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Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition

Authors:
Association Revue Française de Sociologie
Review
Reviewed Work(s): Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition by Ronald S. Burt
Review by: Emmanuel Lazega
Source:
Revue française de sociologie,
Vol. 36, No. 4, Analyses de réseaux et structures
relationnelles (Oct. - Dec., 1995), pp. 779-781
Published by: Sciences Po University Press on behalf of the Association Revue Française de
Sociologie
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LES LIVRES
Ronald S. Burt. - Structural
holes : the social structure of
competition.
Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
310 p. 1992.
Structural Holes est l'une des contri-
butions les plus originales de la socio-
logie structurale a la sociologie
g6nerale. Cet ouvrage, pr6sente l'une
des premieres theories de l'action so-
ciale fond6e sur l'analyse de r6seaux,
coupl6e avec une approche du compor-
tement en termes de choix rationnel. On
y trouve une mesure nouvelle et robuste
du capital social, une theorie de la rela-
tion entre capital social et performance,
ainsi qu'une integration de l'analyse
structurale proprement dite dans celle
des r6seaux personnels.
A la suite de Harrison White et de
Mark Granovetter, Burt met l'accent sur
l'importance, dans une structure sociale,
des absences de relations entre acteurs.
Un trou structural est d6fini comme une
absence de relations entre autrui <<redon-
dants>> (cette redondance 6tant mesur6e
par l'6quivalence structurale entre eux).
Dans Toward a structural theory of ac-
tion (1982), Burt avait d6j~ utilis6 cette
id6e pour proposer le concept d'autono-
mie structurale. Un acteur est donc auto-
nome dans la mesure oui ses relations ne
sont pas reli6es entre elles - pour des
raisons tres diverses - et ne peuvent
donc s'entendre pour faire peser sur lui
des contraintes fortes. II est autonome en
ceci qu'il dispose d'une marge de ma-
noeuvre dans ses relations avec ses
contacts. Un exemple simple est celui de
deux fournisseurs concurrents qu'une
entreprise peut jouer l'un contre l'autre.
Avec l'id6e de trou structural, Burt g6-
n6ralise sa th6orie de l'autonomie en
ajoutant qu'elle procure des b6n6fices en
information et en contr1le, des ressources
potentielles, des opportunit6s qu'un ac-
teur <<entrepreneur>> peut saisir. Les ab-
sences de relations entre autrui sont
exploitables par un tertius gaudens (a
comprendre au sens simm61ien du troi-
sieme larron qui tire les marrons du feu).
A partir de ces pr6misses, Burt d6ve-
loppe une theorie de cet entrepreneur
aux accents schump6t6riens. Un acteur
dont le r6seau est riche en trous struc-
turaux peut d'autant plus en b6n6ficier
qu'il joue l'interm6diaire ou qu'il joue
les concurrents l'un contre l'autre. Sur
la base de cette theorie de l'entrepre-
neur, I'auteur d6veloppe une th6orie
structurale de la s61ectivit6 des systemes
sociaux et des in6galit6s et discrimina-
tions sociales. Un acteur disposant d'un
grand reseau oui l'on detecte de nom-
breux trous structuraux b6ndficiera da-
vantage de son capital social qu'un
acteur ayant un r6seau tout aussi grand,
mais moins riche en trous et donc en oc-
casions d'entreprendre.
Les deux premiers chapitres pr6sen-
tent la th6orie des trous structuraux et
la formalisent. Les chapitres 3 et 4 tes-
tent cette theorie dans deux contextes
diff6rents : un march6 et une organisa-
tion, sur deux type de donn6es 6gale-
ment diff6rents. Dans un contexte de
march6, I'auteur mesure les b6n6fices
que les trous structuraux procurent aux
producteurs dans leurs relations avec
clients et fournisseurs. Cette premiere
etude permet de repenser la structure so-
ciale des marches. Dans le contexte or-
ganisationnel fortement hi6rarchis6, ces
b6n6fices sont en termes de promotion
plus ou moins rapide de cadres sup6-
779
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Revue frangaise de sociologie
rieurs d'une grande entreprise. Les re-
sultats renforcent l'hypothese de base et
permettent ' Burt de d6velopper la th6o-
rie de maniere inductive. Les trois der-
niers chapitres explorent des domaines
dans lesquels la notion de trou structural
s'applique et constituent un apport a des
theories sociologiques plus ou moins g6-
n6rales. Dans le chapitre 5, Burt 6tend
sa perspective a la question de la rela-
tion individu-structure et aux relations
micro-macro. Dans le chapitre 6, dans
une partie remarquablement synth6tique,
il articule sa th6orie des trous structu-
raux au module du march6 de Harrison
White et a l'id6e de niche 6cologique de
Hannan et Freeman (la mortalit6 organi-
sationnelle est directement influenc6e
par l'autonomie structurale des acteurs
dans le systeme ou champ inter-organi-
sationnel). Dans le chapitre 7, Burt d6-
veloppe une th6orie structurale de la
personnalit6, qui apparait comme un ef-
fet du r6seau dans lequel l'acteur est in-
s6r6. La fin de l'ouvrage avance des
propositions th6oriques sur des sujets
tels que les diff6rentes strategies dispo-
nibles pour un tertius dont le r6seau est
pauvre en trous structuraux.
Dans la mesure oui le trou structural
devient un 616ment standard d'une struc-
ture sociale quelle qu'elle soit, il devient
aussi un 616ment constitutif de tous les
processus de concurrence, puisque des
concurrents concentrent d'habitude leur
attention sur une troisieme partie (par
exemple un client) sans &tre le plus sou-
vent en contact direct l'un avec l'autre.
C'est ici que la g6n6ralit6 de la theorie
de Burt reste encore 'a d6montrer,
comme il le reconnaft lui-meme. Dans
les contextes empiriques d6crits dans
son livre, I'auteur voit surtout des ac-
teurs individuels et collectifs manceu-
vrant strat6giquement autour de trous
structuraux. Bien qu'extremement effi-
cace, cette theorie de l'action collective
peut 8tre r6ductrice. II faudra la mettre
a l'6preuve de bien d'autres r6seaux
comme, par exemple, ceux de migrants
ou de parent6.
La clart6 et le caractere abstrait des
concepts utilis6s permettront certaine-
ment de tester cette theorie et sa g6n6-
ralisation dans des contextes tres
diff6rents. Elle s'applique avec perti-
nence au monde des affaires et de la
concurrence 6conomique, mais peut-elle
convenir de la meme maniere ' d'autres
univers ? Les acteurs mettent-ils si faci-
lement un terme a leurs relations avec
des amis ?redondants >>? Les jouent-ils
si syst6matiquement les uns contre les
autres ? La these suivant laquelle un re-
seau optimal est un r6seau riche en
trous structuraux depend probablement
du type de contexte et des relations 6tu-
di6es. Dans des r6seaux tres multiplexes,
qui sont souvent - plus que d'autres -
sources d'identit6, d'appartenance, de
solidarit6 et de transmission de normes,
oii les relations sont 6tablies a plus long
terme, les acteurs cr6ent et d6truisent
peut-8tre moins facilement leurs rela-
tions par pur volontarisme. II peut &tre
tres r6ducteur de pr6supposer qu'une lo-
gique de march6 et de concurrence, bien
que toujours pr6sente, y est n6cessaire-
ment dominante. Plut6t qu'un avantage,
un grand nombre de trous structuraux
dans de tels r6seaux pourrait constituer
une source suppl6mentaire de conflits et
de tensions pour l'acteur. Ceci apparait
peut-&tre plus clairement lorsque l'on
consacre plus d'attention que ne le fait
l'auteur a la n6gociation par les acteurs
des regles de leurs 6changes et a la di-
mension culturelle des actions et trans-
actions.
L'apport essentiel de Structural holes
est d'offrir une theorie de la concurrence
fond6e sur une mesure nouvelle du ca-
pital social et des avantages structuraux
de l'acteur, ainsi qu'une relation forte
entre ce capital et la performance de
l'acteur. Techniquement, I'auteur pro-
pose aussi une solution pour faire le lien
entre r6seaux complets et r6seaux per-
sonnels. A cet 6gard, les r6sultats de ses
analyses dependent beaucoup de la ca-
pacit6 des acteurs ' percevoir avec pr6-
cision et exactitude l'existence de
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Les livres
relations entre tous les membres de leur
reseau personnel. Sans cette confiance
dans les capacites de l'acteur, il devient
presque impossible de mesurer la ri-
chesse de ce reseau en trous structuraux.
Conscients de ce probleme (surtout pour
les acteurs dont le r6seau personnel est
vaste), l'auteur et ses collaborateurs pren-
nent beaucoup de precautions dans la
construction des questionnaires et dans
leur mise en circulation. Une th6orie des
biais possibles ainsi introduits dans les
observations reste cependant a d6velopper.
Burt pousse aussi loin que possible
le presuppos6 de la sociologie structu-
rale : les effets de l'action sont lies aux
relations entre acteurs, plus qu'a leurs
attributs personnels. II ajoute aux theo-
ries du capital social de Pierre Bourdieu,
James Coleman, Henk Flap, Nan Lin et
Peter Marsden une mesure et une
comprehension originale de la producti-
vite de ce capital, de la maniere dont
fonctionne sa gestion. Repetons-le, ce li-
vre, d'une grande virtuosit6 m6thodolo-
gique et theorique, represente avec
prudence et modestie l'une des meil-
leures contribution de la sociologie
structurale contemporaine a la sociolo-
gie gendrale.
Emmanuel Lazega
Universite de Versailles et LASMAS - CNRS
Wasserman (Stanley), Faust (Ka-
therine). - Social network ana-
lysis : methods and applications.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1994, 825 p.
Toute personne s6rieusement int6res-
see par l'analyse de donn es relation-
nelles - que ce soit pour evaluer la
pertinence de leur utilisation dans le ca-
dre d'une recherche, pour s'initier, I'ap-
pliquer, en faire l'histoire ou la critique -
devrait ranger en bonne place le livre de
Wasserman et Faust. Il s'agit sans aucun
doute de l'ouvrage de ref6rence le plus
complet et le plus utile sur la m thode,
pour le d6butant comme pour l'utilisa-
teur averti. Son parti pris est de presen-
ter les grandes techniques de maniere
quasi exhaustive et de consacrer moins
d'attention a la diversit6 des objets et
des problematiques sociologiques qui
ont benefici6 de ce type d'analyse. Les
illustrations d'applications se limitent '
quatre principaux fichiers de donnees de
r6seaux: les managers de Krackhardt,
les familles florentines de Padgett et An-
sell, les chercheurs en conf6rences 61ec-
troniques de Freeman et les PDG (et
leurs conjoints) de Galaskiewicz.
Le contenu de base necessaire a la
comprehension du reste de l'ouvrage est
pr6sent6 dans les deux premieres parties.
Les auteurs exposent brievement la pers-
pective g6nerale de l'analyse de reseaux
sociaux (les fondements theoriques, les
principaux concepts, les pr6supposes de
la methode, des exemples de sujets di-
vers auxquels elle est appliqure, un
contexte historique), mais on entre dans
le vif du sujet a partir du deuxieme cha-
pitre qui decrit les types de reseaux 6tu-
dies, les donn es de reseau, les
questions de definition de la population,
de sp6cification de frontieres, la ques-
tion d6licate de l'chantillonnage. On
notera une section qui passe en revue
critique les techniques de recolte de don-
nees et les g6nerateurs de noms usuels.
Les trois notations diff6rentes utilisees
dans les travaux sur les reseaux sociaux
sont clairement pos es : celle de la th o-
rie des graphes, celle de la sociometrie
et celle de la notation algebrique parti-
culibrement utile pour l'6tude de reseaux
multi-relationnels. II faut notamment si-
gnaler le guide offert par le chapitre 4
(6crit par Dawn lacobucci), qui est en
soi une sorte de livre dans le livre, des-
tine6 presenter de maniere r6sumre les
fondements math6matiques n6cessaires
(theorie des graphes et calcul matriciel).
Les concepts 616mentaires de la m thode
sont pratiquement tous detailles, avec de
solides exemples et une remarquable vue
d'ensemble.
781
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... There are literature on the dynamic features of problem-solving networks (Baum et al., 2012;Burt, 2002;Burt & Merluzzi, 2016;Sasovova et al., 2010;Soda et al., 2004;Stovel et al., 2011). For example, Soda et al. (2004) found that the benefit of brokerage attenuates over time. ...
... In such cases, colleagues generally provide constructive criticism and new insights (Hargadon & Bechky, 2006, Shah et al., 2018 that could help the employee solve the problem (Rodan & Galunic, 2004). Previous studies have shown that positioning at the center of such networks facilitates the efficacy of problem-solving (Ahuja et al., 2003;Baldwin et al., 1997;Burt, 1992;Sparrowe et al., 2001). ...
... The role of brokerage in dynamic networks, which has been studied primarily from the perspective of the relational state network, indicates that ties that bridge structural holes tend to disconnect over time (Baum et al., 2012;Burt, 2002;Burt & Merluzzi, 2016;Sasovova et al., 2010;Stovel et al., 2011) and that the benefits of brokerage attenuate gradually (Soda et al., 2004). These studies, however, examined the dynamics of relational states based on long-term relationships, whereas information collection for problem-solving is a relational event (Borgatti & Halgin, 2011). ...
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Problem-solving effectiveness is key to organizational performance. To solve problems, gathering information from colleagues is critical, and positioning brokerage in communication networks is beneficial. The communication network for problem-solving is formed depending on the nature of the problem. Thus, the problem-solving network is the relational event network, and the connection of the problem-solving network dynamically changes over time depending on the problem basis. This study investigates the dynamics of brokerage in a problem-solving network and its impact on productivity in a company that provides technical support and troubleshooting for the IT system that its corporate customers use. By exploiting high-frequency data on face-to-face communication among employees collected by wearable sensors, we established the following results. First, the communication partners of each employee change weekly, which is a reasonable time to solve problems in the company. Second, with the change in the communication network, employees who position brokerage also change on a weekly basis. Third, while brokerage in a week has a positive impact on employee performance during the week, it has no impact on employee performance in the following week.
... A wealth of research evidence points to the benefits of open networks. People whose networks are open are exposed to different pools of knowledge, perspectives, and practices that form around interconnected actors in a network (Burt 1992(Burt , 2004. This exposure is theorized to benefit entrepreneurs by facilitating opportunity recognition, enhancing their ability to communicate the potential of their nascent venture to diverse stakeholders, and providing them with a range of ideas, tools, and practices to adapt and respond to setbacks and challenges during the venture creation process (Burt 2019). ...
... The survey began with an ego network measure (Burt 1992). ...
... In order to capture network structure, we asked respondents to indicate whether the members of their network were known to one another. This is a field-standard measure of social network structure (e.g., Burt 1992;Merluzzi and Burt 2013), and although we could not verify respondents' reports with their network members, research on network perceptions shows that individuals are accurate in their perceptions of overall network structure (Freeman et al. 1987;Freeman and Webster 1994). To reduce the likelihood of inaccurate reporting, we deliberately avoided asking about the quality or nature of the relationship between respondents' network members (e.g., closeness, friendship, advice) because these involve private feelings and judgments that may be hidden from respondents and thus are prone to bias. ...
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We contend that the degree of closure in women entrepreneurs’ social networks affects how concerned they feel about being judged through the lens of negative gender stereotypes (i.e., their experience of social identity threat). Using data from a survey of entrepreneurs in Study 1, we observe that women (but not men) entrepreneurs who report more closure in their social networks experience less social identity threat. Study 2 shows that the trust that is inherent in closed social networks accounts for our effects. Using an experimental design, we find that a field sample of entrepreneurs who are assigned to develop a closed (vs. open) network experience more trust, which is associated with reduced social identity threat for women (but not men). Our findings suggest that a closed social network may inoculate women against the risk of being derailed by negative stereotypes in the venture creation process. We conclude by discussing the theoretical and practical implications of our findings.
... Leadbeater 2011;OECD 2004), a szociológia (lásd pl. Granovetter 1973;Burt 1992), a szervezetelmélet és vezetéstudomány (lásd pl . Senge 1990;Powell et al. 1996), a pszichológia (lásd pl. ...
... E dinamikára reflektál az oktatás világára is gyakran adaptált triple helix modell, amely hangsúlyozza, hogy a különböző szektorok, mint a kormányzat, az ipar és az akadémiai világ együttműködése kulcsfontosságú az innovációs folyamatok előmozdításában (Etzkowitz, Leydesdorff 2000). Azok az aktorok, akik a 'szerkezeti lyukakat', vagyis különálló csoportokat kötnek össze, különleges hozzáadott értéket képviselnek a hálózati működésben (Burt 1992). Az oktatási hálózatokban ilyen közvetítő szerepe lehet az önkormányzatoknak, oktatási hatóságoknak, piaci szereplőknek, egyetemeknek, közösségi szervezeteknek, valamint az új megoldásokat gyorsan alkalmazó korai adaptálóknak, akik hatékonyan segíthetik az iskolák közötti kommunikációt és együttműködést (Hargreaves 2003;Fullan 2007;Rogers 1962). ...
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Az iskola-, illetve pedagógushálózatok kiemelt szerepet töltenek be az oktatási innováció és a pedagógiai tudásmegosztás terén, olyan ökoszisztémát hozva létre, amely serkenti a kísérletezést és az új megoldások helyi igényekhez igazított adaptálását. Az információs és kommunikációs technológiák gyors fejlődése különösen erős hatást gyakorolt a hálózatos működés terén is: immár a digitális platformok és együttműködési eszközök révén a résztvevők a hagyományos fizikai jelenlét korlátait meghaladva, térben és időben rugalmasan kapcsolódhatnak egymáshoz és egymás forrásaihoz. A tanulmány dokumentumelemzésekre, másodelemzésekre, és interjúkra építve négy olyan – két nemzetközi és két hazai - hálózat működését ismerteti, amelyek jellegét meghatározza a technológiai fejlődés.
... For example, in a chemical-disease network, a bi-clique represents a group of similar chemicals and their affected diseases. Previous research has proposed the structural hole theory [15], suggesting that two strongly connected clusters sharing numerous nodes likely belong to a larger cluster, implying that current unlinked pairs within these clusters are likely to be connected. Thus, link prediction can be performed by extracting bi-cliques and analyzing their relationships. ...
... Based on the structural hole theory [15] which has been mentioned above, several rule-based methods, such as Missbin and MF-NSS [12][13][14], have been proposed. These methods establish rules whereby if the overlap of two maximal bi-cliques exceeds a predefined threshold, the two bi-cliques merge into one, and the newly generated links are considered candidate links. ...
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We propose a novel and efficient method for link prediction in bipartite networks, using \textit{formal concept analysis} (FCA) and the Transformer encoder. Link prediction in bipartite networks finds practical applications in various domains such as product recommendation in online sales, and prediction of chemical-disease interaction in medical science. Since for link prediction, the topological structure of a network contains valuable information, many approaches focus on extracting structural features and then utilizing them for link prediction. Bi-cliques, as a type of structural feature of bipartite graphs, can be utilized for link prediction. Although several link prediction methods utilizing bi-cliques have been proposed and perform well in rather small datasets, all of them face challenges with scalability when dealing with large datasets since they demand substantial computational resources. This limits the practical utility of these approaches in real-world applications. To overcome the limitation, we introduce a novel approach employing iceberg concept lattices and the Transformer encoder. Our method requires fewer computational resources, making it suitable for large-scale datasets while maintaining high prediction performance. We conduct experiments on five large real-world datasets that exceed the capacity of previous bi-clique-based approaches to demonstrate the efficacy of our method. Additionally, we perform supplementary experiments on five small datasets to compare with the previous bi-clique-based methods for bipartite link prediction and demonstrate that our method is more efficient than the previous ones.
... Indeed, entrepreneurs are socially situated (Gedajlovic et al., 2013), that is, they act in a context (McKeever, Jack and Anderson, 2015), and, as such they are embedded in human relationships (Payne et al., 2010). This is also why the entrepreneurial chances of success, that is, first sale or profit (Davidsson and Honig, 2003), depend on entrepreneurial networks that represent the social capital of the entrepreneur (Burt, 1992). To clarify with an example, to acquire resources to deliver upon a business opportunity, the entrepreneur engages with their network to seek resources and assistance through a process commonly known as bricolage (Landström, 2017). ...
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At the beginning of their journeys, new ventures are confronted with owner-centricity. In this phase the entrepreneur’s personal brand overlaps with the still-developing brand of the new business entity. As such, building a strong personal brand represents a strategic asset to overcome both the liability of newness and the liability of smallness to attain the legitimacy needed to attract people and money. Indeed, being well suited to communicate identities, personal brands are a strategic means for the founder to stand out from the crowd and accumulate social capital to acquire resources. Yet, despite the relevance of the topic, there is a paucity of research. With the aim of addressing how the personal brand of an entrepreneur could be leveraged to facilitate the formation of cognitive and social capital, that is, a shared view of the world needed to ease the exchange of resources, the study adopted a multiple-case study approach investigated through a semiotic method. Findings suggest entrepreneurs foster a shared understanding of the world with their audience through their personal brands leveraged as a cognitive device by developing a narrative that resonates with them. Implications for the community of practice are provided with a range of future research opportunities.
... The primary centrality indices in a network include degree centrality, closeness centrality, and betweenness centrality [86]. Other indices, such as eigenvector centrality [87], page rank [88], and structural holes [89], also exist. Regardless of the index used, centrality is not an absolute measure; instead, it indicates relative ranking. ...
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While research on population travel patterns and urban networks has been active, it has primarily focused on passenger travel, leaving freight travel relatively underexplored. This study addresses this gap by analyzing both passenger and freight travel patterns, network structures, and central areas. It uses origin-destination (OD) data, considering total travel volume by purpose and mode. The study applies regular equivalence and power centrality to examine differences in human and logistics flows across South Korea from an urban network theory perspective. The key findings are as follows. First, passenger travel, predominantly short-distance, exhibits lower density and intensity than freight travel. Freight travel, on the other hand, demonstrates strong density across short, medium, and long distances, with more travel routes concentrated around nodal regions. Second, passenger travel forms several polynucleated clusters, including short-distance movements. Conversely, freight travel forms a few extensive clusters that encompass medium and long-distance movements. Third, the spatial interaction of passenger travel is influenced by the OD distance, unlike freight travel. Interestingly, the distance between central areas of freight travel can be longer than that of passenger travel. This may stem from the strategic positioning of certain suburban areas as central areas to optimize logistics efficiency. This study emphasizes the importance of morphological and functional linkages between cities by identifying inter-regional differences in passenger and freight flows. It also proposes spatial planning strategies based on urban hierarchy.
... Some of the first significant research on social capital was conducted by Bourdieu (1986), Coleman (1988) and Putnam (2001). The results of the analysis of numerous reports related to human capital indicate that this factor significantly improves a country's economic performance (Knack and Keefer 1997), the results of local communities (Ostrom 2000), and organizational and unit performance (Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998;Lazega and Burt 1995;Kwilinski et al. 2019;Kuzior and Kwilinski 2022). Additional elements that determine the quality of social capital are the norms encoded at the local community level, which influence the behaviour of members of this community (Putnam 2011). ...
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Full-text available
The economic situation of farms is determined by a number of factors, which have been widely described in the literature. One factor is market integration, which shapes the farmer’s position in the food supply chain. The involvement of farmers in the integration may be related to their social capital, although this hypothesis has not been fully verified. Thus, the aim of the article is to assess the relationship between the level of social capital and the market integration of farms in selected Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries. The analysis includes Poland, Romania, Lithuania, Serbia and Moldova, and the sample consists of a total of 3160 farms. Data were collected personally by the authors through face-to-face interviews with farm managers. Based on these data, the authors’ market integration index was calculated and the level of social capital of farms was determined. A comparative analysis of average market integration indices for farms with different degrees of social capital was then carried out separately for each country. The Mann-Whitney U-test and the Kruskal-Wallis test were used to determine the significance of differences. The findings reveal that the highest value of the market integration was recorded for those farmers who were most strongly ‘socialised’, i.e. who participated in long-life education, took part in social events and were members of various organisations. A very important implication of this is that by strengthening social capital, farms aim to strengthen integration into the market, which can consequently lead to improved economic performance. Therefore, mitigating regional disparities and increasing the average level of agricultural performance in CEE countries should include measures to increase social capital on farms, i.e. providing workshops, training, and exhibitions, as well as supporting agricultural producer organizations, promoting rural housewives’ circles, and organising social events, among others. Such activities can be financed both from the second pillar of the common agricultural policy and from local government budgets. The contribution of the research focuses on the rarely undertaken subject matter of the relationship between social capital and market integration in farms. The added value consists of 1) a comparative analysis of five CEE countries and 2) an estimation of the authors’ indicators of social capital and market integration of farms, which could be used in the future for similar research.
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