Transition zone – I, Ca, P, Mg,
transition zone II Cu, Fe, Zn
Old alluvial zone, Ca, P, Zn Karnataka North east transition Ca, P
Red laterite zone zone
Coastal Saline zone Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn North east dry zone Ca, Zn
Jharkhand/Bihar South-western P, Cu, Zn, Co, Mn Northern dry zone Ca, P, Mg,
semi-arid zone Cu, Zn
Central plain zone P, Mg, Cu, Zn, Fe Central dry zone, Ca, P, Mg,
eastern dry zone Cu, Zn
Eastern plain zone Ca, P, Cu, Co, Mn Southern Dry zone Ca, P, Zn
Uttar Pradesh Bundelkhand zone Ca, P, Cu, Zn Southern transition zone Ca, Cu, Zn
Bhabar and tarai zone Ca, Cu, Mn, Co Northern transition zone Ca, P, Cu,
Zn, Fe
Western plain zone Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Mn Hilly zone Ca, P, Cu, Zn
Central plain zone P, I, S, Zn Coastal zone Cu, Zn
Vindhyan zone P, Zn, Fe Kerala Northern zone, Ca, P, Mg,
special problem areas Cu, Mn
Uttaranchal Hill zone (Rainfed) Ca, P, Cu, Co Central zone, Ca, P, Mg
high range areas
Tarai-Bhabar zone Ca, Cu, Co Southern zone Ca, P, Cu,
(Irrigated) Zn, Mn
Gujarat Rainfed Ca, Zn Tamil Nadu Rainfed, coastal Ca, P, Cu, Zn
Irrigated, hilly zone Zn Irrigated Cu, Zn, Mn
Arid zone (Semi arid zone) Ca, P, Zn Hill and mountain P, Cu, Zn
Punjab Irrigated Ca P, Cu, Zn Andhra Pradesh Rainfed zone Ca, P, Cu, Zn,
Mn
Madhya Pradesh Northern hill zone P, Zn Coastal zone Ca, P, Cu, Zn
Kymore plateau and P, Zn Arid zone P, Cu, Zn
Satpura hills zone
Vindhya plateau P, Zn, Fe Bihar Zone-I Zone-II Zn, Fe, Cu,
Satpura plateau Mn, Co
Central Narmada valley P, Zn, Mn Zone - III A Zn, Fe, Mn, Co
Gird zone P, Zn, Fe, Mn Zone-III B Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn
Bundelkhand Malwa valley, P, Zn, Mn
zone Nimar velley
Jhabua hills zone Zn, Fe, Mn

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
35
Humans
There is a famous diction that good
hu man heal th is linke d w ith
he a lthy soi ls, w hich pro duce
variety of food. In fact, an integral
li nk b etwee n soi l and hum a n
he a lth w as r ecog nized sev e ral
thousand years ago. As far back as
ci rca 1400 BC the Bibl e de pict s
Mo ses a s un d erst andi n g th a t
fe rtil e soi l was essenti al to the
well-being of his people. In 400
BC , th e Greek ph ilos ophe r
Hi ppoc rate s pr ovide d a l ist o f
things that should be considered in
a prop er m e dica l eva luati on,
including the properties of the local
ground. A reference to geophagia,
soil ingestion, in India dates back
to Mahabharata (3200 BC) where
Ba lara m a an d the othe r frien ds
complained to Mata Yasoda that
Krishna had eaten the soil. There
are reports that at least 2000 years
ag o specially minte d clay co ins
called “Terrasigillata”, which were
su ppos ed to ha ve medi cinal
pr oper ties , w e re sol d in Greek
markets. Geophagia very common
among children, pregnant women
and adolescent girls, is considered
bo th g ood and bad for hu m an
health. Eat ing soil in suc h cases
sa tisf ies ext reme hung er,
compensates mineral deficiencies
and detox ifi es food . Eat ing clay
earth during famin e is reported
fr om Chi na, an d many A fric an
co untr i es, lik e Su dan, Nor th
Carolina for general health, and in
Zi mbabw e , it i s eate n to t reat
diarrhoea. Soil-related deficiencies
of trace elements such as selenium,
co pper, iron and zinc have also
been implicated as causal factors
for anemia (Oliver, 1997). At times,
th e ov er-ex ploi tatio n of so ils
at t rib u t able to a desi re to
increase food production led to
its serious degradation, failure to
produce sufficient food for people
and the collapse of societies. For
ex ample , specu latio n on the
de clin e of the Me sopo tamia n
civiliz ations and co llapse of the
Indus valley civilization in 2000 BC
has been attributed in part to soil
de grad a tion brou ght a bout by
er osio n and sal i niza tion. M a ya
empire in approximately 600 AD
ma y ha ve collapse d due to soi l
nutrient exhaustion, erosion and
re sult ing mal nutri tion ( Olso n,
1981).
Recognition of the fact that there
ar e rela tio nsh ips betw een soils
and hu man health, date back to
17 0 0 A D is refe rred i n d e
Crevecoeur paper ‘Letters from an
American Farmer’ which speak that
“Men are like plants; the goodness and
flavor of the fruit procee ds from the
peculiar soil and exposition in which they
gr ow”. McCarr ison (1921 )
concluded that the fertility of a soil
determined the vitamin content of
fo od cro ps gro wn in it, and
therefore it influenced the human
health. He also speculated that soil
ba cteri a c o uld con t ribu te t o
human diseases. Recognizing the
importance of soil as the origin of
ma ny o f the mine ral elem ents
nece ssary for hum an health, the
USDA - Yearbook of Agriculture
19 38 incl uded three cha pters on
th is a spec t. Expo sure to so il
microorganisms is thought to b e
im port ant in t h e prev e ntio n of
al lerg i es an d othe r immun ity-
related disorders (Rook, 2010). Soil
is an impo rtant sou r ce of
me dicines, 78% of antib a cter i al
ag ents appr ove d bet ween 1983
and 1994 had their origins in the
soil (Pepper et al., 2009). Beyond
antibiotics, approximately 40% of
all prescription drugs hav e t heir
origi n in soil. Thus the idea that
human health is linked with soil
is not new but the scientific study
on such aspe ct is a rece nt
undertaking.
Es tima t ed 40% of the worl d’s
population, mostly in low income
coun tries is facing a problem of
mi cron u trie nt m a lnutr itio n.
Burgeoning rise in the number of
th e peo p le affe cted with
micronutrient malnutrition during
last four decades in India coincides
with expansion of the area under
rice- whe a t or rice-rice crop pin g
systems (low nutritiona l qua lity
food) having high yielding varieties
(H YVs) a t the expe nse of
traditional cereal- pulses/l egume
(h igh nu t riti o nal q ualit y food )
systems. In South Asia, with the
in trod uctio n of HYVs a
spectacular increase in production
of whea t (400%) and r ice (200%)
ov er four de cade s is asso c iated
with increasing incidences of Fe-
de ficien cy ana emi a amon g non -
pr egna n t a nd pre- meno paus a l
women caused by decrease in Fe
density (mg Fe kcal-1 of available
fo od) in die t. Cons equen ces of
mi cron u trie nt defi cien cies ha ve
gr ave im plic a tion s on hea l th,
livelihood and well-b eing of the
af flic t ed peopl e (Co m bs, 1 996).
Dietary intake ought to be changed
wi th incr eased cons u mpti on of
pu lses to en sure adeq uate and
balanced micronutrient supply to
one and all in an affordable manner
(Welch et al., 19 97). Widespread
prevalent nutritional deficiencies
of vitamin A, Fe, Zn, and iodine
have been adversely influencing
the heal th of wo men and young
ch ildr en. Sh orta g e of
micronutrients in the diet can limit
growth, weaken immunity, cause
xerophthalmia (an irreversible eye
disorder leading to blindness), and
in crease mor tali ty. Ne utropenia
and leucopoe nia, skeletal defects
and degradation of nervous system
(Prasad, 1961), defective melanin
sy nthe sis, whic h ma n ifes ts as
de pigm entat i on o r hy popi g-
mentation (lack of colour) of hair
and skin, kera tinization of hair,
st eely h air ar e o ther s igns of
micronutrient deficiencies in the
humans (Davis and Mertz, 1987).
Im pact of Micr onutrient
deficiencies and Toxicities on Crop
Pr oduc tivi ty and An imal and
Human Health
In gen e ral, agri cultu re is the
pr imar y supp lier of food a nd
nutrients to all human on earth. If

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
36
ag ricul ture canno t p rovi de
adequate amounts of all nutrients,
th e food sy stem s b ecom e
dy sfun ctio nal an d ma lnutr itio n
arises. The biggest challenge is to
fe ed and nourish a burge oning
hu man po pula tion wi th lim ited
la nd resou rces fo r produ ctive
ag ricul ture . In ad diti on, m u lti-
micronutrient deficiencies in soils
worldwide leading to production
of poo r qu ality crop pro duce ,
particularly low in trace elements,
ultimately affect the animal and
hu man hea l th (Si llan paa, 19 9 0;
Shukla et al, 2014, 2016; Behera
and Shukla, 2014). Toxicity of
trace elements (particularly Fe,
Al, Se, As, F, Cr etc.) in soil and
water may also affect animal and
human health.
Zinc
The av ailable Zn in In dian soils
ranges from 0.01 to 52.9 mg kg-1. It
constitutes less than 1% of the total
Zn content. Currently 36.5% of soil
sa mple s acr o ss t he co untry are
deficient in available Zn; about 8,
29 and 15% area of the country is
suffe rin g from acute defi ciency,
deficiency and latent deficiency
of Z n, re spec t ivel y (Fi gure 1).
Ac ute Zn-d efic ient soi ls a re
in tens ively c ulti v ated o n es
ch aract eriz e d by coarse te x ture
(sandy/ loamy sand), high pH (> 8.5
or a l kali/ s odic soils ) and/o r
ca lcare ousn ess, and low so i l
or gan ic ca rbon (< 0.4 %) co nte nt
(Shukla et al., 2014).
Zinc deficiency witnessed a decline
from 46% in 1967-1987 to 36.5% in
20 1 1 -201 7 d ue to reg u lar and
higher use of Zn fertilizer in some
parts of the country. Interestingly,
ba sed on periodic Zn deficiency
da ta f rom 1 9 67 t o 2000, Sin gh
(2 009) had predi cted tha t Zn
deficiency would rise up to 63% by
20 2 0 -25 (Fi g ure 2 a). H owev er,
extensive research and extension
ac tivit ies on micronut rient s,
especially on Zn by AICRP-MSPE
in clud ing othe r a genci es in
cr eatin g a w a rene ss amon g the
farmers and initiative taken by the
fe rtil izer indu stry, led to an
in crea se in Z n fe rtili z er use
linearly. Resultant build-up of Zn
le vel in so il, Zn de fici ency
de cre ased to 36.5% in 2017 an d
ba sed on the curre nt trends, Zn
deficiency would reduce to 21% by
2025-30 (Figure 2b) provided the
un stin t ed ef forts of fert iliz e r
industry and government support
and promotion of Zn fertilization
will continue.
Zi nc d efic ienc y d isor ders ar e
Figure 1. Available soil Zn status in India
Figure 2. Prediction of soil Zn deficiency (a) prediction by Singh (2009), and
(b) prediction based on current data
2a
2b
per cent sample deficient

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
37
known by different nomenclatures
like khaira disease in rice, rosetting
in wheat, white bud in maize, little
leaves and mottling in vegetables,
an d red uced frui t form atio n in
citrus. Influence of Zn deficiency
im pact i ng crop pr o duct i vity
co nfir med from the r espo nse
obtained in large number of crops
an d cropping system ac ross the
country to applied Zn (Takkar et al.,
19 89; Singh, 2009; Shu kla et al. ,
2012). Based on the level of increase
in relative economic yield (REY) of
different crops in more than 15,000
tr ials c o nduc t ed at cul t ivat o rs’
fields from 1967 to 2016, a soil is
cl assi fied as marg inal or non-
re spon sive , res ponsive, v e ry
responsive, and highly responsive
to Zn with incremental REY <200,
200-500, 500-1000, >1000 kg ha-1,
re spe ctively. Out of 4,144 tr ials
co nduc t ed on farme rs’ field s
du ring 1967 -84, 58% exh ibit e d
response to Zn application (Takkar
et al., 1989; Singh, 2001). Number
of trials responding to applied Zn
increased over the years from 58%
during 1967-1984 to 63% during
1985-2000, 72% during 2000-2010,
to 8 0% during 2011-2016 (Figure
3). This indicates that either new
cultivars are more responsive to
Zn applica tion or its de ficiency
ha s i n tens ifie d due to gre ater
mining of Zn from soil without its
matching replenishment.
Fe ed and fodde rs produc e d on
micronutrient-deficient soils a nd
fed to cattle in Haryana resulted
in higher percentage of Zn, Cu and
Mn deficiency in their blood serum,
hair and milk (Table 4). Survey in
Vad odar a dis tric t of G u jara t
showed that dry fodder tested low
in Fe (61%), Zn (72%) and Cu (87%)
and green fodders were low in Fe
(1 7%), Z n (5 %) a nd Cu (23%)
al thoug h m ost of the soi ls on
wh ich th is was grow n w ere
adequate in terms of available Fe,
Mn and Cu. A specific disorder
resulting from zin c deficiency in
an imals is p arak e ratosis – a
disorder of the epidermal layer of
the skin occurring in calves, sheep,
goats and piglets. Phytate (inositol
hexaphosphate): Zn ratio plays an
important role in influencing the
Zn bioavailability in animal body.
Exce ss int ake of Zn is relati vely
ra re in farm anim a ls. Ho wev er,
ex cess zin c ma y re duce the
dige stibility of phosphorus, and
ca use anem ia and dige stive
disorders. Poisoning is conditioned
pr imar ily by t h e anta g onis tic
relationship of zinc with iron and
co pper. Ex cess ive intak e o f Z n
additives may lead to the essential
fa tty acid metaboli sm whi c h
in flue nces sy nthe sis of p rost a-
glandin.
In h uman s , Zn def icie ncy wa s
recognized as a health concern for
the first time in 1961. Prasad et al.
(1 961, 19 63) descr ibed t he fi rst
ca ses of h uman Zn de fici ency
sy ndro mes: growth stunting,
delayed sexual development and
hypogona dism in youn g adu lts
from Iran and Egypt (Pla te 2).
Besides, Zn deficiency leads to
Figure 3. Changes in crop responses to Zn with time in trials at farmers’ fields (Singh, 2008; Shukla and Behera, 2011)
Table 4. Average percentage of mineral nutrient deficiency in blood serum,
hair and milk in cattle of Haryana (Narwal et al., 2013)
Deficiency percentage based on Cu Zn Mn
Serum mineral status 40.0 - -
Hair mineral status basis - 50.3 47.6
Milk mineral status basis 29.0 42.9 -
Plate 2. A picture of four dwarfs from Iran
(From left to right - Age 21 years:
height 4’11.5”; Age 18 years:
height 4’9”; Age 18 years: height
4’7”; and Age 21 years:
height 4’8")

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
38
diarrhoea, respiratory malfunctions,
weak immun e system, im paired
cognitive fun ction, neuronal
atrophy, behavioural problems,
memo ry impairme nt, spatial
learning, lesions on dermal tissue/
keratin (Plate 3) and parakeratosis.
It is estimated that one-third of the
wo rld p opula tion livin g in
developing countries suffers from
high risk of zinc d eficiency. The
vu lnera ble popula t ions incl ude
in fant s , y oung ch ildr en, and
pr egna n t an d lac tatin g wom en
be cause of their hi g her zinc
requirements at c ritical stages of
growth and physiological needs. In
general, a very strong correlation
has been reported between soil Zn
status and human Zn defic iency
level (Singh, 2009; Shukl a et al. ,
2016).
By and la rge, diet ary Zn inta ke
consisting mainly of rice and wheat
in the poor people of the country is
far below the normal levels and is
imbalanced being low in Zn and
high in phytate, resulting in low
Zn -bioavai labi lity because phy-
tate: Zn molar ratio in diets more
th an 15 cau ses s ignif ican t
reduction in Zn absorption and it
results in Zn deficiency in humans.
In states of Assam, Bihar, Orissa,
Tripura and West Bengal, average
consumption of Zn among various
age groups is much lower than the
recommended dietary allowance
(R DA). Th eref ore, po pulat ions
relying primarily on a plant-based
diet, that too exclusively on cereals,
ar e more s u scep tibl e t o Zn
deficiency. A large section (84%) of
th e famili es had defic ient Zn
intakes and more than 50% having
moderate to severe deficiency level
of Zn in their dietary intake. About
82 % of p regn a nt w omen
wo rldw ide ha ve an in a dequ a te
zinc intake to meet the normative
needs of pregnancy. Dietary zinc
dependence in infants is greatest
when the prenatal liver stores get
ex haust ed and subs equen t
transient zinc deficiency can occur
as m othe r ’s milk has an
exceptionally low concentration of
zinc. In India, about 25% of the total
po pula t ion suffe rs f rom Zn
de fici ency. The prevalen ce o f
nu trit i onal stun ting due to Z n
deficiency in India is about 47.9%
in children of less than 5-year age
ag a inst a verag e of 33% in the
world’s population.
High incide nce of Zn defic iency
(4 3.8%) was c onfi rmed a m ong
children belonging to low socio-
ec onom i c g roups in five maj or
Indian states (Table 5). The highest
Zn defi cien cy wa s in Oris sa
(51.3%), followed by Uttar Pradesh
(48.1%), Gujarat (44.2%), Madhya
Pradesh (38. 9%), and Karn ata ka
(36.2 %). Another cross-sec tional
study (n=630) also confirmed low
plasma Zn concentration and poor
cognitive performance in 4 5% of
the adolescent girls (10-16 years)
fr om two s econ dary s chool s of
Pune. Supplementation of Zn-rich
re cipe s improved pla sma Zn
status, cognitive performance and
taste acuity signifying the need to
ad opt d ieta r y Zn int a ke for
normal health (Kawade, 2012).
Iron
In I ndia , the p robl em of iron
de fici ency m a inly occu rs in
calcareous and alkaline soils with
pH > 7.5. Availability of Fe gets
ag g rava t ed und er dro u ght or
moisture stress conditions due to
conversion of ferrous form of iron
(Fe2+ ) into less available ferr ic
fo rm (F e3+ ). So metim es, hi gh
co nce ntra tio ns of P, NO3-N and
or gani c ma t ter cont e nts als o
Plate 3. Lesions skin, hair and nails because of Zn deficiency
Table 5. Distribution of children below 5 years of age in India according to their
serum Zn levels (Kapil and Jain, 2011)
State (no. of sample) Serum zinc levels
<55 g dL-1 <60 g dL-1
Orissa (n=345) 34.5 43.2
Uttar Pradesh (n=316) 29.4 40.2
Gujarat (n=353) 25.8 34.0
Karnataka (n=356) 19.1 26.4
Madhya Pradesh (n=285) 14.7 22.8
Total (n=1655) 25.0 33.5

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
39
hinder iron availability to the crop
plants. About 4, 9 and 6% area of
the country is inflicted with acute
deficienc y, deficien cy and latent
de fici ency of Fe, re spec tivel y
(Figure 4). About 10, 11 and 60%
area is characterized by adequate,
hi gh a nd v ery hig h l evels of
available Fe, respectively. Strongly
acid and waterlogged soils have
ve ry high level of av aila ble Fe.
Th ere is a p ecul iar pro b lem in
flooded (paddy) rice soils where
rice yields get severely reduced by
Fe toxicity. The soils of north-east
region, Odisha and Kerala suffer
from Fe toxi city problem in rice
paddies (Figure 5).
Iron chlorosis in plants, also called
li me-i nduce d c hloro sis, is
ge nera l ly ob serv e d in u pla n d
cr ops esp ecial ly ae robic rice,
sorghum, groundnut, sugarca ne,
chick pea grown in Fe-d efi cie nt
highly calcar eous soils, compact
soil with restricted aeration, soils
with low in active Fe and high in
P and bicarbonate cont ent. By
and large, foliar application of 10-
12 kg FeSO4 h a-1 or so il
application of 50-150 kg ha-1 FeSO4
has been successful in alleviating
Fe deficiency in most of the crops
(Ta kkar et al., 1 989; Si ngh an d
Dayal, 1992). On an average, crop
re spon ses to s oil and fol i ar
application of Fe ranges from 0.45
to 0.89 t ha-1 in cereals, 0.3 to 0.68 t
ha-1 in millets, 0.34 to 0.58 t ha-1 in
pulses, 0.16 to 0.55 t ha-1 in oilseed
cr ops, 0 .20 to 1. 53 t ha-1 in
vegetables, and 0.39 to 9.68 t ha-1
in cash and other crops (Takkar
et al., 1989, Singh, 2008; Shukla et
al., 2012). The rates of soil applica-
ti on of Fe are abno rma l ly high,
because of rapid rate of oxidation
of Fe2+ t o Fe3 + a nd h ence a re
uneconomical. Similarly high cost
of Fe-c h elat es dis cour ages t he
fa rmer s from us ing the m . F or
horticultural crops, foliar spray of
Fe SO4 is r ecom m ende d. F o liar
sprays of FeSO4 have been found
more effective and efficient than soil
ap plic a tion in co rrec ting Fe-
ch loro sis i n toma t o, c hill i ,
groundnut and sugarcane.
Iron is one of the most abundant
element (4th at 5%) on Earth. Yet its
de fic ien cy is probab ly the most
common across the world affecting
as ma n y about 2 bill ion peo ple
(over 3 0% of t he w orld ’s
po pula t ion ) . Global ly, Fe-d efi-
ciency anemia is the most common
widespread nutritional disorder,
affecting more than 50% pregnant
wo men and 40% of infant s and
preschool children. Although only
14.4% Indian soils are deficient in
av a ilab l e Fe , ir on de fici ency
anaemia (IDA) is quite acute and
wi desp read in m argi n alis ed
se ction of our co untr y. In some
pockets, a strong relationship exists
between available Fe level in soils
an d o c curr ence of ID A. F or
example, more than 80% pregnant
Figure 4. Available soil Fe status in India
Figure 5. Trace element toxicity in soils of India having probability of impacting
animal and human health (Adapted and modified from Singh, 2009)

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
40
women have been reported with
ID A i n Bik aner, Mai npur i,
Sr inag ar, Pa tna, Dibr ugar h ,
Nagaon, Mehboobnagar, Lakhim-
pu r Kheri , B adaun , B ishn upur,
Ma ndi, D ehra dun, and Kohi ma
districts havi ng diverse climatic
conditions (Seshadri, 1998; NNMB,
20 0 9). The low Fe cont e nt in
forage and food grains produced
in arid and semi-arid regions is
attributed to acute Fe deficiency
in these soils (34% in R ajasthan,
26% in Gujarat, 22% in Haryana,
an d 23% i n Mahar asht ra).
However, in some humid and sub-
hu mid regio ns of t he cou ntry
where Fe is in sufficient amount in
so il, i ncre ased IDA may be
attributed to poor accumulation of
Fe in plants grown on these soils.
For example, IDA is very high in
no rth- east e rn regio n of th e
co untr y wher e a bout 84.9%
women reportedly suffer from IDA
due to rice-based diet, as rice is a
poor accumulator of Fe.
Copper
Copper deficiency in Indian soils is
al most ne g ligi ble. Avai l able Cu
content in Indian soils ranges from
0. 0 1 to 136. 4 mg kg- 1 w ith an
average value of 2.05 mg Cu kg-1
(Shukla and Tiwari, 2016). About
2, 2 and 3% area of the country is
having acute deficiency, deficiency
an d la t ent defi cienc y of Cu,
respectively (Figure 6). About 11,
14 and 68% area h as adequate,
hi gh and ve r y high level of
available Cu. Copper availability
is mainly influenced by pH, SOC,
CaCO3 and clay content in soils. It
increases with increase in organic
ma t ter and clay co n tent , whil e
decreases with increase in pH and
CaCO3 content of the soil (Katyal
and Agarwal, 1982; Rattan et al.,
1999). Copper deficiency mainly
oc curs i n sand y, calca reous,
eluviated and organic matter-rich
soils. Addition of organic matter
re lease s t h e CaCO3- bound Cu
fract ion in soil an d rebind it in
organic fraction, enhancing the Cu
av a ilab i lity in calc areou s an d
sa ndy l oam soils . How ever,
presence of excess organic matter
re duce s t h e C u a v a ilab ilit y in
organic peat soils (Hist osols) of
Ke rala , h i ll (Alf isol s) a n d
submontane soils (Mollisols) of the
Hi malay a n tarai zon e of
Ut tarak hand an d H imach al
Pradesh (Singh, 2008; Patel et al.,
2009 ; Behera et al., 2012). Crops
grown on severe Cu-deficient soils
results in reduced yields and
poor crop quality. These include
sh rive lled g rains a nd red uced
vi abili ty of seeds in cere a ls. In
ci trus , ab n orma l s hape d fr uits
with a rough exterior, low juice
content a nd poor flavour and in
apples, small fruits of poor quality
are found due to Cu deficiency. In
sugar beet, juice purity is reduced
due to elevated concentrations of
ni trog e nous com poun ds. I n
ve get able s, sm all size, chlorotic
le aves, a ppa r ent w i lting a nd
discolouration of edib le portions
te nd to rend er th e m les s
marketable. A typical example of
acute Cu deficiency in wheat crop
grown on a rendzina soil (organic-
ri ch calc areo u s soil s) in no rth-
we ster n Fr ance exhi b ited
ch aract eris tic sy mpto m s, i. e.,
pl ants w ere sho rter w i th dark
pigme ntation (m e lan ism) in ear
and had a lower density of ea rs
(spikes) per unit area. In general,
cro p responses to Cu application
ranged from trace to 1.78 t ha-1 in
cereals, 0.20 to 0.30 t ha-1 in millets,
trace to 0.80 t ha-1 in oilseeds, 4.43
to 6.18 t ha-1 in onion, and 0.30 to
0.50 t ha-1 of sugarcane (Takkar et
al . , 19 89). S oil an d foliar
ap plic a tion of Cu t o so ybean -
wheat cro ppin g system on Typic
Us tips amme n ts prov ed e quall y
ef fect ive in co rrec t ing i t s
deficiency a nd gave significant
re spon se of 0.2 t ha- 1 w ith soil
application of 5.0 kg Cu ha-1 to
fi rst crop. Fol iar spray of 0 .2%
CuSO4 solution increased soybean
grain yield from 2.18 to 2.35 t ha-1.
In India, Cu deficiency is respon-
si ble fo r leuco derm a (Viti log o),
depigmentation of hair and skin
around the brisket, neck, face, hind
lim bs and abdomen in buffaloes.
These problems have been noticed
in Pakis tan and Indo n esia a lso
(R andh a wa, 1 999; S inha et a l.,
19 7 6 ). Coppe r def icie ncy also
caus ed ‘falli ng disease’ in milch
cows. Copper concentrations in the
li vers o f a ffec ted ani m als was
lower (32.6 mg kg-1) as compared
to h e althy c o w (55.7 mg kg- 1)
(Vasudevan, 1987). Post parturient
ha e mogl o-bin uri a (P P H), moly -
bdenosis induced hypocupraemia,
commonly referred as nutritional
haemoglobinuria, was observed, in
high yielding cattle and buffaloes
in India (Dhillon and Dhillon, 1991;
Singh and Randhawa, 1990) with
highest incidence in spring season
follow ed by winter and sum mer
se ason which is at tribu ted to
exclusive and prolonged feeding
Figure 6. Available soil Cu status in India

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
41
with berseem (Sarkar et al., 1992).
Mo lybde nosi s in buffa loes in
Punjab and hypophosphatemia in
Ma harashtra ha ve als o been
re port ed (Dhi llon and Dhi llon ,
1991). The disease prone areas of
Maharashtra had high levels of
Ca and Mo and very low level of P
and Cu in the feeds and fodder
(Hassan et al., 1985).
Copper deficiency in human leads
to hyp ocup raem i a, neutr o peni a
and leucopoenia, degradation in
nervous system, skeletal defects,
hy popi gmen t a tio n of h air an d
skin, keratinization of hair, cardio-
vascular disorde rs, osteoporosis,
arthritis and infertility (Davis and
Mertz, 1987).
Manganese
The available Mn content varies
from 0.01 to 445.0 mg kg-1 with a
mean value of 21.8 mg kg-1 (Shukla
et al., 2014). About 1, 6 and 10%
area of the coun try suffers from
ac ute deficiency, def ici ency and
la tent deficiency of M n ,
respectively (Figure 7). Sixty per
cent of area has very high level of
av a ilab l e M n. Inc i denc e o f M n
de fici ency has show n inc rease
from 3.0% in 1967-1987 to 7.1% in
20 1 1 -201 7 . This i n cre a se is
be cause of em ergi ng M n
deficiency in rice-wheat growing
ar eas o f P unja b , H a ryana and
we ster n Uttar Pra desh . In
general, Mn deficiency problems
oc cur on soils with l ow tota l
contents of Mn (heavily weathered
tropical and sandy soils), on peaty
soils, or orga nic-rich soils with a
pH above 6, and on mineral soils
with pH values of 6.5 or abo ve,
calcareous soils, or acid soils which
have been heavily limed. In India,
in cide nce of Mn de ficie ncy has
increased very fast, particularly in
ri ce–w h eat cr oppi ng sys tems
under sandy or loamy sand soils
of Punjab and Haryana. Similar to
Fe, incidence and severity of Mn
de fici ency a ccen tuate s in c rops
gr own at v e ry l o w mo ist u re
content. On the other hand, Mn is
more mobile in imperfectly drained
soils (waterlogged) and often Mn
toxicity is observed in rice grown
un der co ntin u ous submerg ed
conditions on such soils.
De fici ency of Mn r esul t s i n
appearance of greenish-grey specks
at the lower base of younger leaves
in monocots, which finally become
ye llow i sh to yel low-orang e. It
may lead to development of marsh
spots (necro tic ar eas) on t he
co tyle don o f legu m es. In
sugarcane, Mn deficiency is named
as pahala blight. Soil and/ or foliage
ap plic a tion o f M n prod uced
marked response in crops on Mn-
deficien t soil s; responses ranged
from traces to 3.78 t ha-1 for
wheat, traces to 1.78 t ha-1 for rice,
0.03 to 1.02 t ha-1 for soybean, 0.40
to 0.70 t ha-1 for sunflower, 3.63 to
4.30 t ha-1 for onion, and 0.30 to 0.80
t ha-1 f or tom ato (Takka r a nd
Na y yar, 19 8 1). S e vere M n
deficien cy is difficult to man age
wi th so il appli c atio n du e to
ox idati on of soil -app lied M n ,
especially in high pH soils.
Foliar application of MnSO4.H2O
is an immediate effective measure
to combat Mn deficiency in wheat
and berseem. Economic benefit of
foliar application of Mn to wheat
was 2-fold with B:C ratio of 4.5 as
compared to its soi l app lication
with B:C ratio of 2.1.
Crops like whea t gro wn in Mn-
deficient soils or hidden hunger of
Mn in Haryana not only produced
low yields but led to infertility in
ca ttle du e to low Mn content in
fo dder and grain . Evide n ce of
increased infertility was recorded
in cattle fed with low Mn fodder
grown in highly calca reous soils
(f ree CaCO 3 co nten t 20-4 8%) in
Pu sa, Bih ar (S ingh, 2 0 09).
Productivity of these animals was
lo w and thei r bl ood seru m Mn
co ncen trati o n was a l so low as
compared to that in cattle fed with
fo dder s gr own in Mn-a dequ a te
soils.
Boron
In India, extent of B deficiency is
next only to Zn. Total B content in
Indian soils ranges from 2.6 to 630
mg k g-1 (Takk ar, 2 011) an d
av a ilab l e (hot wat e r s olu b le –
HWS) B ranges from 0.04 to 250 mg
B kg-1, with an average of 21.9 mg
kg-1 soil (Shukla and Tiwari, 2016).
About 4, 19 and 21% area of the
co untr y face s acu te de f icie ncy,
deficiency and latent deficiency
of B, respecti vely (F igu re 8).
Abou t 12, 11 and 32 % area has
ad equat e, hi gh a nd v e ry h i gh
availa ble B statu s, respect i vely.
Availa b ilit y of B to plants is
governed by soil pH, CaCO3 and
or gani c ma tter co nten t s. I n
addition total B content in soil, its
interactions with other nutrients,
pl ant type or varie ty an d
environ mental fact ors also hav e
strong influence on B availability.
Figure 7. Available soil Mn status in India

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
42
Boron deficiency in some regions of
In dian s oils is se riou sly
co nstr ainin g t h e agri cult u ral
pr oduc tivit y. By and la r ge, B
deficiency adversely impacts the
cr op pro duct i vity i n h ighly
ca lcare ous s oils, sa n dy leache d
soils, limed acid soils or reclaimed
ye llow o r l ater itic soils . I n
general, extent of B defi ciency is
hi gher in ea ster n reg i on of the
country due to its excess leaching
in sandy loam soils because of
high rainfall (Takkar, 1996; Shukla
an d Beh e ra, 2012; Shuk l a and
Tiwari, 2016).
Boron deficiency symptoms first
appear on the growing tips and
younger leaves with stunted plant
growth. It results in production of
ho llow heart in peanut, bla ck
heart in beet, distorted and lumpy
fruit in papaya, and hollow pith in
ca bbage a n d cau liflower. S oil
application of 0.5 to 2.5 kg B ha-1
gave a response ranging from 108
to 684 kg grain kg-1 of B or 10 to
44 % over NPK and h elpe d in
sustaining the high productivity of
cereals, pulses, oilseeds, and cash
crops in B- deficient soils of Bihar,
Orissa , West Benga l, Assam and
Punjab (Takkar et al. ,1 989; Sakal
an d Sing h, 1995 ; Shukl a et al.,
2012).
Bo ron is a newe r trace ele ment
iden tified for nut ritional role in
an imals a nd i t s bio logi cal
im port ance and d ieta ry
es sent ialit y i s u nclea r. L imite d
re sear ch cond ucte d acro ss the
world indicates a putative role of
B in v a riou s phys iolo gical
functions, especially in improving
th e ut iliz a tion of bone for ming
minerals like calcium, phosphorus
an d ma gnes ium, immu nity and
anti oxidant defence mechanisms
(B hask er et a l., 201 6 ). Boro n
supplementation in farm animals
en hance d the imm u nity by
in crea sing t he ser u m lev e ls of
tu m our nec rosi s facto r and
interferon-gamma. Bhasker et al.
(2 016) sho wed tha t B
supplementation was a protective
me a sure to ame lior a te the
oxidative stress in rats by way of
increas ed ac tiv ity of su perox ide
di smu tase (SO D). The dieta ry B
preve nts me tabo lic disorder s in
pe ri-p artu rien t da i ry c ows by
in crea sing t h e ser um Ca lev e ls
un der a situ a tion of hi gh
ph ysio logi cal dem a nd. Boro n
supplementation in diets of Wistar
rats showed positive influence on
dig estibility of dry matter, crude
pr otei n, crud e f at and grow th
pe rfor manc e. Furt her B
su pple menta tion l owere d the
levels of serum triglycerides, HDL-
cholesterol, ALT and ameliorated
th e he patic tis sue a lter atio ns
induced by the lower Ca intake,
thus exhibiting hepato-protective
effect (Bhasker et al., 2017).
Since B works with Mg, it has
be en su ggest ed t hat B can be
beneficial t o persons suffering
from hyperthyroidism or persons
with thyroid disease who have
lo w magn esiu m symptoms l ike
ra pid heart rat e and musc le
cramping. Boron lessens the effects
of low Mg in diet on body growth,
se rum cho lest erol and a sh
co ncen trati o n in bon e . Pe n land
(1994) indicated that B deficiency
affects perception and short-term
memory and has a role in human
br ain f uncti on. Boro n suppl e-
mentation increases estrogen and
te sto ste rone leve ls and help s in
in sul in a nd glu cose meta boli sm
(Hunt, 2004). Diets abundant in B
content such as fruits, vegetables,
legumes and nuts provide good B
intake to huma ns. Safe B intake
dose for adults is reported in the
range of 1 to 3.0 mg day-1 (Nielsen,
1998). Higher intake of B can
ca use t oxici ty w hich m anif ests
itself in nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
dermatitis, lethargy, and increased
ur inary excr e tion of ri bofla vin
(Ziegler and Filer, 1996).
Molybdenum
Mo lybde num i s least studie d
micronutrients in India. Total Mo
in Indian soils ranges between 0.1
to 12 mg kg-1 and available Mo,
extracted with ammonium oxalate
(pH 3.3), varies from traces to 2.8
mg kg-1 (Behera et al., 2011, 2014).
Mo lybda te anio ns (Mo O42- ) are
strongly adsorbed on soil minerals
an d collo ids ( at pH < 6.0) a nd
sometimes are also trapped due
to for matio n o f sec onda ry
mi nera l s. Hy drou s alumi nium
silicates may also strongly fix Mo.
So ils for m ed f rom sha le a nd
gr anite pa rent mater ials have
high Mo concentrations, whereas
thos e deriv ed from sandstone,
ba salt a nd limes t one are
characterized by low Mo contents.
Most of the soils are adequate in
Mo but its deficiency is noticed in
some ac idic, san dy and leac hed
so ils. Its defi cien cy i s r arely
Figure 8. Available soil B status in India

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
43
re port ed in ca l care ous al k alin e
soils of arid and semi-arid regions
as thes e s o ils have fair ly h igh
av a ilab l e Mo c onten t s.
Mo lybd enum deficiency is ver y
rare and is localized in some parts
of Maharashtra; and acidic soils of
Odisha and West Benga l, Kerala
an d Himachal Prad esh.
Molybdenum deficiencies severely
affect legumes, crucifer vegetables
an d oi lsee d cro ps on a cid and
severely leached soils.
Molybdenum deficiency results in
st unte d p lant growt h a nd
re stri cted f lowe r for matio n . It
ca uses whi ptai l di seas e o f
cauliflower. Response of crops like
rice, wheat, soybean, green gram,
sorghum, pearl millet, groundnut
an d pea s to Mo ap plicati on ha s
been reported (Takkar et al., 1989).
Respons e to appli ed Mo ranged
from 0.24 to 1.01 t ha-1 in rice, 0 to
0.47 t ha-1 in wheat, 0.08 to 0.19 t
ha-1 in soybean, and 0.10 to 0.40 t
ha-1 in green gram. Soil application
of 1.0 kg sodium molybdate ha-1 or
foliar application of 0.1% solution
significantly increased the maize
and niger seed yields in acid soil of
Andhra Pradesh. Soaking potato
tu b er i n 0.0 1 % am m oniu m
molybdate solution for 24 hours
before sowing increased the tuber
yield by 1.3 to 2.9 t ha-1 (5-8 %) in
different soils. Seed treatm ent of
soybean at 3.0 g sodium molybdate
kg-1 improved the yield, quality
an d oil co ntent ( Nayya r et al.,
1990).
Molybdenum deficiency is reported
in eastern high rainfall zone soils
low in available Mo. In northern
parts of West Bengal, problem of
hair and hooves falling in cattle has
been reported widely due to low
Mo in alluvial leached soils. Grain
legumes have higher concentration
of Mo. Toxicity of Mo in animals and
human is reported in some parts
of Punj ab wh ich af fect s Cu
ut iliza t ion i n the b ody d ue to
interaction of Mo with Cu (Nayyar
et al., 1990). In human, Mo helps in
br eakd own of bu ild-up of to xic
co mpou nds su ch as sulp hite s.
Molybdenum has b een sho wn to
he lp f ight ca ncer -caus ing
nitrosam ines and even assists in
pr even t ing cav i ties . Th e mo st
commonly associated function of
mo lybd e num i s its role i n the
production of uric acid. Adequate
Mo prevents dental caries, mouth
and gum disorders, oesopha geal
cancer, and sexual impotence in
old people.
Nickel
Total Ni content in soils of India
ranges between 20- 1000 mg kg-1
wh ere as ava ilable st atus rang es
be tween 0. 2 -0.8 mg kg- 1 soils
(S ingh , 2 0 09). Its def icie ncy in
In dians soi l s h a s no t yet been
reported. It is constituent of urease
en z yme, re quire d for the
breakdown of urea to liberate the
ni trog e n into a usa b le form for
plants. Seeds need nickel in order
to germinate and grow, and also for
ab sorp tion of i ron. Nick el
deficie ncy in pla nts is linked to
production of dwarf foliage and
re ddis h pi gmen t atio n in young
le aves. I n hum ans, Ni is
importan t elemen t for the he art
muscle, liver and the kidneys. It is
in vol v ed in ho rmon e, lipid and
membrane metabolism. Nickel is
fo und in grains, frui ts a nd
ve getabl es an d oft en it s
re quir ement is m et from the
natural sources.
Cobalt
Total Co content in Indian soils
varies widely from traces to 277
mg kg-1 and depends largely on
the parent rock and climate of the
re gion . Avail a ble Co conte nt
ranges from 0.06 to 2.1 mg kg-1 soil
an d is mark edly i nflu enced b y
factors such as texture, pH, CaCO3,
organic matter content, soil-crop
ma nagem e nt s y ste m s and
practices. Total Co content per se is
no t of signi fic a nce i n pl ant
nutrition. However, in many cases
Co deficiency has been reported
from soils with less than 0.5-5 mg
kg-1 of total Co. In Co-deficient soils
the available Co (2.5% acetic acid
extractable) content is gener ally
le ss t han 0.2 5 mg k g -1 . Cob a lt
de fici ency i n soi l lead s to its
de fici ency in plants and affe cts
animals’ productivity. Availability
of Co to plant is poor on soils high
in MnO2 content because of higher
af fini ty of MnO 2 to Co (Takkar,
2015). Cobalt helps in nodulation
an d growt h o f legume a nd
br assi ca c rop s. Seed tr e atme nt
with cobalt containing salts @ 2 to
3 g kg - 1 se ed is hel pful in
increasing the seed yield. Cobalt is
essential for synthesis of vitamin
Bl 2, mai nly i n rumi nant c attl e .
Lack of Vitamin B12 could result
in anemia.
Vanadium
Average vanadium (V) content in
the E arth’s crust is 110 mg kg-1 .
Van adium c onten t i n soil s a nd
waters is primarily determined by
th e geo logic al pa rent mater i al
(Hope , 1997). It is co ncen tra ted
mainly in mafic rocks (basalt 200-
250 mg kg- 1) and shales (100-130
mg kg-1 ), lowest V content is found
in limestone and dolomite (10-45
mg kg-1). However, anthropogenic
em issi ons, main ly from com-
bustion of fossil fuels, may enhance
th e s oil V co nten t . Va nadi um
in puts t o so ils also come fr om
human activities such as addition
of pho spha t e fe rtil i zers, so il
am e ndme nts and roa d-fi ll
materials derived from steel slag
(Molina et al., 2009).
Vanadium is absorbed by plant as
vanadate ion (Ullrich-Eberius et al.,
1989) and can inhibit the plasma
membrane hydrogen (H+) translo-
cation ATPase, which is known to
play an important role in nutrient
el ement upta k e by plant cell s.
Van adium c ontam inati on fro m
basic slag fertilizers was observed
to have toxic effects on cattle after
feeding on contaminated fresh hay

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
44
(Fran k et a l., 1996). Vanadium is
required in very small quantity by
human. It is also rapidly utilized
an d excr eted t h roug h urin e.
Inadequate V leads to lower birth
weight of babies. Higher V levels
in soils may cause human health
problems like distal renal tubular
acidosis (Tosukhowong et al., 1999).
Selenium
Selenium (Se) content in soil varies
from traces to 8000 mg kg-1 (Singh,
2009). Selenium is a trace element
no t requ ired b y most o f the
cu ltiva t ed crops, yet maxi m um
cr op yie ld is ob t aine d o n soil s
ch aract eriz e d by tra ces of Se.
Livestock fed with the low Se-feed
might suffer from serious muscular
di sord ers an d o ther disea ses.
Wh ite musc le disea se due to Se
de fic ienc y is probably the most
co mmon and seriou s diso rder
fo und i n cal ves a nd la mbs.
Selenium content in food crops and
wa t er i s impor t ant to human
health and on this strength it is
now recognized as a beneficial
el ement . Imp orta nce of Se to
hu man he alth (in terms of
an tioxi dant, a n ti-i nfla mmato ry,
anti-can cer, anti-viral , and anti -
ag eing acti v ity, al ong with k ey
roles in the thyroid, brain, heart,
and gonads) is highlighted by its
status as the only micro-nutrient
to b e s peci fied in the hum a n
ge nome, as s elen ocys tein e , the
twenty-first amino acid. Selenium
in sm a ll amou n ts is cons ider ed
essential for animal and huma n
health but its excessive amount in
fo od, feed and fodd er be comes
to xic. In soil s, Se is fou n d in
se lenate and selenite forms , the
la tter b eing mor e sol uble a nd
available to plants than the former.
In hum id r egio n s, i t occurs
pr edom inant ly in se leni t e fo rm
while in arid regions it is in t he
selenate form. Cases of Se toxicity
have been reported from certain
parts of the Punjab in Pakistan
an d nort hwest state s of Ind ia
(Fi gure 5) (Takk a r, 199 6 ). T he
diseases caused by Se toxicity is
named as ‘Alkali disease’ in the USA
an d ‘De gnala ’ in I ndia a nd
Pakistan. Though chronic form of
syndromes appear throughout the
year, but it is more prevalent in the
po st-r ainy s easo n. The a nimal s
develop lesion on their tail, ear tips
and limps. Skin and hooves are the
worst affected. In very severe cases,
the hooves fall off and the animals
ul timate ly su c cumb . Sele nium
content in the fodders of sorghum,
pe arl mill et, oats , clust er bean,
berseem and mustard have been
found to range traces to 1.5 mg
kg-1; it varies from traces to 0.54 mg
kg-1 in natural grasses and weeds.
In one study, Se cont ent in the
different fodders was reported to
range from 0.9 to 6.7 mg kg-1. For
example, in rice straw and husk, it
wa s more th an 0.5 mg kg -1 an d
might have the toxic effect. High
Se content of 1.0 to 9.5 mg kg-1 was
re port ed in fod ders g rown in
Haryana soils. In Punjab, animals
fed on rice straw suffered from a
gangrenous syndrome called ‘blind
staggers’ resembling Se-poisoning.
About 1400 buffaloes in the rice-
growing district s of Punjab have
be en a ffec ted. A few buff aloe s
wh ich wer e a lthou g h fed on
for ages other than the rice straw
also developed this di sea se, the
reason for which might have been
high concentration of Se regardless
of plant species.
Ir riga t ion wa ter wi th hig h Se
accumulation causes toxicity in the
so il-p lant -anim a l-hu man food
chain in alkali soil areas where the
Se of sub -su rface soi ls after the
ra iny se a son is b roug ht out
th roug h capil lary r ise a nd
evapotranspirati on. Irrigation of
ri ce-w heat sy stem wi t h
un derg round water wh ich
contained nearly nine times more
Se (17.43 µg L-1) than tha t in the
non-seleniferous areas (1.91 µg L-1)
ca used S e toxi city (sno w -whi te
chlorosis) in wheat in some villages
of Hoshiarpur district of Punjab
wh ere h igh w a ter d eman ding
cropping system of rice-wheat had
be en int rod uced abou t 20 year s
back (Takkar and Dhillon, 1984). In
such seleniferous areas, surface and
subsurface soils contained 2.12 and
1.6 mg Se kg-1, respectively which
was about 4-5 tim es higher than
in non-seleni ferous a reas. The Se
content of 45 to 60 days old wheat
pl ants va ried betwee n 1.08 and
2.70 mg kg-1 with a mean value of
1.91 mg kg-1 , and showe d visual
symptom s of Se tox ici ty. The Se
content was 3.6 times higher than
the lush g reen norma l plants. I n
these seleniferous areas, Se toxicity/
poiso ning syndr omes we re als o
observ ed in buffaloes , cows and
goats.
Drin king water containing reco-
mm end ed optimum levels of Se
should necessarily be served to the
animals in the low or high Se areas.
Supplementation of Se in low Se soil
would increase Se contents of food,
feed and fodder. The plant species
and crop cultivars of the forages/
pastures which are inefficient in Se
ut ilisa tion sho uld be p ref erred
over efficient cultivars for high Se
soils. In contrast, efficient cultivars
be prefe rred for the Se-deficient
so il. S uch plant s peci es an d
cultivars should be identified and/
or dev eloped fo r cu ltiv a tion in
seleniferous-endemic areas.
Iodine
Io din e is no t ess ential fo r pla nt
growth and development, but lack
of iodine in the so i l resul ts in
pl ants p oor in io dine . Io dine
deficiency is more prevalent in
so ils an d wate rs of hilly and
mo untai n ous area s d u e t o
continuous washout of iodine by
rain water from the surface soil .
Iodi ne is on e of sev en generally
recognized micro minerals needed
in the diets o f dairy cattle and
other animals. It is unique among
mi nera l s, beca use a defi cien cy
le ads to a spe cifi c and e a sily
re cogn izable thy roid gland
enlargement, called goitre. Iodine

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
45
is important in the synthesis of the
thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4)
an d triiodo t hyro nine (T3), that
re gulat e ener gy m e tabol ism i n
animals . The thyroid horm ones
ar e re spon sible for setti ng th e
ba sal me taboli c ra te tha t is a
component of the energy needed
for maintenance of the body. The
best treatment f or iodine defi-
ciency symptoms is prevention by
fe edin g i odin e -ri c h diets t o
animals .
Iodine level in the drinking water
indicates its content in soil. Iodine
is lo ose ly held in so il and thu s
washed off to sea with rainwater.
Study conducted during 1985-86
in 14 districts of India representing
nine states revealed prevalence of
goiter and deaf mutism/cretinism
in 2 1.1 and 0.7% c hild ren,
re spec tivel y (ICM R, 1989) . In
hu mans, i o dine is a pri ncipa l
compone nt of thyroid hormones,
th yrox ine (T4) and tri-
io doth yron i ne (T 3 ), whi ch are
es sent ial for norm a l grow th-
physical and mental development
in humans. Iodine deficiency affects
brain development. It is a crucial
ingredient in thyroid hormone, so
a la ck of iodine in the diet will
re duce the t hyro id’s a b ilit y t o
ma nufac t ure thyro id hor mone
re sult ing int o h y poth yroid ism.
Sy mpto m s of hypo thyr oidi sm
include weight gain, inabilit y to
lo se weigh t, f a tigu e, ele v ated
blood lipids, hair loss, dry skin, loss
of libido, infertility, to name a
fe w. This res u lts in the dise a se
states collectively known as Iodine
De fici ency D isor ders (IDD ).
Cretinism iodine deficiency during
pr egna n cy of ten re sults in
abnormal neurodevelopment and
lower intelligence quotient (IQ) in
the child.
Fluoride
Fl uori de e x ists in s oil a s
fluorapatite and fluorosil icate. It
ge ts add e d in s igni fica nt
qu antit ies to the soil t hrou g h
ir riga t ion w a ter and soil
am end ments and fertili zer s lik e
gypsum, phosphogypsum, apatite,
phosphatic fertilizers. Fluoride is
easily absorbed by plants and its
deficiency has not been reported
in pl ants. It is essen tial fo r th e
normal growth and development
of bones in human and animals.
Fluorine has been recognized as an
essential trace element because of
its pro ph ylactic effec ts in dental
caries. A close rela ti on of denta l
ca ries with parti cular soil ty pes
ha s been r ecor ded; but sever al
ot her en vir onmental factors ar e
also involved. Humans get most of
th eir F from wat er that in turn
comes from the soil as well as the
un derl y ing r ocks . Exce ssiv e
quantities of F become poison
bo th for human s and a n imal s.
Toxic concentrations of F interfere
wi th C a me t abol ism causi ng
simultaneous osteosclerosis of the
spine and osteoporosis of the limb
bo nes. Har m ful effe cts of
ex cess ively high natur al
concentrations of F in water a nd
pl ants on human and anim a l
he a lth has b een rep orte d from
ma ny cou n tri es inc ludi ng India
(Krishamuchari, 1973). In arid and
hot climate, the magnitude of F
toxicity is greater than in the cold
or tem perate regions becau se in
ar id h o t cl imate hu m an and
animals drink more water that too
with high in F concentration than
in the cold or temperate regions.
This cumulative high intake of F
creates toxicity problems. Fluorine
toxicity i n human beings causes
de ntal mott ling a nd s kele t al
fluorosis. In many parts of India, F
toxicity is quite common because
of high F contents of irrigation
and drinking water derived from
parent mat erial or b edrock or
soils containing high amount of F.
Th e in c iden ces o f flu oros is in
endemic form have been detected
in Andh r a P rade sh, Biha r,
Ha ryana , M a dhya Pra desh ,
Ch hatti sgarh , Raj a stha n, and
Pu njab w here soil s (Fi gure 5 ),
un derg round water (hydr o-
fluorosis) and forages (food-borne
fluorosis) had excessive amount of
F (K anwa r a nd M ehta, 1 9 6 8;
Shushila et al., 1987; Anshumali et
al . , 2018). Mos t of the water
samples collected from Hisar, Jind,
Sirsa and Fatehabad districts of
Haryana, and Barnala and Sangrur
districts of Punjab contained more
than 1 mg F L-1. Fluoride content in
the s oil was related wit h the Fe
content in irrigation waters. Toxic
levels of F with an average value of
5. 5 mg L-1 in well w ater s o f
Nagpur districts of Mah arashtra
ha ve b een repo rted . Fluor ide
content in waters of some parts of
Jaipur district of Rajasthan ranged
from 4. 4 to 28 .1 mg L- 1 wi th an
av erage va lue of 12.2 mg L- 1
(Somani, 19 92) which is t oxic to
both humans and animals.
Se riou s inciden ces of flu oros is
were also observed in animals in
An dhra P rade sh, whe re the F
concentration in water was more
than 2 mg L-1. Very high concentra-
tions of F in irrigation and drinking
water in Unnao distri ct of Uttar
Pradesh chall engin g human and
animal health have been recorded.
Fluoride toxicity, as denta l fluo-
ro sis, expr esse d in th e form of
pigmentation with yellow, brown
or b lack color atio n, mot tling ,
irregular wearing, erosion, pitting
of ena mel on teeth has been
reported in sheep fou nd arou nd
Na t iona l Alu minum Com pany
(NALCO) smelter plant in Orissa.
Fluoride discharged contaminated
the well and pond waters within 5
km rad ius of N ALC O , w i th F
content ranging from 0.50-1.83 mg
L-1 and 0.52 -3.86 mg L-1, respec-
ti vely. Flu orid e-af fect ed she ep
bl ood had si gnif icant ly high e r
ceratine, alkaline phosphates in
blood serum, but less glucose and
ch oles tero l pr otei n . Fl uori de
content in the urine, serum, bone,
teeth of healthy and fluorotic sheep
was 10.02 mg L-1 which is 10 times
hi gher t h a n tho se in hea lthy
animals (Table 6) and critical level
of 0.1 mg F L-1 . Dep endi ng on

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
46
in take, ag e, sex, bone type and
nature of bone, more than 90% of
the total fluoride is taken up by
bony tissues.
It is ad visa b le th at the water
co ntai n ing reco mmend ed F
concentration should be supplied
for human and animal consump-
tion in the afflicted areas to avoid
health problem. Forage species that
contain optimum levels of F for
an imal fee ding sh ould be
identified/developed and populari-
zed for cultivation in the fluorosis-
endemic areas.
Chromium
Chromium (Cr) content in Indian
soils is very low. Plants have ability
to a bsorb chromium t houg h it is
not an essential nutrient. Its uptake
is very small from the normal and
un poll u ted s oils . Chr omium is
es sent ial tr ace eleme nt for
humans and plays an im po rta nt
ro le in human and anim a ls
ma inly in regul atio n of the
gl ucos e to lera nce fact or, in
co mbinati on with nic oti nic ac id
an d some p roteins whi ch are
required for every bodily function.
Ev ery movement of muscle an d
every nerve impulse uses glucose.
In animals, adequate level of Cr
has been found to increase growth
and longevity. Deficiencies a re
be lieve d to be a fact or in
arteriosclerosis and hypertension
an d po ssib ly in dia b etes and
ca taract . L a ck of chro m ium is
kn own to c a use serious e ye
abno rmalities. Vegetab le s grow n
in peri-u r ban area s ha v e h i gh
ch romi u m c onte n t which is
generally helpful in meeting the
chromium requiremen t adequa-
te ly i n hu man a nd anim als.
Tet rava lent chrom ium is t oxic
wh erea s hexava lent is es sent ial
and beneficial to human health.
Zinc in Soil-Plant-Animal/Human
Continuum – A Case Study
In ord er t o assess relat ionship
between soil and human health, a
sy ste m atic st u dy on Zn in soi l-
pl ant- anim al/h uman co n tinu um
was carried out jointly by AICRP -
MSPE and AIIMS, Bhopal in two
tribal districts of Madhya Pradesh.
A ca s e study was speci fic t o
ad olesce nts of Gond and K ork u
tr ibes of Ma n dala and Bet ul
di stri cts of Ma dhya Prad esh.
Mu ltist a ge cl uste r rand om
sampling was performed in two
blocks of each district. From each
block 15 clusters of villages were
se lect ed for d iet a ry re c all and
fi nall y 3 mL blood sa m ple was
collected from selected adolescents
in identified families. Soil, food,
feed and plant samples were also
collected from field/household of
people selected for blood samp-
ling. Analysis of Zn was done in
soil, plant, food, feed and serum
bl ood sam ples using ato mic
absorption spectrophotometer.
Detail soil analysis performed for
these two districts exhibited huge
variation (low to high) in soil Zn
st atus. Si m ilar ly, di etary rec a ll
study revealed that average daily
intake of nutrients was deficit as
compared to standard RDA set by
IC M R. M edia n in take of all
nu trie nts wa s les s than RDA
except for protein intake in Mandla
district. Median intake of nutrients
was less than RDA in all the age
gr oups and pa r ticu larly in
adolescent girls of 15 to 19 years.
Th ere wa s vari a tion i n medi an
intake of nutrients in all age and
gender groups in both the tribes.
Median intake of all nutrients was
hig her in Gond (Mandla district)
tribe in bot h boys and girls and
across all the age groups (Table 7).
Di etary Zn and Fe inta k e is an
import ant compo nent of evalua-
ting the risk of Zn and Fe deficiency
in populations. The prevalence of
in adequ a te Zn/Fe intak es was
es tima t ed in po pulat ion. It
revealed the relative magnitude of
the risk of Zn/Fe deficiency in both
th e t r ibal gr oups . Th e d ata on
es timated average require ments
(EAR) for dietary Zn/Fe intake were
compared agai nst World Health
Organiz ation/ Food and Agr icul-
tu re Organi zatio n/In t erna tion a l
At omic Ene rgy Age n cy (WH O/
FAO /IAEA) a nd t he F ood and
Nu t rit i on Boar d/U S Insti tute of
Medicine (FNB/IOM). Revised set of
re comm e ndati ons provi ded by
In tern a tiona l Z inc N utri tion
Consultative Group (IZiNCG) for
international use were used in the
study reported here. Value of 25%
is c onsi dere d a s p ubli c h e alth
problem as per recommendation of
WHO/FAO and IZiNCG. Prevalence
of inadequate zinc intakes greater
th an 25% wa s considere d t o
re pres ent a n el evated ris k of
po pula t ion zin c defic ienc y. The
study reveal ed th at there was a
hu ge propo rtio n of adol esce n ts
wi th ina dequ a te zin c inta k e as
co mpar e d to estim a ted aver age
requirement. It can be seen that
during latter half of adolescence
Table 6. Mean fluoride content in the urine, serum, bone and teeth of healthy
and fluorotic sheep
Sample Fluorotic sheep Healthy sheep
Urine (mg L-1 )10.02±1.19 0.96±0.13
Serum (mg L-1 )0.61±0.8 0.09±0.02
Bone (mg L-1)
Rib 8746±54.9 658±38.1
Radius 7922±50.4 612±31.3
Mandible 9481±96.9 738±29.9
Teeth (mg kg-1)
Incisor 41 25±60 .4 320±18.7
Molar 4457±66.6 364±22.6

Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
47
Table 7. Average intake (mg day-1) of Zn and Fe by different age groups of adolescents of Gond and Korku tribes of
Madhya Pradesh
Age group Gond tribe (Mandla) Korku tribe (Betul)
(years) Boys Girls Boys Girls
Zn Fe Zn Fe Zn Fe Zn Fe
10 - 12 6.7 ± 3.6 14.8 ± 9.9 7.1 ± 3.3 15.7 ±10.6 7.1 ± 3.3 12.9 ± 6.1 6.8 ± 3.6 12.4 ± 6.5
13 - 15 8.3 ± 3.8 17.5 ±10.6 7.6 ± 3.9 16.7 ±10.9 8.4 ± 3.9 15.6 ± 7.2 7.6 ± 3.8 13.9 ± 7.0
16 - 17 8.8 ± 4.0 18.7 ± 1.8 8.7 ± 8.2 19.3 ± 7.4 8.4 ± 4.2 14.5 ± 7.8 8.0 ± 3.9 14.2 ± 7.0
18 - 19 10.0 ± 3.9 20.3 ±13.3 7.9 ± 3.0 17.6 ± 9.0 8.7 ± 4.6 15.7 ± 8.7 8.0 ± 4.1 14.2 ± 7.9
coefficient of determinat ion (R2)
were 0.36 between soil Zn content
and grain Zn c oncentration, and
0.48 between Zn concentration in
human blood serum and grain Zn
concentration. However, no signifi-
ca nt re l atio nshi p was obse rved
be twee n straw Zn conten t a nd
anima l blo od s eru m Zn concen-
tration. When contribution of Zn
through feed and Zn content in
grazing grass was included with
fo dder Z n cont e nt, signif ica n t
relationship emerged with animal
blood serum Zn (R2 = 0.61).
St rate g ies to Impro ve
Mi cron utri e nt Nutr itio n in
Animals and Humans
Problems pertaining to deficiency
and toxicity of micronutrients in
animal and human health emanate
Figure 9. Distribution of adolescents in Gond and Korku tribes with zinc
intake below EAR
this magnitude is too high when
zinc requirements are more (Figure
9).
An alys is of Zn c onten t in soi l,
gr ain, stra w fee d, an imal a nd
human blood serum established a
strong correlation and interdepen-
dence among soil-pl ant-a nimal-
human continuum (Figure 10). The
results indicated a strong relation-
ship of soil Zn with plant and
hu man blo od ser um Zn. The
Figure 10. Relationship between soil, plant, animal and human Zn

from low and very hig h flow of
th ese e lemen ts t o ani m als a nd
hu mans through the soil-w ate r-
plant-animal-human food chain in
di ffer ent ge ograp hica l area s .
Cl assi cal exam p les inclu d e
relationship betwe en goite r and
lack of iodine, caries and deficiency
of F, dwarfism and lack of Zn. Soil
is the maj or sour c e s uppl ying
micro-nutrient elem ent s to food
ch ain. Ce reals namely, rice an d
wh eat g r own in Zn- and Fe-
deficien t soils produce grain s in
lo w Zn an d Fe co ntent .
Co nseq uentl y, the c ereal -bas ed
food/diet, that contributes 70 % of
the daily calorie intake of the poor
population, is also low in Zn and
Fe concentra tio n. F ollow i ng
ap proach es are used to ma nage
an d/or prev ent Fe and Zn
deficiency and improve their status
in humans.
Supplementation
Or al use of F e a nd Zn tabl ets,
capsules, and emulsions alone or
in combinati on wit h vita mins as
per the prescription of physicians
an d nu t riti o nists is ef fect ive in
mitigating the deficiencies of iron
and zinc. To tackle the problem,
Govern ment of India (GOI) ha s
adopted a policy to include Zn in
th e Natio nal Re prod ucti v e and
Ch ild Heal t h (RCH -II) and
Na t iona l Rur al Heal t h M issi on
(NRHM) programme as an adjunct
to ORS to effe ctive ly manage
diarrhea in children of less than 5
years’ age.
Fortification
Adding Fe and Zn to foods, such as
flou r, bread, biscuits, milk, salt,
we a ning fo od e tc. has been
recognized as an effective approach
to improve micronutrient level and
al levia t e the ir de ficie ncy i n
hu mans a s pe r Co penha gen
Consensus of 2012. Fortification is
ef fect ive in incre asin g m icro -
nutri ent conc ent rat ion in serum
(Figure 11).
Hematologic mar kers, including
ha e mogl obin conc entra tions,
sh owed a sign i fica nt rise when
food was fortified with vitamin A,
iron and multiple micronutrients.
Fo rtif icati on with z inc ha d no
si gnif icant adv erse imp a ct on
ha e mogl obin le vels. Multiple
micronutrient fortification showed
non-significant impacts on height
for age, weight for age and weight
for height Z-scores, although they
indicated the positive trends. The
results for fortification in women
showed that calcium and vitamin-
D forti ficat ion ha d sign ific a nt
impac ts in the post-men opa usa l
age group. Iron fortification led to
a si gnificant i ncre ase in s erum
ferritin and haemoglobin levels
in women of reproductive age
an d preg nant w omen . Fola t e
fortification significantly reduced
th e in cide nce of cong enit a l
ab norma litie s l i ke neura l t u be
de fect s w i thou t in c reas ing the
incidence of twinning.
Dietary Diversification
Th e foo ds wi t h the h ighe st
co ncen trati o n of Fe, Z n and
vi t amin A are gene rall y anima l
me a ts, f i sh, e gg, pu lses , w hole
grains, millets, nuts, legumes, and
yeast (Table 8). Although dietary
di vers ific a tion is a po tenti al
preventive approach to improve
Fe and Zn status and reduce their
deficiency in the humans, but it is
ve ry expe nsiv e and beyo nd the
purchas ing capacity of the p oor
population vulnerable to the risk
of micronutrient malnutrition.
Fo od forti fic a tion wi t h
micronutrient s, supplement ation
di etar y di vers ific a tion re quire s
infra structure, purchasing power
and access to market and health
care centres in addition to adequate
funding. Further, making fortified-
food available to people living in
ru ral ar eas and remote
countryside is difficult due to lack
of infra s truc t ure, in suff icie nt
funding, poor governance, and a
po or dist ribut ion netw o rk. For
de veloping coun tri es suc h a s
In dia, enr ichm ent of crops,
es peci ally ce reals , w ith
micronu trients is the best option
for all evia tin g thei r def icienc y.
Th is ca n be a c hiev e d ei t her b y
br eedi ng crop c u ltiv ars th at
ab sorb a nd t rans mit m ore
mi cron u trie nts to g rains or b y
fe rtil izing c rops w ith
micronutrients.
Producing Micronutrient-rich Food
Production of micro nutrient-rich
food involving genetic modifica-
tion in crops and change in fertilizer
st rate g ies thr ough inn ovati ve
agricultural interventions such as
Figure 11. Conceptual framework for micronutrient fortification
Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
48

biofortifi cat ion, offers a sustai -
na ble so lutio n to tac kle mic ro-
nu trie nt m alnut riti o n in the
poverty-ridden population.
Such innovative approaches would
help in closely linking agricultural
production to improving hum an
heal th , liv elihood, economy and
well-being. In India, under the
aegis of AICRP-MSPE, genetically
an d ag rono mica l ly e ffic i ent
cultivars were identified based
on yield and up take ef ficiency
in dex (Figur e 1 2, Tabl e 9 ).
In tere sting ly, the gen e tical ly
in effi cien t cult ivars are
agronomically highly efficient, and
should be used for agronomic
biofortification to enrich the crop
with desired m icronutrients. The
efficient cultivars could be utilized
by breeders for quantitative trait
lo cus (QTL ) ident ific a tion and
de veloping hig h yield ing
mi cron u trie nt-rich cu ltiv a rs
(g enet i c bio fort ific a tion ).
Approaches being currently used
to i mpro v e the micro nutri ent
content of the edible part include
in crea sing the i) effic ienc y of
uptake and t ransport into edible
ti ssue , and i i) a mount of
bi oavail able micr onutr ient
accumulation in the plant.
Genetic Biofortification
Genetic biofortification is a seed-
based approach where the germ
pl asm is enri c hed wit h sp ecif ic
nutrients: micronutrients, protein,
amino acids etc. It can be done by
co nvent iona l breed ing, mar ker-
dr iven m olec u lar bree d ing, or
genetic engineering. Some of the
pr omis ing pr oduct s of th is
approach a re Zn- and Fe- rich
rice, wheat and maize. Golden rice
rich in beta-carotene, high Fe rice
(h igh f erri tin gene f rom
mangroves) are examples of genetic
engineering for bio fortification.
Agronomic Biofortification
Agronomic biofortific ation is an
inexpensive and simple approach
which can be utilized to enrich the
genetically-inefficient cultivars by
ap plic a tion o f micr onutr ient
fe rtil izers at diffe rent ra t es,
me thods a nd at di ffer ent cro p
gr owth s tages . Of the s ever a l
st rate g ies de v elop ed u sing
permutation and combinations of
nutrient management options, soil
application with foliar feeding is
the best for grain enrichment
with Zn, in soils having lo w Zn
st atus. Effe cts of Zn a nd Fe
ap plication on gra i n Zn and Fe
co ncen trati o n of the diffe rent
cr ops are giv en i n Tabl e 10.
Studies have sh own that Zn
application beyond the optimum
rate can help increase wheat grain
Table 8. Major dietary sources and substances promote Fe, Zn and vitamin A
bioavailability
Major dietary sources Promoter substance Nutrient
Fresh fruits and vegetables Organic acids Fe and /or Zn
Animal meats Haemoglobin Fe
Animal meats Amino acids Fe and /or Zn
Human breast milk Long-chain fatty acids Zn
Animal fats, vegetable fats Fats and lipids Vitamin A
See foods, Tropical nuts Selenium Iodine
Animal meats Iron, zinc Vitamin A
Coloured vegetables -carotene Fe, Zn
Garlic, Onion, Wheat Insulin and other Ca, Fe and Zn
non-digestible carbohydrates
Figure 12. Identification of Zn-e fficient crop cultivars
Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
49

Table 9. Genetically and agronomically Zn-efficient cultivars of different crops (Shukla et al., (2014)
Zn-efficient cultivars
IISS, Bhopal ANGRAU, Hyderabad GBPUAT, Pantnagar
Pigeon pea Wheat Rice Maize Rice Wheat
Geneti- Agrono- Geneti- Agrono- Geneti- Agrono- Geneti- Agrono- Geneti- Agrono- Geneti- Agrono-
cally mically cally mically cally mically cally mically cally mically cally mically
efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient
C11 Hisar GW-322 C-306 JGL 11470 JGL 11727 Super 9681 Ha rsh a Pa nt Jaya UP25 54 UP 262
H02-60 Dhan 18
ICPL Hisar- JW-3211 JW-17 MTU 7029 JGL 11118 30 Y 92 Laxmi Pant Pant K9107 PBW590
87119 Mana k 4950 Sugandh Dhan 19
17
GT- 101 Hisar HW-147 HW- Erra ma- MTU 1001 DHM 111 NK 6240 Ka la Pan t UP2628 VL804
Paara s 2004 l lelu Namak Sankar 1
T 15-15 SKNP 05-05 HI-8627 AKW- WG L SUREKHA DHM 117 Ashw ini Pa nt Bas ma ti PB W502 WH147
4627 32100 Dhan 16 370
BSMR 853 GAUT 93-17 BPT 5204 NLR Pu sa Type 3 UP2565 WH1021
33892 Sugandh 4
Virsa PKV Trombay PBW 502 UP 2572
Arhar-1
Fe efficient Cultivars Mn efficient Cultivars
AAU, Ana nd RAU, Pusa PAU, Ludhiana
Pigeon pea Wheat Rice Maize Rice Wheat
Geneti- Agrono- Geneti- Agrono- Geneti- Agrono- Geneti- Agrono- Geneti- Agrono- Geneti- Agrono-
cally mically cally mically cally mically cally mically cally mically cally mically
efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient efficient
DT-23 BSMR-853 GJG- 506 ICCC- 4 Birs am ati Boro 3 D ewa ki Shakti- PAU 201 Pu sa 44 BW 8989 P DW
man-3 291
AAUT- BP-1-96 GG- 1 GAG- RAU Je erabati Hema nt Sh akti- 3047 3138 BW 9149 P D W
2007-4 839 759 man-4 314
BDN-2 C-11 GAG- 838 GJG- Sanwal Ra jen dr a Pop-6 4 Laksh mi PR 116 3140 PBW 550 BW 9022
305 Ba sm at i Kastur i
PKV- AAUT Sw ar na Ra jen dr a R ajend ra CM-400 3131 3141 PBW 636 BW 9178
Trom bay 2007-10 Sub-1 S ubhash ini H M 1
Zn concentration up to 60 mg kg-1
without affecting the wheat yield,
which has been considered to be
adequate for better human
nutrition. Fertilizer strategy could
be a rapid solution to the problem
an d ca n be consi dere d an
im port ant comp leme ntary a pp-
ro ach to the on-g oing bre e ding
programm es.
Physiological Intervention
Accumulation of micronutrients in
edible portion of seeds is controlled
by physiological and biochemical
barriers in pla nts. These barriers
are the result of tightly controlled
ho moeostati c mecha nism s that
regulate meta l absorpt ion, trans-
lo catio n, a nd redi stri butio n in
plants allowing adequate, but non-
toxic levels of these nutrient s to
ac cumulate in plant tissues. Fo r
se eds a nd gr ains , phlo em sa p
lo adin g , t ransl oca t ion and
un loadi ng r a tes wi thin re pro-
du ctive o rgans a re importa n t
ch aract eris tics that m ust be
co nsidered in inc reas ing mi cro-
nutrient (metal) accumulation in
edible portion of seeds and grains.
Nipping (apical bud removal) and
defoliation (25% leaf removal) are
two important practices to change
the physio logy of legum e crops.
Plant releases greater amount of
so lubl e or gani c acids , ph yto-
si dero phor es, enz y mes and
reluctants or oxidants in order to
re coup from inj ury cause d by
nipping and defoliation. It has been
ob serv ed t hat nip ping a n d
defoliation practices could enhance
Fe concentration both in efficient
and inefficient cultivars of chickpea
and pigeon pea (Shukla et al., 2016).
In chickpea, nipping of apical
buds at gra nd grow th s tage but
before flowering resulted in 11%
in crea se in F e conc entr a tion in
gra ins of efficient cultivars (GG1
an d GA G 735 ) whi le o nly 5%
increase was recorded in case of
ineffic ient cultivars (ICC C4 and
GJ G 30 5 ). De foli ation (25% of
le aves) at pre -flo w erin g s tages
could enhance the Fe concentration
in grain by 7 and 4%, respectively
in efficient and inefficient cultivars.
In case of pigeon pea, nipping and
defoliation had greater response
than that recorded in chickpea. The
gr ain Fe conce n trat i on had
increased by 17 and 5% in efficient
(B DN-2 an d PKV Tro mbay)
Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
50

Table 10. Effect of Zn and Fe application on grain Zn and Fe concentration in
efficient and inefficient cultivars of crops
Crop Efficient cultivars Inefficient cultivars
and Place Grain Zn Increase over no Grain Zn Increase over no
(mg kg-1) Zn in (mg kg-1 ) Zn in
-Zn +Zn mg kg-1 Per cent -Zn +Zn mg kg-1 Per cent
Pigeon pea 32.6 43.8 11.2 34.4 35.1 48.2 13.1 37.3
(Bhopal)
Wheat 41.0 47.8 6.8 16.6 43.0 56.3 13.3 30.9
(Bhopal)
Rice 11.0 16.7 5.7 51.8 9.5 16.9 7.4 77.9
(Dehusked)
Hyderabad
Maize 24.2 27.4 3.2 13.2 23.7 29.5 5.8 24.5
(Hyderabad)
Rice 16.1 26.8 10.7 66.5 13.1 2 6.8 13.7 104.7
(dehusked)
Pantnagar
Wheat 20.3 43.1 22.8 112.3 25.1 43.8 18.7 74.5
(Pantnagar)
Grain Fe Increase over Grain Fe Increase over
(mg kg-1) no Fe in (mg kg-1) no Fe in
-Fe +Fe mg kg-1 Per -Fe +Fe mg kg-1 Per
cent cent
Pigeon pea 34.1 36.0 1.9 5.6 33.7 38.5 4.8 14.2
(Anand)
Chickpea 59.0 62.8 3.8 6.4 56.0 67.5 1 1.5 20.5
(Anand)
Rice 21.4 31.7 10.3 47.5 13.8 2 4.3 10.5 76.1
(dehusked)
Pusa
Maize (Pusa) 46.8 66.2 19.4 41.5 41.3 63.2 21.9 53.0
cu ltiva rs after ni ppi n g an d
de foli ation , wh ile in ineff icie nt
cultivars (C-11 and AAUT 2007-08)
the increase reckoned was 10 and
12%, respectively.
Future Thrust and Way Forward
Si gnif icant ad vance s have been
ma de on mi cro nutr ien ts i n soil ,
pl ant, anim al and hu m an
nu trit i on. F urth er im petu s is
needed on :
 Development of most efficient
so il te st me thod s and the
corresponding critical values for
precise and reliable prediction of
definite and hidden deficiency of
mi cron u trie nts, in clud ing Ni
an d Co , fo r spe cifi c so il-
cr oppi ng syste m s to help
im prov e their i nput-use
ef fici ency, preci sion fa rmin g,
an d si te-s peci fic nutr ient
management systems.
Id entif icat i on o f soi ls/a reas
de fici ent or t oxic i n
micronutrients and assessment
of imp act on agr i cult ural
productivity, nutritional quality
and animal and human health.
De velo pment of predi c tive
mo dels of micr onutr ients
av a ilab i lity t o be u sed a s
algorit hms in GI S to combine
appropriate map layers of model
parameters to synthesize maps,
il lust ratin g micr onut rien t s
av aila bili ty acr oss indiv idua l
fields.
Effective management of areas
af fect e d by micr onut rient
de fici encie s throu gh th e
development of local conditions-
ta ilore d best manage ment
practices (BMPs) to achieve the
ob ject ive of sus taina b le
production of quality produce.
De velo pment of appr opr iate
si te- and si tuati on- specific
integrated micronutrient supply
an d ma nage ment sy stem s,
us ing on- a n d of f-f a rm
ge nera t ed cr op waste s, bi ota
an d non- conv enti o nal i ndus-
tria l refuse fo r improvi ng the
nu trie nt inp ut and use
efficiency.
In-de pth understanding of the
role of genetic a nd agronomic
bio-fortification of food grains
an d fod ders wit h micr o-
nu trie nts’ in enh a ncie s t h eir
concentration to levels whic h
would fully meet the human and
an imal re quir ement from the
diet prepared from these grains.
Es tabl i shme nt o f defin ite
re latio nsh i p betw e en micro-
nu trie nts’ defic ienc ies in soil
wi th that in humans in a
co nsor tium mode in volvi ng
sc ient ists of a l l the r elat ed
di scip line s ac ross ins titut es/
universities/organi-zations.
 As the levels of deficiency and
toxicity of micronutrients are
ve ry nar row, the re is an
immense need for having the
state of art well equipped, both
in terms of trained man power
an d infr astr uctu ral fa cili t ies,
soil-testing laboratories in the
country for providing reliable
soil health cards to the farmers
for the success of the mission.
 Providing sufficient funds and
hu man reso urce s for unde r-
ta k ing r esea rch ad dres sing
micro-nutrient problems of soil,
plant, animal and human health.
Fi nall y, a r oadm a p h as t o b e
developed for adoption of proven
mi cron u trie nt tech n olog ies to
co mbat th e ir de ficie ncie s in
specif ic so il-c rop syst e ms to
achieve the targeted production
of 380-400 Mt of food grain by
2030 besides ensuring higher use
efficiency of macronut rients and
Indian Journal of Fertilisers, April 2018
51

other inputs. This would only be
possible if effective know ledge-
dr iven c oord inat e d effort s are
made by different several agencies
in providing advisory services to
the farmers.
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Venkatesh, M. 2018. Geochemical
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ground water of tribal regio n in
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54
U.S. AWASTHI IFFCO AWARDS 2018
We have immense pleasure to announce the following U.S. Awasthi IFFCO Awards 2018
instituted by IFFCO, the largest Cooperative of Farmers in the world:
1. “U.S. Awasthi IFFCO Award” for Life Time Achievement in the Field of Fertilizer
Industry
2. “U.S. Awasthi IFFCO Award” for Life Time Achievement in the Field of Agriculture
Development and Agriculture Research
The value of each Award is INR 2.5 million Plus, a Gold Medallion and Citation. The Awards
will be given in FAI Annual Seminar on December 5, 2018 in New Delhi. Separate nominations
are invited for the two Awards. The persons who have made extraordinary contributions in their
chosen field of work in fertilizers and agriculture will be considered for these Awards. An outline
of profile of potential candidates to be nominated would be required in a prescribed proforma.
There is a separate proforma for each of the two awards. The proforme are available on FAI
website: www.faidelhi.org
Nominations may be sent by September 28, 2018 to the following address:
Director General
THE FERTILISER ASSOCIATION OF INDIA
FAI House, 10 Shaheed Jit Singh Marg
New Delhi-110 067, India
Phone: +91-11-26510019 (D)
Fax: +91-11-26960052 and +91-11-46005213
E-mail: dg@faidelhi.org