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The Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle
... Introducing eudaimonia in psychology research created a conceptual discrepancy since this broad concept did not match the prevailing conceptions of happiness. Waterman (2022) suggests that Ross (1956) wrongly translated eudaimonia into happiness in Aristotle's The Nicomachean Ethics and draws a sharp conceptual distinction between the two that reduces happiness to hedonia (i.e., seeking pleasure) and associating eudaimonia with meaning and optimal functioning (Waterman, 2022). These conceptual re-adjustments introduce a new psychological construct and overlook the philosophical background of the terms hedonia and eudaimonia. ...
... In addition, psychological flexibility (i.e., dynamic re-adjustments in the internal organization of either cognitive components or/and in behavior patterns) may rely on bidirectional ongoing cognitive processes that connect cognition to behavior and help a person make sense of their experience and the outside world. (Ross, 1956) Aristotle emphasizes that balance is the key to happiness and conceptualizes a virtue as the "golden mean" between excess and deficiency. For example, the virtue of being friendly is the "golden mean" of being slavish and being cranky. ...
Happiness is of great importance to people. Although happiness constitutes a central theme in psychology, the absence of a unifying theory and inconsistent terminology undermine scientific progress. The present article goes beyond attempting to define “types of happiness” or its contributing factors and addresses the role of happiness (i.e., embodied positive emotional patterns) as a function of a dynamic multisystem (i.e., an individual) and its relationship to meaning (i.e., ongoing bidirectional cognitive processes). As a dynamic multisystem, a person strives for stability as they move in physical space, and during their development, across time (i.e., dynamic balance). A primary requirement for dynamic balance is maintaining consistency by connecting the cognitive system to behavior. In psychological terms, such a connection is facilitated by meaning. The model suggests that happiness serves as a marker of a person’s consistency and meaningful interpretations of their lived experience. The model points to a new research direction.
... Καὶ οἱ ἀκρατεῖς ἄδικοι μὲν οὔκ εἰσιν, ἀδικοῦσι δέ ("for incontinence is contrary to choice while vice is in accordance with choice; not but what they are similar in respect to the actions they lead to; as in the saying of Demodocus about the Milesians, 'The Milesians are not without sense, but they do the things that senseless people do' , so too incontinent people are not criminal, but they will do criminal acts", transl. Ross 1980). Particularly on the epigrams about the Cappadocians' wickedness, see Floridi 2022. ...
Sixth-century Greek book epigrams can offer insights into debates and ideas present in their historical context, also into the shaping of a Christian polity. Through a case study of two epigrams, this article explores how these pointed and playful compositions parody and subvert imperial discourse thanks to intertextual allusions to Justinian’s legislation, chiefly his Novellae. The first epigram (AP XI.238) is an example of criticism on administrative decisions, namely the appointment of an official, probably John the Cappadocian, by the emperor. The second epigram (AP V.302) shows farther-reaching criticism on Justinian’s legal and moral reforms regarding marriage and sexual behaviour; it emphasises that sexual gratification is not possible anymore in the society reshaped by the emperor.
... Ia hanya menjadi populer dan tersebar setelah revolusi Perancis. Keadilan, atau al-'adl (keadilan), yang berarti meletakkan sesuatu pada tempatnya, adalah suatu teori yang sering dianalisa oleh para sarjana, salah satunya adalah Aristotle (Ross, 1999), al-Ghazali, dan ilmuwan lainnya. Kesetaraan atau kesetaraan berarti kesamaan (sameness) dan penyamarataan (levelling). ...
This research examines the conception of feminism and gender equality from an Islamic legal perspective. There are inherent traits in men and women that are constructed socially and culturally, but in reality, women are often placed as optional after men because of patriarchal culture. This research will soon examine the phenomenon and reality of feminism and gender equality in society from an Islamic legal perspective. This research method uses descriptive analysis by collecting primary and supporting data for analysis based on Islamic Law. The research results of this paper confirm that both progressive and traditional thinkers agree that in Islamic law, there is no favoritism towards one group. Men and women have the same position, even though the phenomenon and reality of society are still affected by patriarchal culture and gender discrimination. Gender equality and gender justice are essential for achieving equality between all genders. Gender justice focuses on the fair distribution of opportunities according to the needs of each individual, while gender equality focuses on equal rights and opportunities for all, regardless of gender. Islam teaches the importance of balance and justice and rejects all forms of injustice, emphasizing that both genders have complementary roles in the family and society.
... By contrast, habitually wrong moral actions may define a person's character, as humans become what they do repeatedly (see for example, Nicomachean Ethics 2:1 or 1103a15-b25, in Ross 1999). Sins are essentially morally wrong actions that have the capacity to damage a person's character (because they are not bringing about the person's full nature or the proper end of her humanity, see Notes 1 and 2). ...
Celebrating the sacrament of penance or confession restores a state of grace in a person’s soul. This is vital for a life of faith to which all human persons are called, but only Roman Catholic believers can experience. Celebrating this sacrament requires a private and confidential conversation between an ordained priest and a baptized person. By reviewing sensory perceptions, we conclude that being in the “same location” is not necessary for two persons to celebrate penance. As the world adjusted to the recent COVID-19 pandemic, using distance technologies facilitated meaningful communications, including therapeutic conversations around mental health. We believe that using visual technologies can also help celebrate the sacrament of penance or confession. We suggest a pastoral adaptation may help bring absolution to persons from various locations seeking forgiveness. We believe our suggestions are ontologically probable and canonically adaptable.
... (…) la rectitud consiste en una conformidad con lo conveniente, tanto por lo que se refiere al objeto de la deliberación, como al modo y al tempo (EN, VI, 9, 1142 b). John Alexander Stewart (1999), en un análisis exhaustivo del capítulo 10 del libro VI de la EN, sostiene que esta deliberación se hace en orden a criticar un consejo dado por otro. Esto se desprendería de este pasaje Aristotélico, cuando se sostiene que el entendimiento es lo que se ejercita en la opinión para juzgar acerca de las cosas que son objeto de la prudencia cuando habla otro, y para juzgar rectamente, pues "bien" es lo mismo que "rectamente". ...
En este trabajo se analizarán los precedentes aristotélicos de la concordia en la antigua Grecia y el tratamiento que le da el griego en la Ética a Nicómaco. De esta manera, se hilará fino respecto a qué tipo de entendimiento común es necesario para la concordia y cómo se puede propiciar en el régimen político democrático, cuyo origen va de la mano con el surgimiento de las ideas respecto a la amistad cívica. Para lograr atisbar el camino para lograr esto último, en el contexto actual del siglo XXI, se analiza, brevemente, el rol de la opinión publica en la dinámica entre potestad y autoridad que se dan en las democracias contemporáneas.
... For instance, scholars have increasingly investigated the relationship between sport event impacts and residents' well-being (e.g., Mutz, 2019;Schlegel et al., 2017). Positive psychology originated from ancient Greek philosophy, such as Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics (Ross, 1980), claiming that well-being is associated with the highest human good (cf., Ryan & Deci, 2001). The perspective is also known as Eudaimonia (Huta & Waterman, 2014;Ryff, 1989). ...
... Tal recusa levaria à necessidade de recusar que este é responsável pela suas ações, o que implicaria que a origem das ações não poderia ser atribuída ao próprio agente moral, uma vez que o agente moral não poderia ser responsabilizado por ações que não têm origem nele próprio. Cf.Stewart (1999), p. 272. ...
Na proposta ética aristotélica, a formação de uma boa disposição de caráter (hexis) é condição necessária para que o agente moral possa alcançar o seu fim, a felicidade (eudaimonia). No longo debate acerca da disposição de caráter (hexis), um disputado problema consiste em saber se, uma vez a sua disposição de caráter formada, o agente moral só poderia agir de um único modo. Em relação a tal problema, queremos, neste artigo, sustentar que Aristóteles propõe uma leitura segundo a qual a disposição de caráter do agente moral, por mais que esteja ‘formada’, não faz com que as suas ações sejam necessariamente concordes com tal disposição, que, portanto, um agente moral virtuoso não necessariamente age de modo virtuoso.
... The concept of justice stems from Aristotle, who defined justice as the principle of the equal treatment of equals (Ross, 1956). It refers to the belief that an action is ethical if it is just, fair and morally right (Reidenbach and Robin, 1990). ...
Purpose
To build public trust in the accounting profession, previous research studies have stressed the need for ethics education. This present research aims to investigate the effects of teaching ethics using the ethics education toolkit (EET) developed by the International Accounting Education Standards Board on accounting students’ moral judgment.
Design/methodology/approach
An experimental design was used to determine the effects of teaching ethics using the EET on moral judgment. Data were obtained using the multidimensional ethics scale questionnaire and analysed with multiple linear regression. Factor analysis was performed to obtain the four moral philosophies defined in the literature.
Findings
The results confirm that use of the EET improves the moral judgment of accounting students. The influence of utilitarianism and relativism on moral judgment was reduced, while the students’ ability to recognise violating an unwritten contract as an unethical act was improved. Contrary to expectations, the influence of justice on moral judgment decreased.
Practical implications
The study may benefit academics by showing positive outcomes of EET use. The EET is a well-developed teaching tool, also suitable for educators insufficiently qualified to develop their own ethics courses or facing time constraints.
Originality/value
The EET was developed to support implementation of ethics education in programmes for professional accountants. By investigating the applicability and effects of the tool in higher education, this study aims to develop moral judgment in accounting students before they enter the accounting profession.
... In the case of excise taxes, when the purpose of taxation is to encourage or discourage certain economic or social behavior, tax fairness depends on several factors: whether there is a rational relationship between the tax and its objective or goal, the justice of the goal, and the distributional impact of the tax (Duff, 2008). For example, environmental taxes are commonly justified as economically efficient, and they comply with the principle of corrective justice (Ross, 1956), according to which those who cause environmental damage should compensate society for it. A similar argument holds for the taxation of tobacco products, as consumption of tobacco has a negative health impact not only on the consumer, but also on people around them, causing health damage from second-hand smoke, environmental damage, increased public health expenditures, and fiscal pressures, among others. ...
This toolkit provides guidance to researchers who aim to analyze the distributional impacts of tobacco taxation especially in low- and middle-income countries. The authors provide background on the relevant concepts and existing literature, as well as present a theoretical framework. They delve into two methods for estimating the distributional impact: the accounting approach and extended cost-benefit analysis (ECBA). Step-by-step Stata instructions are discussed for each method, in addition to the initial data requirements and limitations. The toolkit also includes a country case study in which the researchers implement an ECBA using microdata from Georgia to calculate distributional impact.
... Ross (1956). 18Vasiliou (2008). ...
This article examines the ethics and integrity approach to modelling the law and tax compliance process and investigates different factors that influence legal and governance systems in society. It explores the foundations of human decision-making and behaviours, or how to overcome the undesirable deficiencies in legal and governance systems. The approach of this article is carefully designed to briefly demonstrate how ethics and integrity in the law and tax compliance could lead to effective legal and governance systems. Therefore, ethics and integrity can be thought of as the infinite member of all legal rules and governance systems. Hence, it is, necessarily, in respect of societal conduct and obedience to the law. I conceive that the law and tax compliance does not stand alone. The extension of the law and tax compliance is ethics and integrity, or the extended part of moral conduct in society. Therefore, this article builds on existing knowledge by approaching the principle of ethics and integrity in the law and tax compliance as a duty of life, which is an obligation that ensures the compound elements of societal needs are fulfilled through virtue and accountability. Keywords: Cognition, Ethics, Integrity, Virtue, Tax Law, Decision Making, Human Behaviour
... Another fair price can be derived by resorting to balancing distributive justice. Here, too, I quote from Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics (Aristoteles 2018): "[…] it is as though there were a line divided into unequal parts, and the judge took away that by which the greater segment exceeds the half and added it to the smaller segment. The equal is intermediate between the greater and the lesser line according to arithmetical proportion." ...
Prices have a leverage effect on firm profits. Prices, however, have also an impact on customer’s perceived price fairness and thus indirectly on firm’s bottom line. A growing body of literature shows this. Papers on the level of the fair price, however, are rather scarce. Based on different concepts of justice, two levels of fair prices are proposed: square equity and mean prices. I run an experiment which shows that both are considered fairer than cost-based or value-based prices. The results can be used to assess fairness implications of prices ex ante and hence complement traditional pricing approaches.
... Indeed, virtuous people are generally seen as being able to identify what is morally sensitive, such as a child's question about the existence of Santa Claus. This is largely what Aristotle called practical wisdom (phronesis), a virtue that makes it possible for virtuous people to act rightly [34]. One can then consider using machine learning to allow algorithms to identify (to learn) things that are perceived as morally relevant. ...
Is it possible to build virtuous robots? And is it a good idea? In this paper in machine ethics, I offer a positive answer to both questions. Although moral architectures based on deontology and utilitarianism have been most often considered, I argue that a virtue ethics approach may ultimately be more promising to program artificial moral agents (AMA). The basic idea is that a robot should behave as a virtuous person would (or recommend). Now, with the help of machine learning technology, it is conceivable to get an AMA to learn from moral exemplars. To support my claim, I sketch the steps of building such a virtuous robot, using the thought experiment of programming an autonomous car facing a trolley-like dilemma situation. It appears that, at least in certain contexts, the virtue ethics approach can provide its own and original solution. I then give four reasons to favor it. Not only are virtuous robots technically feasible, but they have the advantage over their deontological and utilitarian counterparts of fostering normative consensus between these moral schools, improving social acceptability, and beginning to address the technical challenge of moral perception.
... Dalam proses negosiasi tujuan para pihak adalah untuk mencapai kata sepakat, sehingga negosiasi dapat menghindari para pihak dari kontrak yang berat sebelah. Bila dikaitkan dengan teori keadilan terhadap proporsionalitas sebagaimana yang dikemukakan oleh Aristoteles "justice consists in treating equals equally and unequals unequally, in proportion to their inequality" yang artinya bahwa "yang sama diperlakukan secara sama, dan yang tidak sama juga diperlakukan tidak sama, secara proporsional) (David Ross, 1956). Oleh karena itu, Sebuah kontrak dianggap telah memenuhi asas proporsionalitas (adanya pertukaran hak dan kewajiban yang proporsional), jika dalam pelaksanaan asas proporsionalitas didasarkan pada nilai-nilai kesetaraan (equitability). ...
Asas proporsionalitas dalam sebuah kontrak kredit online harus diperhatikan agar salah satu pihak tidak dirugikan hanya karena adanya kebebasan berkontrak antar kedua belah pihak dalam membuat suatu perjanjian karena pada dasarnya suatu perjanjian berawal dari suatu perbedaan kepentingan di antara para pihak. Untuk itu penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis penerapan asas proporsionalitas dalam perjanjian kredit online pada aplikasi x, dengan menggunakan penelitian hukum yuridis normatif dan bersifat deskriptif. Pendekatan penelitian yang digunakan yaitu pendekatan perundang-undangan dan pendekatan konsep. Data yang digunakan terdiri dari data sekunder yang dikumpulkan dengan teknik studi pustaka. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan, asas proporsionalitas dalam perjanjian kredit pada aplikasi x tidak diterapkan, hal tersebut dilihat dari dari fase prakontrak, pembentukan kontrak, dan pelaksanaan kontrak. Terlebih dapat dilihat dalam klausul-klausul yang dikemas dalam perjanjian kredit yang melemahkan posisi debitur.
... 12 Perception thus allows for forms of animal behavior that are informed by past experience: nonrational animals endowed with phantasia retain their perceptions as memories and associate these memories with each other and with their occurrent perceptions, in ways that 11. The translation here is adapted from Ross (2009). 12. On Aristotle's view, animals do not recall and associate their memories in a dispassionate way: when some occurrent perception brings a past one to mind, the affective character of the past perception is replicated as well, as is therefore its motivational power (MA 702a2-7; cf. ...
Aristotle presents perception as a potentially intelligent form of cognition—a form of cognition that allows us to respond in discerning, knowing ways to a range of different situations, and develop certain theoretical insights relevant to some inquiry. But it’s not clear how we should understand the interaction between our rational and perceptual powers in these cases, or how widespread we should take their interaction to be. In this paper I argue against interpretations on which human perception would be an inherently rational power. I then develop an alternative view of intelligent perception that seeks to do justice to the role Aristotle assigns nonrational uses of perception in his account of our learning, and to his emphasis on the continuity between animal and human forms of cognition. On the view I develop, our rational powers allow us to develop a reflective understanding of the knowledge we acquire by purely perceptual means—a reflective understanding that can then affect what we recognize perceptually, and thereby yield forms of action and insight unavailable to other animals.
... This failure to satisfy all is mitigated by the very fact that the agent is acting virtuously. As Aristotle [35] states, 'the virtue of man also will be the state of character which makes a man good and which makes him do his own work well'. Ideally, the clinician will make the best decision, because the clinician wants to make the best decision and he has built the virtuous character that makes him do his work well. ...
Artificial Intelligence (AI) continues to pervade several aspects of healthcare with pace and scale. The need for an ethical framework in AI to address this has long been recognized, but to date most efforts have delivered only high-level principles and value statements. Herein, we explain the need for an ethical framework in healthcare AI, the different moral theories that may serve as its basis, the rationale for why we believe this should be built around virtue ethics, and explore this in the context of five key ethical concerns for the introduction of AI in healthcare. Some existing work has suggested that AI may replace clinicians. We argue to the contrary, that the clinician will not be replaced, nor their role attenuated. Rather, they will be integral to the responsible design, deployment, and regulation of AI in healthcare, acting as the moral exemplar for the virtuous machine. We collate relevant points from the literature and formulate our own to present a coherent argument for the central role of clinicians in ethical AI and propose ideas to help advance efforts to employ ML-based solutions within healthcare. Finally, we highlight the responsibility of not only clinicians, but also data scientists, tech companies, ethicists, and regulators to act virtuously in realising the vision of ethical and accountable AI in healthcare.
... Aristotle maintained that people require both enjoyable experiences (pleasure) and a sense of purpose to be happy (Ross, 1956). Mill (1859), in turn, argued that humans can distinguish between different pleasures in terms of quantity and quality and therefore happiness can be redefined as: 'an existence exempt as far as possible from pain, and as rich as possible in enjoyments, both in point of quantity and quality'. ...
This paper considers the impact of two measures of lifestyle—the consumption of fruit and vegetables and doing exercise—on individual well-being. Since lifestyle is likely to be endogenous, we correct for this by using two dimensions of delayed gratification as instruments. The ability to delay gratification enables individuals to give greater weight to the investment component of lifestyle decisions rather than merely the affective component. Our analysis is based on the UK Understanding Society Data, which covers 40,000 UK households over time. We find that the two delayed gratification instruments are positive and significant in influencing lifestyle. In Stage 2, we find that fruit and vegetable consumption and sports activity increase life satisfaction, though the impacts vary for men and women. These results are robust across income quartiles, region, gender, education and age groups.
... Factors such as responsibility, sincerity and consistency are major pillars of integrity as well. Great philosophers such as Aristotle had understood that honesty is part and parcel of ethics (Ross, 1999;Heinze, 2010). Honesty has also been used as a measurement of a person's integrity testing, one which organisations commonly use to determine the psychological profile of their employees (Sackett & Wanek, 1996). ...
The purpose of this paper is to understand the underlying components of integrity and examine its value. The approach is through identifying and expanding on the common values of integrity such as honesty, conscientiousness and principle. There is a need to find a common ground in the sense of giving specific values towards integrity. Current works of literature indicate that there is a gap in assigning the core values of integrity. This information was collected through a semi-structured qualitative interview with 15 experienced participants from a wide range of background and has extensive experience with the fields of integrity. Such samples are from academic experts, government practitioners, representatives of government agencies, and non-governmental organisations. The identified components are then projected and validated through this list of participants. One of the objectives of this study is to understand the components of integrity through the life experience of people who are commonly associated with the areas of “integrity”. The common core values of integrity was identified through a process of systematic literature review and summarised in this study. Content analysis of the data identified multiple dimensions and sub-dimensions on integrity. The findings suggest that integrity is more than being honest, conscientious and with principle as other factors are determining factors of being a component of integrity. Values such as responsibility, sincerity, consistency, compliance, conscious, pride, social norms, ruling policies and awareness play a major role in the value of integrity. The paper builds a model of integrity components based on these interpreted values. This paper contributes to the growing interest in the concept of integrity and attempts to streamline the central components of integrity. The studies of integrity are timely contemporary issues which deserve scientific attention. The building of sophisticated models and empirical investigations in their own right are opportunities for society to improve on their understandings of human behaviour. The integrity model provides an opportunity and useful addition for governments, private institutions, and individuals to improve each of their core values towards integrity.
The philosophical template of eudaimonia is of ancient Greek heritage and has to do with completeness, fulfillment, and excellence; a non-reductionistic conceptualization of the perfect life that can be summarized as “a complete state of being and doing well” (Sumner, Welfare, happiness, and ethics. Clarendon Press, 1996, p. 69). Many theories of philosophical eudaimonism exist, but the Aristotelian version is the most celebrated. He defined eudaimonia normatively, as rational activity in accordance with virtue. This idea has been described as “man-as-he-could-be-if-he-realized-his-essential-nature” (MacIntyre, After virtue, University of Notre Dame Press, 2007, p. 52). The Aristotelian notion of human nature is not easily translated to modern science, but the concept of organismic living might be a good place to start. An important element in organismic thinking is that all living organisms have an inborn tendency to activate and regulate their behavior toward some goal—to actualize their nature as autonomous, self-organizing systems. Organismic living is also highly interactionist, with sophisticated collaborations occurring within and between units. Humanistic and clinical psychologists in the mid-twentieth century were inspired by the notion of organismic living and used the concept to develop theories of self-actualization and fully functioning individuals. These theories were not explicitly described as eudaimonic, but they stimulated what we may label the first generation of eudaimonic wellbeing (EWB) theories in psychology. The most influential among the early EWB theories were developed by Waterman, Ryff, and Deci and Ryan. Waterman’s theory of personal expressiveness is inspired by humanistic psychology and the philosopher David Norton and his ethical individualism. Norton’s controversial interpretation of eudaimonism suggests that we all have a moral responsibility to discover “the daimon” within ourselves and to live in accordance with it. Waterman also follows Norton in identifying eudaimonia as the feeling that accompanies efforts of self-realization and the development of one’s true potential. These feelings are referred to by Waterman as expressive and are contrasted with hedonic enjoyment. The idea that eudaimonia can be defined as a feeling is questioned. Ryff’s psychological wellbeing theory (PWB) comprises six dimensions: autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations, purpose in life, and self-acceptance. The theory is often taken to be eudaimonic, but only personal growth and purpose in life are explicitly identified as carriers of eudaimonic meaning. The chapter criticizes Ryff’s theory for being underspecified and for downplaying the importance of affective and evaluative indicators of wellbeing. Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory (SDT) suggests that the fulfillment of our basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relations will lead to increased wellbeing. According to SDT, eudaimonia is intimately linked with the concept of being fully functioning. However, the concept of full functioning appears idealized and difficult to study empirically. Moreover, it is unclear whether SDT considers psychological need fulfillment to be a kind of wellbeing or a predictor of wellbeing. Theories of EWB, other than those of Waterman, Ryff, and Deci and Ryan, offer a plethora of eudaimonic dimensions and indicators, but two broad and overarching dimensions have been identified: (1) growth/self-realization/self-actualization/development of potentials/full functioning/maturity and (2) meaning/purpose/long-term perspective/caring. The concept of personal growth is historically rooted in the idea Germans refer to as “Bildung,” a personal transformation enabled through certain experiences that includes the formation of intellectual, personal, and moral capacities. Meaning or purpose in life cannot be directly related to Aristotelian eudaimonism but is relevant for EWB as a means of fulfilling one’s values. For example, Viktor Frankl’s notion of a “will to meaning” is a kind of self-transcendence that seems compatible with the eudaimonic idea of fulfillment. Many theories of EWB have been proposed, but little conceptual agreement has been reached. One reason is that concepts typically involved in eudaimonic models are difficult to test empirically. Several popular approaches are grounded in an idealized, a priori conceptualization of eudaimonia on the one hand and a set of self-report scales with unclear relations to the concepts on the other. Thus, the empirical part of eudaimonic research does not speak well with the theoretical part. The combination of rampant fauna of untestable concepts and a cottage industry of theory-drained scale production makes it unlikely that a conceptual consensus about eudaimonic wellbeing will be reached anytime soon.
This chapter considers the socio-cultural, relational, attitudinal, and moral-psychological aspects of a healthy and authentic community in urban settings, with a special focus on the concept of Living Cities and how to foster an interdependent ecosystem of cities across the globe. It emphasises how thrivable urban development can provide pathways to ecosystemic prosperity and the regeneration of life on Earth. Systemic innovations that aim to shift development goals with regard to urban planning are presented. Actionable tools for urban designers offered in this chapter enable opportunities to rethink and remake the role of humans and their impact on their environment. For instance, the perspective that allows Western notions of sustainability/regeneration to be better understood as a decolonising practice is presented as a way to humanise emerging thrivability initiatives in both the Global North and Global South. These frameworks, perspectives, and practices seek to ensure an empathy-based shift in the cultural and moral paradigm of contemporary urban development such that the local genius expressed in diverse behaviours and systems of urban life is respected and supported. As such, this chapter offers an integral approach to the shaping of a post-postmodern ideology of city development in ways that are inclusive of the Global South through a unitive narrative that foments a praxis dedicated to planetary thrivability.
One of the significant effects of technology on human relations is visible in friendship. Positively technology through its digital spaces is facilitating friendship that is instant and beyond the limitations of time and space. However, such digital friendships that operate through social media often suffer from issues of trust and sustainability. To resolve this predicament, we need to pause and reflect on how digital friendship can be reframed to improve its sustainability in a practical manner. The primary purpose of this article is to examine how helpful the early Buddhist concept of mittatā (friendship) is in sustaining friendship in the digital age. The article begins by eliciting the moral challenges people encounter in online friendships. The objective is to highlight the need for a more vital concept of friendship, such as the early Buddhist concept of mittatā, that can mitigate the moral concerns in digitized friendship, making it genuine and sustainable. The subsequent part of the article offers an overview of some of the significant theories of friendship upheld in the West and examines whether they can support the sustainability of a digitized friendship. The objective is to reflect upon the lacuna in the practice of such ideas of friendship in the contemporary digital age. To replenish the lacuna, the following section articulates the early Buddhist concept of mittatā as a noble concept of friendship that can be morally relevant and sustainable in this digital world. Based on the philosophical study of the early Buddhist literature, the present article investigates how helpful mettā (loving kindness) in this society to sustain a trustworthy friendship. It proposes an ethical and noble way to nurture and savour an honourable friendship relevant to the digital era by inculcating specific virtues advocated by the Buddha.
In today's scientific landscape, research software has evolved from being a supportive tool to becoming a fundamental driver of discovery, particularly in life sciences. Beyond its roots in software engineering, research software now plays a crucial role in facilitating efficient data analysis and enabling the exploration of complex natural phenomena. The advancements in simulations and modeling through research software have significantly accelerated the pace of scientific research while reducing associated costs. This growing reliance underscores the importance of software in ensuring reproducibility – a cornerstone of scientific rigor and trustworthiness. Although verifying reproducibility presents challenges, well-developed and openly accessible research software enhances transparency and aids in the early detection of errors. Although verifying reproducibility can be challenging, well-developed and accessible research software improves transparency and facilitates error detection. This mini-review examines the characteristics of research software and summarizes the key events that have shaped its development, alongside changes in requirements and guidelines. Moreover, we propose two additional principles – reviewability and supportability – complementing the widely accepted FAIR principles (Findability, Accessibility, Interoperability, and Reusability). These new principles aim to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of software evaluation during the peer review process. Through this review, we aim to assist scientists, especially those without extensive software development expertise, in understanding best practices for developing research software and the underlying motivations driving these practices.
Introduction. Modern pedagogical practice is being reformed due to systemic changes in the ways of social interaction. Knowledge transfer is being significantly modified under the influence of technical innovations, although it remains traditionally one of the main tasks of the educational process. The development of artificial intelligence, neural networks and other analytical computer systems shows that propositional knowledge is not the privilege of the human mind. This state of affairs changes the idea of knowledge as such. In this regard, the participants of the educational process face the task of revising the philosophical basis of modern learning in terms of finding a new definition of knowledge. It is also necessary to develop new methodological recommendations that would correspond to modern epistemological theories of knowledge, belief and understanding. Materials and research methods. The article uses the methods of conceptual analysis and comparative study characteristic of philosophy. The research materials are sources on theory of knowledge, education and also on applied epistemology. Results. Virtue epistemology is one of the most actively developing theories of knowledge in contemporary philosophy and humanities. It is based on the idea that knowledge cannot be an accidental belief, but must be the merit of a cognitive agent. This approach solves many problems of the philosophical theory of knowledge and creates a subjectoriented view of the nature of the cognitive process. This attitude allows us to use virtue epistemology in debates about applied issues, including those related to the explanation of the tasks and content of education. Discussion. A feature of the analysis within virtue epistemology is attention to cognitive skills (reliabilism) and sustained intellectual dispositions (responsibilism) in their relationship to the process of formation of true beliefs. Virtue epistemology defines knowledge through the notion of merit in the manifestation of subjective qualities, so the student's motivation and the context of belief formation should be taken into account when developing specific methodological recommendations. Such an approach explains why standardized testing cannot serve as the sole and primary means of assessing learners. At the same time, the general semantic peculiarity of the notions of virtue allows us to appeal to examples of individuals as ideal types of certain qualities (this is called exemplarism). At the same time, it is necessary to explain why these traits are the excellences that make their bearer better in epistemic terms. Conclusion. In explaining the knowledge transfer, pedagogy can be based on the philosophical principles of virtue epistemology. Such integration enriches both disciplines: pedagogy gets a conceptual scheme adequate to the modern social and technological situation, and epistemology gets a practical application.
Welfare programs have been complex and controversial throughout history, especially in the last century. The state governments tried to bring social security by maintaining the living conditions of the people in an exemplary manner in different perspectives such as education, health, food, and urban development, reducing inequality, and eradicating hunger and poverty. Even now, it is one of the fundamental responsibilities of the governments to provide basic needs to eliminate hunger and poverty. But Social welfare spending is rising rapidly in various states, sparking concerns about sustainability. Critics, including scientists and political opposition, label these programs as "freebies" aimed at garnering voter support. They argue that such initiatives often suffer from inefficiencies, corruption, and poor outcomes. However, some state governments defend them as essential social investments. This study delves into the nuanced distinction between welfare schemes and freebies, scrutinizing their historical underpinnings, theoretical frameworks, and fiscal impacts on state governance. Notably, the study reveals a significant correlation between welfare spending and states' debt-to-GDP ratios, highlighting fiscal ramifications. Concerns about freebies' impact on workforce participation are substantiated, while correlations with unemployment rates remain inconclusive, warranting further investigation. By elucidating these dynamics, policymakers can devise informed strategies to optimize social welfare outcomes while safeguarding fiscal integrity.
The problem of economic justice is the division and distribution of income and wealth. Is a just distribution an equal distribution, or are some unequal distributions just, and if so which ones? We critically examine what the ideal theories of justice of Aristotle and Rawls say or imply about a just distribution of wealth and income in the best of circumstances. Rawls’ contractarian view takes strict equality to be the benchmark of justice; Aristotle’s teleological theory claims that the equality appropriate to distributive justice is proportional, equality of ratios among persons’ shares of a good and their respective merits for that good. The applications of the two theories result in different distributional outcomes. Aristotle’s justice principle will result in unequal outcomes if the merits of persons are unequal and in equal outcomes if the merits are equal. An example of the latter is his best polis and constitution--its ideal citizens will have superlative and equal merits and they will justly receive equal political and economic shares. Although he supports reducing economic inequalities in actual cities, serious inequalities in resources will remain. Rawls’ basic principle of justice will produce equal shares. But democracies allow great inequalities in wealth and income, presumably recognizing that some inequalities promote the common good; everyone is better off when some economic incentives are rewarded. But which economic inequalities are just? Rawls in his second principle of justice identifies the most widely held way of answering this question.
This chapter explores some central features of morality in terms of what are commonly regarded as virtues. A virtue is a disposition that is an important feature of one’s character. As such, a virtue endures over an extended period of time, not just for a brief moment. Still, a virtue such as honesty implies its regular exercise. However, one can occasionally behave dishonestly without this undermining its standing as one’s virtue. The notion that some emphasis on basic moral virtues should be included in K-12 and college education has long received strong public support. However, there has also been widespread disagreement about just how this should be done and with what ends in mind. Presumably, some general uncertainty, if not disagreement, about the nature and foundation of morality accounts for much of this. This uncertainty is discussed in terms of reasonableness.
The establishment of the modern human rights regime, a pivotal development that transpired in the aftermath of the Second World War, marks a watershed moment in the annals of global governance. However, it is imperative to recognize that the foundational bedrock upon which this regime stands embodied by concepts such as freedom, equality, the right to vote, and the notion of natural rights extends its roots far beyond the mid-20th century. These bedrock principles have an intricate lineage, manifesting in various forms throughout history and across diverse cultures. To unravel this historical continuum, one need not look solely to the post-World War II era; rather, a profound exploration reveals that analogous ideals have left indelible imprints across different countries and epochs. Among these cultural tapestries, ancient Greece emerges as a particularly rich and influential backdrop, offering a plethora of ideas that resonate with the very essence of contemporary human rights. In an earnest pursuit of understanding the intricate interplay between ancient wisdom and modern conceptions, the present paper embarks on an insightful examination. Through a meticulous study, it endeavors to illuminate the myriad ideas and features that emanated from ancient Greece, serving as pre-cursors to, and reflections of, the multifaceted concept of human rights as it is comprehended and cherished in our present-day global discourse.
The makers of hammered dulcimers in the Appenzell (Switzerland) and Salzburg (Austria) regions are considered artisans of their very specialized craft, and in 2023, dulcimer music is on track to be listed intangible cultural heritage in Switzerland. A trapezoidal wooden case with a bridge, the instrument is beautified with ornaments and symbols of religious and popular belief. Its sound is produced by a process mediated through several materials: the player uses small hammers struck by hand on several strings, the vibration of which is transmitted to a resonating body. In contrast, historically, the hammered dulcimer had strikingly negative associations: It was ‘devalued to a dance instrument’; ‘disgusting because of the great noise of sounds’; it ‘should be nailed to the houses of ill repute’ and ‘[he] who [...] is in the habit of playing on the dulcimer, may be a regular thief and robber’. Such rebukes – some of which notably addressed directly to the object, not to the players – contrast with contemporary perception and raise questions about relationships between the material object, its properties, and their relationship to perception. Through the detailed inspection of historical and contemporary specimens and their stories, we trace the transformation from the once shunned object to the artisanal work and carrier of cultural heritage. Dulcimers as ‘sensual objects’ [Harman, 2018] that transformed themselves and together with their associates: players, makers, and the sound environment. We trace the different allusions around the hammered dulcimer as objects to the crafting material, the stories from makers, and the artistic and symbolic emanation of the ornamentation. This further demands a critical reflection on the status of the craft and the material object that exist to this day without digital technologies and in non-digital spaces.
A large proportion of hospital inpatients are affected by cognitive impairment, posing challenges in the provision of their care in busy, fast-paced acute wards. Signs and symbols, known as visual identifiers, are employed in many U.K. hospitals with the intention of helping healthcare professionals identify and respond to the needs of these patients. Although widely considered useful, these tools are used inconsistently, have not been subject to full evaluation, and attract criticism for acting as a shorthand for a routinized response. In order for visual identifiers to be used effectively in acute care settings, thorough consideration must be given to the ethical and legal issues that are engaged in this context, and their potential benefits and harms must be weighed and balanced. This paper proposes a set of legal and ethical principles that can be used to guide the implementation of visual identifiers. Together, these principles provide a framework applicable in the design and implementation phases to systematically identify relevant considerations arising from the use of these tools. We outline some tensions that arise between principles and conclude that selecting a preferred moral framework could help to guide decision-making, as does clarity around the purpose and objectives of the identifier.
El objetivo de este trabajo es clarificar el sentido de los argumentos que elabora Aristóteles contra la concepción de la Idea del Bien propuesta por Platón. También se calibra el alcance de dichos argumentos tomando como fundamento lo que sostiene Platón en sus Diálogos a propósito de la Idea de Bien.
Can religious devotion make you happier and satisfied? It is a question that has plagued economists for a long time and despite that religion could add a significant meaning to individuals’ lives, such as by giving hope through thick and thin. This study aims to present the analysis by using the latest data of wave 7 from World Value Survey while determining if happiness, the ultimate desire and goal, are an outcome of religiosity. By using SEM Maximum likelihood technique we draw the conclusion that religiosity has a positive and significant role in fostering happiness of individuals. Along with religiosity, other social variables including financial situation, victim of crime, health status and living as a couple were also added. All these variables have a positive and significant role in increasing level of happiness except whether the person is a victim of crime.
This paper analyses the historical development of friendship in youth work in the UK and more recent studies of the impact of youth work in both the UK and in the wider European context to argue that European youth work has failed to acknowledge this important aspect of practice. During youth work’s initial 150 years in the UK three concepts resided at the heart of the enterprise: (a) the ‘club’; (b) ‘membership’ and (c) ‘friendship’. Friendship eclipsed the others for they grew out of the friendships formed between workers and young people, and the young people themselves. Practitioners during this era expected to offer unconditional friendship to members, and to teach them the arts of acquiring and sustaining friendships via the modelling of virtuous behaviour. An exemplar founded upon Aristotle’s concept of friendship. Two recent research programmes highlight the degree to which friendship remains a core element within youth work. These are a comparative study of European youth work provision and a longitudinal study of youth work’s impact Each found the acquisition of and ability to make and retain friends were viewed as key benefits accruing from involvement in youth groups. Both, however, stand in stark contrast to current formulations regarding youth work’s future role in Europe which pay scant attention to the centrality of friendship This article discusses these developments and the important role friendship has and can play within youth work.
Happiness in the Buddhist Context: A Bhutanese Experience, from the perspective of Gross National Happiness (GNH); the multidimensional developmental paradigm of Bhutan has been coined by the Fourth King, His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck, in the 1970s. This new approach is rooted in Buddhist fundamental principles, relevant to all significant ethical doctrines of the West, emphasizing the elimination of suffering is not very different from Western utilitarian theories.
The study gives references to the concept of happiness as enunciated in the texts like the Udānavarga, Madhyamakāvatāra by Candrakīrti, Śāntideva's Bodhicaryāvatāra, and Mūlamadhyamakakārikā by Nāgārjuna. These are used as primary Buddhist texts besides some Tibetan sources in their English translations in line with the ideals of GNH as instituted in the Constitution of Bhutan in 2008 and its practical application as a fundamental goal to achieve happiness.
The purpose of this thesis is to see if the Buddhist concept of happiness corresponds to the practical application of Gross National Happiness (GNH) in Bhutan. The study was conducted using digital archives relevant to the concept of happiness from Buddhist Tibetan texts used in contemporary Bhutan in accordance with GNH theories and their application based on recent survey data.
Developing technology in our age has opened the doors of a virtual-digital world to humanity. However, the negative effects of this development were seen in a short time. Tradition has been moved away and ethical values have begun to be lost. In order to bring the lost ethical values in Turkish society to new generations with a folkloric point of view, we have introduced Folklogical Metaethics Theory with an interdisciplinary approach in the fields of folklore, ethics and metaethics, and we have developed the method of Folklore Grounding Metaethics Analysis. The works of Hacı Bektaş Veli are very rich in that they contain cultural products that will be useful in updating our ethical values in Turkish folk philosophy, where our ethical understanding shaped by religious tradition is reflected in ethical codes in accordance with our cultural ergonomics. In this study, Hacı Bektaş Veli’s Basmalah Commentary was chosen in order to look at our cultural richness from a different perspective. The subject of the study is to reveal the place of the ethical values of generosity and stealing in the narrative of the Basmalah Commentary of Hacı Bektaş Veli, which is in the category of religious traditions of the theory in folk philosophy. It is aimed to make an exemplary study on the application of Folklogical Metaethics Theory to the works of Hacı Bektaş Veli by revealing the folk ideas in the folklore sense and the propositions in the metaethics sense of the storytelling. Keywords: Folklore, Theory, Metaethics, Basmalah Commentary, Hacı Bektaş Veli.
Education should be defined as a process oriented to transmitting values, knowledge and traditions to the next generation. Since the ancient days, cultures have struggled with considerable efforts and resources to better their education system. This means that education varies in culture and time. Ancient stoics have developed an uncanny sentiment of mistrust revolving around the figure of pleasure. This disposition was invariably adopted by Roman philosophers who witnessed the material asymmetries and radical contradictions of the Roman Empire. Once collapsed the Empire, the main doctrines of Stoics were bestowed by Medieval philosophers who manifested a great hostility against pleasure and wellbeing. In this way, modern education and the higher education system cemented on a Cartesian dualism which dissociated the body and the mind. Emotions and feelings were not only relegated to a peripheral position but also subordinated to Western rationality. The present book chapter discusses critically the tenets of Western education from ancient times to postmodern relativism.KeywordsStoicsEducationWestUniversityModernismMedieval agePleasure
How are teachers motivated to continue to learn throughout their career in a high-stakes accountability context? This innovative mixed methods study employs inductive/deductive hybrid thematic analysis and self-determination theory to investigate teachers’ self-reported motivations to continue their professional learning. Through analysis of survey responses and in-depth interviews, a new concept of ‘constitutive motivations’ is presented. This concept adds more nuanced insight into the motivations of teachers working in contexts dominated by a neoliberal framework that foregrounds teacher performativity. The analysis suggests that, despite experiencing controlling managerialism within high-stakes accountability workplace contexts, teachers retain a sense of vocation and are motivated to learn based on their commitment to children and to teaching itself. The findings imply school leaders and teachers themselves should take steps to cultivate and harness constitutive motivations as a driver for professional learning.
At EN VII.6 1149 a 24- b 3, Aristotle offers an argument for the conclusion that akrasia due to thumos is less shameful than akrasia due to epithumia . The reasoning in this argument is obscure, for Aristotle makes two claims in particular that are difficult to understand; first, that in some way thumos “hears” reason when it leads to akrasia , and second, that thumos responds to what it hears “as if having syllogized” to a conclusion about how to act. This paper argues that previous attempts to understand these two points have failed. It offers an account of the first difficult claim, but concludes there is not enough material in the text to determine what Aristotle means when he says thumos responds “as if having syllogized”. Nevertheless, the paper ends by offering an account of this remark that is Aristotelian in inspiration, even though it admittedly goes beyond anything that can be gleaned from the text.
Gratitude and pride are both positive emotions. Yet gratitude motivates people to help others and build up relationships, whereas pride motivates people to pursue achievements and build on self-esteem. Although these social outcomes are crucial for humans to be evolutionarily adaptive, no study so far has systematically compared gratitude and pride to understand why and how they can motivate humans differently. In this review, we compared gratitude and pride from their etymologies, cognitive prerequisites, motivational functions, and brain regions involved. By integrating the evidence from brain and behavior, we suggest that gratitude and pride share a common reward basis, yet gratitude is more related to theory of mind, while pride is more related to self-referential processing. Moreover, we proposed a cognitive neuroscientific model to explain the dynamics in gratitude and pride under a reinforcement learning framework.
I argue that Aristotle’s arguments in passages regarding chance in the Physics and in passages about ignorance in action in the Nicomachean and Eudemian Ethics presuppose two different uses of ‘for the sake ( ἕνεκα ) of something’, which are able to explain respectively the wish or thought of agents and the type or nature of what they actually do. In my view, however, this does not commit Aristotle, in the ‘ignorance’ passages from the two Ethics , to holding that the type or nature of what the agents actually do is for the sake of killing or wounding.
Muito já se escreveu e ainda se escreve sobre o método na Ética a Nicômaco de Aristóteles. O propósito que move a redação deste artigo não é o de entrar em tal debate, mas o de examinar parcialmente uma passagem (EN VII 1, 1145b2-7) freqüentemente visitada por aqueles que analisam o método na ética aristotélica. Ao comentar esta passagem em um célebre artigo, Jonathan Barnes observa que o método empregado na Ética a Nicômaco, denominado por Barnes ‘o método das endoxa’, é composto de três elementos. O primeiro elemento de tal método consiste em estabelecer os phainomena (tithenai ta phainomena), isto é, consiste em estabelecer as opiniões reputáveis (ta endoxa) sobre os objetos da ética. Neste artigo trataremos deste primeiro elemento do método em questão. Examinaremos os porquês de Aristóteles recorrer a opiniões reputáveis (endoxa) no método empregado na Ética a Nicômaco e, então, verificaremos se tal uso das endoxa autoriza a considerar de modo apropriado a ética aristotélica como uma ética do senso comum.
Studies infer Psychological Balance from the absence of psychopathology. In this article, we investigated this construct as an antecedent of well-being. We present empirical evidence toward the validation of a new theoretical model regarding Psychological Balance, a dynamic state with relatively constant characteristics, comprising Consistency and Flexibility and influenced by a Self/Others Ratio. A battery of 31 items, as indicators of Consistency, Flexibility, and Self/Others Ratio, aided this empirical investigation. In an online study (N = 933), we collected cross-sectional data from the United Kingdom. Results of cross-validation analyses provided evidence toward the validity of the proposed model and the psychometric properties of its instrument. There were statistically significant associations between Consistency (i.e., degree of integration of a universal value structure as self-related characteristics that motivate personal goals and behavior), Flexibility (i.e., degree of ability to re-define meaningful and important goals in response to situational challenge), and five well-being variables (e.g., Meaning in Life). Self/Others Ratio (i.e., ratio of motivation to serve self-interest and the interest of others), operationalized as a binary variable (e.g., close and away from 1), moderated some of these associations. Altogether, this work may contribute toward a nuanced understanding of well-being and form the basis of interventions that aim to decrease emotional discomfort and increase meaning, happiness, and life satisfaction.
This article is about the methodological remarks in Nicomachean Ethics 7.1,1145b2–7, and the way they are carried out in the following chapters. I argue that the procedure therein described does not aim to establish consistency among a subset of endoxa, but to test and refine—by considering and resolving objections against them—endoxa that could enter into a nominal definition of continence and incontinence. The dialectical lineage of this discussion, if there is one, is to be found in the use of the critical procedure of resolution that can be traced back to Topics and Sophistical Refutations.
Though rural practice may appear to contravene the ethical principle of “confidentiality”, Playford argues that “breaches” can actually preserve the ancient Aristotelian ethic of “the highest good”.
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